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Whitelee Wind Farm in Scotland.
The Meyersdale Wind Project in southern Pennsylvania

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electric power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore.

Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the USA. As of November 2010, the Roscoe Wind Farm is the largest onshore wind farm in the world at 781.5 MW, followed by the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center (735.5 MW). As of November 2010, the Thanet Offshore Wind Project in United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 300 MW, followed by Horns Rev II (209 MW) in Denmark.

Contents

Wind farm design

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electric power. Individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (usually 34.5 kV) power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this medium-voltage electrical current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage transmission system.

A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may be located offshore to take advantage of strong winds blowing over the surface of an ocean or lake.

Map of available wind power over the United States. Color codes indicate wind power density class.

As a general rule, wind generators are practical if windspeed is 10 mph (16 km/h or 4.5 m/s) or greater. An ideal location would have a near constant flow of non-turbulent wind throughout the year, with a minimum likelihood of sudden powerful bursts of wind. An important factor of turbine siting is also access to local demand or transmission capacity.

Usually sites are preselected on basis of a wind atlas, and validated with wind measurements. Meteorological wind data alone is usually not sufficient for accurate siting of a large wind power project. Collection of site specific data for wind speed and direction is crucial to determining site potential.[1] Local winds are often monitored for a year or more, and detailed wind maps constructed before wind generators are installed.

The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the reduced influence of drag. The increase in velocity with altitude is most dramatic near the surface and is affected by topography, surface roughness, and upwind obstacles such as trees or buildings. Typically, the increase of wind speeds with increasing height follows a wind profile power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the expected wind speeds by 10% and the expected power by 34%.

Onshore wind farms

See also: List of onshore wind farms and Lists of wind farms by country

The world's first wind farm – consisting of 20 wind turbines rated at 30 kilowatts each – was installed on the shoulder of Crotched Mountain in southern New Hampshire in December, 1980.[2][3]

Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the USA. As of November 2010, the Roscoe Wind Farm is the largest onshore wind farm in the world at 781.5 MW, followed by the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center (735.5 MW). The largest wind farm under construction is the 800 MW Alta Wind Energy Center in the USA. The largest proposed project is the 20,000 MW Gansu Wind Farm in China.

Part of the Biglow Canyon Wind Farm, with a turbine under construction
World's largest onshore wind farms
Wind farm Current
capacity
(MW)		 Country Notes
Biglow Canyon Wind Farm 450 USA [4]
Buffalo Gap Wind Farm 523.3 USA [5][6]
Capricorn Ridge Wind Farm 662.5 USA [5][6]
Dabancheng Wind Farm 500 China [7]
Fowler Ridge Wind Farm 599.8 USA [8]
Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center 735.5 USA [5][6]
Panther Creek Wind Farm 458 USA [6]
Roscoe Wind Farm 781.5 USA [9]
Sweetwater Wind Farm 585.3 USA [5]

Onshore turbine installations in hilly or mountainous regions tend to be on ridgelines generally three kilometers or more inland from the nearest shoreline. This is done to exploit the so-called topographic acceleration as the wind accelerates over a ridge. The additional wind speeds gained in this way make a significant difference to the amount of energy that is produced. Great attention must be paid to the exact positions of the turbines (a process known as micro-siting) because a difference of 30 m can sometimes mean a doubling in output.

Offshore wind farms

See also: Offshore wind power, List of offshore wind farms, and Lists of offshore wind farms by country
Offshore wind turbines near Copenhagen.

Europe is the world leader in offshore wind energy, with the first offshore wind farm being installed in Denmark in 1991. As of 2010, there are 39 offshore wind farms in waters off Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom, with an operating capacity of 2,396 MW. More than 100 GW (or 100, 000 MW) of offshore projects are proposed or under development in Europe. The European Wind Energy Association has set of 40 GW installed by 2020 and 150 GW by 2030.[10]

As of November 2010, the Thanet Offshore Wind Project in United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 300 MW, followed by Horns Rev II (209 MW) in Denmark.

