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95

Vol.15 (1) March 2023

Tectonic Geomorphology of Wadi Wasit in Sinai

Peninsula (Egypt)

Mr. Alaa Salah Othman Hassan

Department of Social Studies - Mansoura University

E-mail: alaasalah96@mans.edu.eg

Prof. Mohammed Mohammed Abdel All Ibrahim

Department of Social Studies - Mansoura University

The Egyptian Journal Of Environmental Change

96 Vol.15 (1) March 2023

TECTONIC GEOMORPHOLOGY OF WADI WASIT

IN SINAI PENINSULA (EGYPT)

MR. ALAA SALAH OTHMAN HASSAN

Department of Social Studies -

Mansoura University

E-mail: alaasalah96@mans.edu.eg

PROF. MOHAMMED MOHAMMED ABDEL ALL IBRAHIM

Department of Social Studies -

Mansoura University

Abstract

Structural geomorphological landforms arise

due to geological processes in tectonic regions.

This study aims to identify the geomorphological

landforms resulting from these processes in

Wadi Wasit in the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. The

study depends on geological and topographic

maps, aerial images, DEM (SRTM), fieldwork,

and Global climate databases (POWER, ERA5).

It used the GIS technique. The results showed

that the surface rocks in the study area were

deposited in the Upper Cretaceous, Paleocene,

Eocene, Miocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene.

The rocks consist of Limestone, Sandstone,

Wadi deposits, Alluvial Hamadah deposits,

and Fanglomerate. It was affected by 41 faults

and a concave fold. These tectonic processes

formed geomorphological landforms in the

study area, which are: Fault scarps, Cuesta

scarps, Structural Basins, Faulted Wadies, and

Gorges.

Key words: Tectonic Geomorphology, Faults,

Wadi Wasit, Sinai Peninsula, GIS, Egypt.

1-Introduction

Tectonic geomorphology is concerned with

structural geology, exploring the relationships

between crustal movements, rates of surface

processes, and the development of landforms.

Bull (2007) put an emphasis on processes

because tectonic geomorphology includes the

effects of crustal deformation and the resulting

landscape. The forms of Earth and its history

are used to learn about active tectonic structures

and understand faults and folds (Różycka,

Migoń, 2017).

The study of tectonic processes is

useful in understanding the formation of

geomorphological landforms in any region

affected by these processes (Zovoili et al., 2004).

This type of study gives more understanding of

past tectonic events during geological times

(Torab, 2022). The study area is located in the

western central sector of the Sinai Peninsula,

which is one of the most active areas due to

the rupture of rocks by faults (Ball, 1916). So,

this paper aims to understand the geological

characteristics and tectonic geomorphological

landforms of the study area.

Many studies have presented geomorphological

interests in West Central Sinai, including

geomorphological landforms, geomorphological

mapping, sediment analysis, and flood hazards

(e.g. Ismail, 2017; Abu Al-Yazid, 2016; Shelby,

2013; Qaqa, 2010; Hassan, 2007; Ghallab,

2006; Mashadi, 2005; Al-Nagger, 2003;

Al-Rashidi, 1994; Al-Awadi,1993). These

studies did not provide any details about

tectonic geomorphological landforms in Wadi

Wasit. The main idea of the current study is

the geomorphological landforms resulting

from tectonic processes. This study used data

integration methodology between geological

and topographic maps, digital elevation model

(SRTM), aerial images, GIS technique, and

fieldwork.

2- Study area

The study area is located in the west-central

sector of the Sinai Peninsula, between latitudes

29° 10َ 17ً N and 29°18َ 29ًN and longitudes

33° 11َ4.9ً E and 32° 54َ 32ً E . It has an area

of 128 km2,

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Vol.15 (1) March 2023

Tectonic Geomorphology of Wadi Wasit in Sinai Peninsula (Egypt)

Mr. Alaa Salah Othman Hassan

Prof. Mohammed Mohammed Abdel All Ibrahim

a length of 25.6 km, and maximum width of

8 km. The elevation varies between 800 m in

the east and 0 m in the west close to the Gulf

of Suez at sea level. The study area is located

in the tectonic groove, east of the Gulf of Suez,

between Wadi Ghrandal in the north and Wadi

Thal in the south (Fig.1).

The study area is situated in the arid zone in

the Sinai Peninsula, with hot summer and cold

winter (Musaed, H. et al., 2022). Its maximum

temperature is 38. 7 °C in summer and the

minimum temperature is

Table 1: Climate variables data in the study area (1984 - 2020).

Data source: POWER and ERA5.

3.8 °C in winter. Wind speed rates range

between 14.5 km\ h in June and 10.9 km\h in

January. Relative humidity varies between

40.2 % in summer and 53.6 % in autumn.

Evaporation rates range between

1.7 mm\ day in winter and 4.5 mm\ day in

summer (Tab.1) (Fig.2).

Fig. 1: Location map of the study area.

The Egyptian Journal Of Environmental Change

98 Vol.15 (1) March 2023

Fig. 2: Climatic conditions in the study area between 1984- 2020.

Data source: POWER and ERA5.

Fig. 3: The methodology of processing and analyzing data.

3- Materials and methods

The study depends on geological and

topographic maps, a digital elevation model

(SRTM), aerial images, global climate

databases, and fieldwork. The data were

processed and analyzed by using ArcGIS 10.5

(Fig. 3).

3.1- Geological analysis

The study depends on the geological map

of Sinai, Arab Republic of Egypt (Sheet N.3,

1994, Scale 1:250000) to analyze geological

structures, which are geological formations,

faults, and folds. In addition to drawing a

geological map of the study area.

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Vol.15 (1) March 2023

Tectonic Geomorphology of Wadi Wasit in Sinai Peninsula (Egypt)

Mr. Alaa Salah Othman Hassan

Prof. Mohammed Mohammed Abdel All Ibrahim

3.2- Climatic analysis

The study used global climate databases to

get the Climate data, which are POWER and

ERA5. Many past studies depend on these

databases to get and analyze Climate data (e.g.

Rockett, P., 2021; Deshmane, M et al., 2020;

Chandler, W et al., 2015; Zhang, T et al., 2010;

Puri, P., Puri, V., 2022; Sando, R. et al., 2022;

Marelign, M. A. et al., 2020). The current study

used POWER to download temperature data

°C, wind speed (km\h), and relative humidity

(%) (https://power.larc.nasa.gov/data-access-

viewer).

It used ERA5 to download wind direction

(°), precipitation (mm), and evaporation (mm)

(https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu/).

The study depends on a model to calculate

wind direction data by using (the u-component

of wind and ، v-component of wind) indexes,

which are found in the ERA5 database. The

wind direction data was calculated by the

following equation (https://confluence.ecmwf.

int/):

The Climate data were processed and analyzed

by (Model Builder) in ArcGIS 10.5 program

(Fig. 4). In addition to setting up grid points

data of the study area (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4: The Model Builder of climate data processing and analysis.

Data source: POWER and ERA5.

Fig. 5: Grid points data of the study area.

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100 Vol.15 (1) March 2023

3.3- Topographical and hydrological analysis

The topographic maps (Scale 1:25000,

Egyptian Military Survey Administration,

1998) with the digital elevation model (SRTM)

were merged to get the elevation data. The

SRTM DEM was used to determine the valley

streams and their morphometric characteristics

(Fig. 3).

3.4-Geomorphological analysis and fieldwork

The results of the former analyzes were used to

study and draw the tectonic geomorphological

landforms map in the study area. The study

depends on SAS Planet 2019 program to

download an aerial image with a resolution

of 0,6 × 0,6 m. This image was used to draw

the tectonic geomorphological landforms and

calculate their morphometric characteristics.

The fieldwork in Wadi Wasit helped to study

the geological characteristics and measure

some geomorphological landforms.

4- Results and Discussion

4.1- Geological settings

The study area consists of sedimentary rocks

formed from the Upper Cretaceous time in the

Paleozoic, up to the Holocene in the Cenozoic

(Tab.2). The Upper Cretaceous formations

consist of sedimentary chalky rocks (Fabricius,

2007) and are found on the top of shallow

marine Jurassic carbonates due to sea level

decline (Said, 1990). The Upper Cretaceous

rocks in the study area consist of Jalala, Wata,

Matallah, Duwwi, and Sudr formations (Fig.6).