World's largest offshore wind farms
Wind farm Capacity (MW) Country Turbines and model Commissioned References
Thanet 300  United Kingdom 100 × Vestas V90-3MW 2010 [11][12]
Horns Rev II 209  Denmark 91 × Siemens 2.3-93 2009 [13]
Rødsand II 207  Denmark 90 × Siemens 2.3-93 2010 [14]
Lynn and Inner Dowsing 194  United Kingdom 54 × Siemens 3.6-107 2008 [15][16][17][18]
Robin Rigg (Solway Firth) 180  United Kingdom 60 × Vestas V90-3MW 2010 [19][20]
Gunfleet Sands 172  United Kingdom 48 × Siemens 3.6-107 2010 [20][21]
Nysted (Rødsand I) 166  Denmark 72 × Siemens 2.3 2003 [15][22][23]

Offshore wind turbines are less obtrusive than turbines on land, as their apparent size and noise is mitigated by distance. Because water has less surface roughness than land (especially deeper water), the average wind speed is usually considerably higher over open water. Capacity factors (utilisation rates) are considerably higher than for onshore locations.[24]

The province of Ontario in Canada is pursuing several proposed locations in the Great Lakes, including Trillium Power Wind 1 approximately 20 km from shore and over 400 MW in size.[25] Other Canadian projects include one on the Pacific west coast.[26]

As of 2010, there are no offshore wind farms in the United States. However, projects are under development in wind-rich areas of the East Coast, Great Lakes, and Pacific coast.[10]

Wind farms by region

Australia

Main article: List of wind farms in Australia
Large operational wind farms in Australia: November 2010[27][28][29]
Wind farm Installed
capacity
(MW)		 Developer State
Capital Wind Farm 140 New South Wales
Hallett Group 298 AGL Energy South Australia
Lake Bonney Group 278 Infigen Energy South Australia
Portland Group 132 Victoria
Waubra Wind Farm 192 Acciona Energy &
ANZ Infrastructure Services		 Victoria
Woolnorth Wind Farm 140 Roaring 40s & Hydro Tasmania Tasmania

Canada

Main article: List of wind farms in Canada
Large wind farms in Canada[30]
Name Capacity (MW) Location Province
Anse-à-Valleau Wind Farm 100 49°03′36″N 64°33′18″W / 49.06°N 64.555°W / 49.06; -64.555 (Anse-à-Valleau Wind Farm)  Quebec
Caribou Wind Park 99 70 km west of Bathurst  New Brunswick
Centennial Wind Power Facility 150 Swift Current  Saskatchewan
Enbridge Ontario Wind Farm 181 Kincardine  Ontario
Erie Shores Wind Farm 99 Port Burwell  Ontario
Jardin d'Eole Wind Farm 127 Saint-Ulric  Quebec
Kent Hills Wind Farm 96 Riverside-Albert  New Brunswick
Melancthon EcoPower Centre 199 Melancthon  Ontario
Port Alma Wind Farm 101 Chatham-Kent  Ontario
Prince Township Wind Farm 189 Sault Ste. Marie  Ontario
St. Leon Wind Farm 99 St. Leon  Manitoba
Wolfe Island Wind Project 197 Frontenac Islands  Ontario

China

Main article: Wind power in China
Wind farm in Xinjiang, China

At the end of 2009, wind power in China accounted for 25.1 gigawatts (GW) of electricity generating capacity,[31] and China has identified wind power as a key growth component of the country's economy.[32] With its large land mass and long coastline, China has exceptional wind resources.[33] Researchers from Harvard and Tsinghua University have found that China could meet all of their electricity demands from wind power through 2030.[34]

By the end of 2008, at least 15 Chinese companies were commercially producing wind turbines and several dozen more were producing components.[35] Turbine sizes of 1.5 MW to 3 MW became common. Leading wind power companies in China were Goldwind, Dongfang Electric, and Sinovel[36] along with most major foreign wind turbine manufacturers.[37] China also increased production of small-scale wind turbines to about 80,000 turbines (80 MW) in 2008. Through all these developments, the Chinese wind industry appeared unaffected by the global financial crisis, according to industry observers.[36]