Mesozoic formations were formed in the

study area in Paleocene, Eocene, and Miocene.

Paleocene is characterized by black shale

(Smith et al., 2020). Its rocks are represented

in the Esna Formation. It is surmounted by the

formations of Egma, Darat (Fig.7: a), Samalut,

Khabubah, Tanka (Fig.7: b), and Tayyabah in

the Eocene (Fig.8: a). The Miocene rocks are

represented in the Nukhl (Fig.8: b) and Rudays

formations (Fig.8: c). The thickness of these

rocks is 400 m in the Hammam Faraun block

(Moustafa, Abdeen, 1992). Cenozoic deposits

are Fanglomerate, Alluvial Hamada, and Wadi

deposits (Fig.9).

The morphology of the study area was affected

by the number of 41 faults and the Thal-Wasit

concave fold. This fold is located east of the

Hammam Faraun block, with a length of 4 km

(Fig.10).

Fig. 6: The upper Cretaceous formations in the study area.

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Vol.15 (1) March 2023

Tectonic Geomorphology of Wadi Wasit in Sinai Peninsula (Egypt)

Mr. Alaa Salah Othman Hassan

Prof. Mohammed Mohammed Abdel All Ibrahim

Table 2: Rocks and geological formations in the study area.

Fig. 7: The Eocene formations in the study area.

Fig. 8: The formations of Tayyabah, Nukhl and Rudays in the study area.

Fig. 9: The Cenozoic deposits in the study area.

Data source: Geological map of Sinai, 1994, Scale 1:250000.

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102 Vol.15 (1) March 2023

Fig. 10: Geological map of the study area.

Data source: Geological map of Sinai, 1994, Scale 1:250000.

4.2- Geomorphological landforms

The study area was affected by seven ground

movements during its geological evolution,

which resulted in a distortion in its surface

as well as the emergence of several

geomorphological landforms

(Mustafa, 1996). The processes of these

movements were faulting in most of its parts

and folding in its lower sector (east of the

Hammam Faraun block). These geomorphic

features include escarpments, structural basins,

faulted Wadies, and gorges (Fig.11).

4.2.1. Escarpments

Escarpments are slope surfaces resulting from

faults, erosion, or the occurrence of undermining

processes of the soft layers because of rocky

difference (Al-Rifai et al., 1998). There are two

types of these escarpments in the study area

(Tab.3).

Fault Scarps

It is one of the structural geomorphological

landforms related to faults (Stewart, Hancock,

1990). Among these scarps in the study area

is the western scarp of Hammam Faraun. It

consists of limestone rocks belonging to the

Eocene. It was formed by the faulting of the

Hammam Faraun block. Furthermore, it has

along of 4.1 km and a slope of 21°.

Its height ranges from 78 to 469 m (Fig.12).

Cuesta Scarps

The cuesta scarp creates due to the different

rock formations and tilted structure. It consists

of two opposite directions, which are dip-slopes

and escarpment slopes (Torab, 2011). There are

various cuesta scarps in the upper sector of the

study area, for example, the center of

Al- Drairah Scarp. It is located in the central

sector of Wadi Al-Darirah, with a length of 1.2

km. Its elevation ranges between 538–409 m,

and its slope is 20.8°. It consists of cretaceous

rocks (Wata formation). It is exposed to many

geomorphological processes such as mechanical

weathering, block separation, and rock fall. So

it is an erosional scarp (Fig.13).

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Vol.15 (1) March 2023

Table 3: Morphometric characteristics of the Escarpments in the studey area.

Fig. 11: Geomorphological map of the study area.

Tectonic Geomorphology of Wadi Wasit in Sinai Peninsula (Egypt)

Mr. Alaa Salah Othman Hassan

Prof. Mohammed Mohammed Abdel All Ibrahim

Data source: Geological and topographic map, SRTM, and aerial images (Esri)

Data source: Geological and topographic map, SRTM, aerial images (Esri), and fieldwork.

The Egyptian Journal Of Environmental Change

104 Vol.15 (1) March 2023

Fig. 12: The Fault Scarp of the Hammam Faraun block.

Fig. 13: The Cuesta scarp in Wadi Al-Darirah.

4.2.2. Structural Basins

A structural basin is a concave that is liable

to the surrounding structural processes, and,

therefore, it is highly affected by changes

in these processes (Buiter, Adrian, 2003). It

is a low basin that is situated between the

surrounding fault scarps, which were formed

by the faults extending in opposite directions

(Attalla, 2009).

The most important of these basins the Upper

Sector in Wadi Al-Darirah, which extends to

7.4 km2 and covers 5.8% of the study area. It

is bounded on the east by the scarp of the Al-

Darirah (Fig.14) and on the northwest by the

scarp of the Heyala a long 885 m in the study

area.

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Vol.15 (1) March 2023

Tectonic Geomorphology of Wadi Wasit in Sinai Peninsula (Egypt)

Mr. Alaa Salah Othman Hassan

Prof. Mohammed Mohammed Abdel All Ibrahim

Fig.14: The Structural Basin in wadi Al-Darirah.

Fig.15: The Heyala scarp.

The scarp of the Heyala consists of chalky

limestone and marl limestone rocks (Sidr -

Isna). It is affected by the water streams, in

addition to the formation of the talus cone in

its Piedmont (Fig.15). The structural basin is

bounded by the cuesta scarps in the west, which

are Al-Darairah and Abu Al- Lasf .

4.2.3. Faulted Wadies

A Faulted Wadi is a valley whose streams

run along fault lines (Zhang, et al., 2004). By

integrating the results of analyzing geological

maps into the hydrological analysis of the

drainage networks in the basins of the study

area, it was found that the main channels of the

drainage basins are affected and directed by the

displacements of the faults. It is represented in

the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades, with total real

lengths of 106 km (Fig.11).

4.2.4. Gorges

Gorges form in areas of geological weakness.

It is narrow extensions with slope sides. It is

formed due to the tectonic processes and gully

denudation (Torab, 2011).

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106 Vol.15 (1) March 2023

It was founded in the lower sectors of the main

Wadies in the study area. The most important

of these gorges is the lower-sector gorge in

Wadi Wasit (Fig.16: a). It was formed due to

the exposure of the lower sector to tectonic

processes. These processes consequently

resulted in

1) the lifting of the Hammam Faraun block, 2)

the change of the level of the base of the Wadi

after its stagnation in the central sector of the

study area (the Thal-Wasit concave fold), 3)

restore stream activity due to the continuation

of the gully denudation.

The gorge consists of dolomitic limestone

rocks and Chert (Samalut Formation). Many

geomorphological landforms in these resulted

from the solution processes such as undercutting

(Fig.16: b) and potholes in the lower sector of

its Hanging Wadi.(Fig.16. c).

5-Conclusion

This study aims to determine the tectonic

geomorphological landforms in Wadi Wasit in

the Sinai Peninsula. It depended on Geological

maps, Topographical maps, DEM (SRTM),

Arial image (Esri), Global climate databases,

and fieldwork. The data were processed and

analyzed by using ArcGIS 10.5. Wadi Wasit

consists of limestones, sandy rocks, and surface

sediments. Its geomorphological landforms

Fig.16: Morphology of the lower sector gorge in wadi Wasit.

a) It has a length of 6,5 km, a mean width of 9,5 m, and River Meanders of 9.

b) It has an elevation of 1,30 m and a deep of 1,50 m.

c) It has a mean width of 3 m and a slop of (70 -90°).

Data source: POWER and ERA5.

were affected by tectonic processes during its

geological development. The most important

of these processes are flouting and folding.

The tectonic geomorphological landforms in

Wadi Wasit are Escarpments, Structural Basins,

Faulted Wadies, and Gorges. There are climate

geomorphological processes in the study area

such as Gully Denudation, Vertical Erosion,

Block Separation, Rock Shattering, Exfoliation,

and Solution. This study showed a methodology

for processing geological, topographical,

hydrological, and climatic data. It is useful for

planning and development.

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Prof. Mohammed Mohammed Abdel All Ibrahim

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