In 2009, China became the third largest wind energy provider worldwide (behind USA and Germany), with the installed wind power capacity reaching 20 GW at the end of 2009. According to the Global Wind Energy Council, the development of wind energy in China, in terms of scale and rhythm, is absolutely unparalleled in the world. The National People's Congress permanent committee passed a law that requires the Chinese energy companies to purchase all the electricity produced by the renewable energy sector.[38]

European Union

A wind farm in a mountainous area in Galicia, Spain
Wind farm in Lower Saxony, Germany
Main article: Wind power in the European Union

The European Union has a total installed wind capacity of 74,767MW. Germany has the second largest number of wind farms in the world after the United States. Its installed capacity was 25,777 MW at the End of 2009. The fourth country in capacity was Spain with 19,149 MW. Italy was in the sixth position, with 4,850 MW.[39]

In 2006, the British government gave planning consent for the world's largest offshore wind farm, the 'London Array'. It is to be built 12 miles off of the Kent coast and will include 341 turbines. A small farm of eight turbines has been erected at North Pickenham run by Enertrag UK Ltd[40] with two smaller units at nearby Swaffham run by Ecotricity.

An important limiting factor of wind power is variable power generated by wind farms. In most locations the wind blows only part of the time, which means that there has to be back-up capacity of conventional generating capacity to cover periods that the wind is not blowing. To address this issue it has been proposed to create a "supergrid" to connect national grids together[41] across western Europe, ranging from Denmark across the southern North Sea to England and the Celtic Sea to Ireland, and further south to France and Spain especially in Higueruela which was considered for some time the biggest wind farm in the world.[42] The idea is that by the time a low pressure area has moved away from Denmark to the Baltic Sea the next low appears off the coast of Ireland. Therefore, while it is true that the wind is not blowing everywhere all of the time, it will always be blowing somewhere.

United States

Brazos Wind Farm in the plains of West Texas
Main article: Wind power in the United States

At the end of 2009, the installed capacity of wind power in the United States was just over 35,000 megawatts (35 GW),[43][44] making it the world leader ahead of Germany. Wind power accounts for about 2% of the electricity generated in the United States.[45]

Over 9,900 MW of new wind power capacity was brought online in 2009, up from 8,800 in 2008. In 2009 added new capacity was enough to power the equivalent of 2.4 million homes or generate as much electricity as three large nuclear power plants.[46]

These new installations place the U.S. on a trajectory to generate 20% of the nation’s electricity by 2030 from wind energy.[43] Growth in 2008 channeled some $17 billion into the economy, positioning wind power as one of the leading sources of new power generation in the country, along with natural gas. New wind projects completed in 2008 account for about 42% of the entire new power-producing capacity added in the U.S. during the year.[47]

At the end of 2008, about 85,000 people were employed in the U.S. wind industry,[48] and GE Energy was the largest domestic wind turbine manufacturer.[49] Wind projects boosted local tax bases, and revitalized the economy of rural communities by providing a steady income stream to farmers with wind turbines on their land.[49] Wind power in the U.S. provides enough electricity to power the equivalent of nearly 9 million homes, avoiding the emissions of 57 million tons of carbon each year and reducing expected carbon emissions from the electricity sector by 2.5%.[47]

Texas, with 9,728 MW of capacity, has the most installed wind power capacity of any U.S. state, followed by Iowa with 3,670 MW.[43] The Roscoe Wind Farm (780 MW) in Texas is the world's largest wind farm.[50]

Impacts

Environmental and aesthetic impacts

Main article: Environmental effects of wind power
Livestock grazing near wind turbines.[51]

Compared to the environmental effects of traditional energy sources, the environmental effects of wind power upon greenhouse gases are minor; however, there are other adverse impacts of wind power including bird mortality.[52] Wind power consumes no water,[53] no fuel, and emits no air pollution, unlike fossil fuel power sources. The energy consumed to manufacture and transport the materials used to build a wind power plant is equal to the new energy produced by the plant within a few months of operation.[54] Garrett Gross, a scientist from the University of Missouri–Kansas City, states, "The impact made on the environment is very little when compared to what is gained."[citation needed] While a wind farm may cover a large area of land, many land uses such as agriculture are compatible.

Danger to birds and bats has been a concern in many locations. Some[who?] dismiss the number of birds killed by wind turbines as negligible when compared to the number that die as a result of other human activities, and especially when considering the adverse environmental impacts of using non-clean power sources. Others strongly disagree about the placement of wind farms. New evidence suggests that the critically endangered California Condor is being killed at the Tehachapi Pass wind farm in Southern California.[55][56] Bat species appear to be at risk during key movement periods. Almost nothing is known about current populations of these species and the impact on bat numbers as a result of mortality at windpower locations. Offshore wind sites 10 km or more from shore do not interact with bat populations, but researchers are concerned if there are nearby bird colonies.[citation needed]

Aesthetics have also been an issue in some areas. In the USA, the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years chiefly because of nearby residents' aesthetic concerns. In the UK, repeated opinion surveys have shown that more than 70% of people either like, or do not mind, the visual impact. According to a town councillor in Ardrossan, Scotland, the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm has enhanced the area. They say the turbines are impressive looking and bring a calming effect to the town.[57]

Effect on power grid

See also: Wind power#Electricity generation

Utility-scale wind farms must have access to transmission lines to transport energy. The wind farm developer may be obligated to install extra equipment or control systems in the wind farm to meet the technical standards set by the operator of a transmission line. The company or person that develops the wind farm can then sell the power on the grid through the transmission lines and ultimately chooses whether to hold on to the rights or sell the farm or parts of it to big business like GE, for example.

Ground Radar Interference

Wind farm interference (in yellow circle) on radar map

Wind farms can interfere with ground radar systems used for defense, weather and air traffic control. The large, rapidly moving blades of the turbines can return signals to the radar that can be mistaken as an aircraft or weather pattern.[58] Actual aircraft and weather patterns around wind farms can be accurately detected, as there is no fundamental physical constraint preventing that. But aging radar infrastructure is significantly challenged with the task.[59][60] The US military is using wind turbines on some bases, including Barstow near the radar test facility.[61][62]

Effects

The level of interference is a function of the signal processors used within the radar, the speed of the aircraft and the relative orientation of wind turbines/aircraft with respect to the radar. An aircraft flying above the wind farm's turning blades could become impossible to detect because the blade tips can be moving at nearly aircraft velocity. Studies are currently being performed to determine the level of this interference and will be used in future site planning.[63] Issues include masking (shadowing), clutter (noise), and signal alteration.[64] Radar issues have stalled as much as 10,000 MW of projects in USA.[65]

Depending on circumstances, radar return effects (using Primary or Secondary surveillance radar) from wind turbines may be none at all, or less than cars passing on a bridge or even chimneys.[66] Some very long range radars are not affected by wind farms.[67]

Mitigation

Permanent problem solving include Non-Initiation Window to hide the turbines while still tracking aircraft over the wind farm, and a similar method mitigates the false returns.[66] England's Newcastle Airport is using a short-term mitigation; to "blank" the turbines on the radar map with a software patch.[68]

Stealth wind turbine blades are being developed to mitigate radar reflection problems for aviation.[69][70][71][72]

As well as stealth windfarms, the future development of infill radar systems could filter out the turbine interference

In early 2011, the U.S. government awarded a program to build a radar/wind turbine analysis tool. This tool will allow developers to predict the impact of a wind farm on a radar system before construction, thus allowing rearrangement of the turbines or even the entire wind farm to avoid negative impacts on the radar system.[63][73]

See also

Renewable energy portal
Sustainable development portal

References

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