Influenza, or flu, is an infectious disease caused by some orthomyxoviruses, that affects birds and some mammals including humans, horses and pigs. Influenza is predominantly transmitted through the air by coughs or sneezes, creating aerosols containing the virus. It can also be transmitted by contact with bird droppings or nasal secretions, or by touching contaminated surfaces. As the virus can be inactivated by soap, frequent hand washing reduces the risk of infection. Around a third of cases show no symptoms. The most common symptoms include fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pains, headache, cough and fatigue. Influenza is occasionally associated with nausea and vomiting, particularly in children. Pneumonia is a rare complication which can be life-threatening.

Influenza spreads around the world in seasonal epidemics, resulting in about 3–5 million cases of severe illness annually, and about 250,000–500,000 deaths, mainly in the young, the old and those with other health problems. Annual influenza vaccinations are recommended for those at high risk. Sporadic influenza pandemics have been recorded since at least the 16th century. The Spanish flu pandemic of 1918–20 is estimated to have killed 50–100 million people.

CCR5 is a human membrane protein that acts as a secondary receptor for HIV, enabling the viral and cell membranes to fuse. People with two copies of a mutated Δ32 form of CCR5 are naturally resistant to infection by most strains of HIV, and the normal form is the target of entry inhibitors such as maraviroc.

Credit: Thomas Splettstoesser (18 July 2012)

Map showing the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 cases; black: highest prevalence; dark red to pink: decreasing prevalence; grey: no recorded cases or no data

26 February: In the ongoing pandemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), more than 110 million confirmed cases, including 2.5 million deaths, have been documented globally since the outbreak began in December 2019. WHO

18 February: Seven asymptomatic cases of avian influenza A subtype H5N8, the first documented H5N8 cases in humans, are reported in Astrakhan Oblast, Russia, after more than 100,0000 hens died on a poultry farm in December. WHO

14 February: Seven cases of Ebola virus disease are reported in Gouécké, south-east Guinea. WHO

7 February: A case of Ebola virus disease is detected in North Kivu Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. WHO

4 February: An outbreak of Rift Valley fever is ongoing in Kenya, with 32 human cases, including 11 deaths, since the outbreak started in November. WHO

21 November: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) gives emergency-use authorisation to casirivimab/imdevimab, a combination monoclonal antibody (mAb) therapy for non-hospitalised people twelve years and over with mild-to-moderate COVID-19, after granting emergency-use authorisation to the single mAb bamlanivimab earlier in the month. FDA 1, 2

18 November: The outbreak of Ebola virus disease in Équateur Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, which started in June, has been declared over; a total of 130 cases were recorded, with 55 deaths. UN

The Hershey–Chase experiments were conducted by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in 1952 using the T2 bacteriophage (pictured), which is composed of DNA wrapped in a protein shell. Hershey and Chase labelled either the phage DNA using radioactive phosphorus-32 or the protein using radioactive sulphur-35. They allowed the radiolabelled phages to infect unlabelled bacteria, and then agitated in a blender and centrifuged to separate material remaining outside the bacterial cells. The majority of the ³²P-labelled DNA entered the host bacterial cell, while all the ³⁵S-labelled protein remained outside. Hershey and Chase also showed that the phage DNA is inserted into the bacteria shortly after the virus attaches to its host.

DNA had been known since 1869, but in 1952 many scientists believed that proteins carried the information for inheritance. Proteins appeared more complex, while DNA was thought to be an inert molecule used for phosphorus storage. These experiments built on earlier research on transformation in bacteria and helped to confirm that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material. Hershey shared the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the research.

The 2001 foot-and-mouth outbreak included 2,000 cases of the disease in cattle and sheep across the UK. The source was a Northumberland farm where pigs had been fed infected meat that had not been adequately sterilised. The initial cases were reported in February. The disease was concentrated in western and northern England, southern Scotland and Wales, with Cumbria being the worst-affected area. A small outbreak occurred in the Netherlands, and there were a few cases elsewhere in Europe.

The UK outbreak was controlled by the beginning of October. Control measures included stopping livestock movement and slaughtering over 6 million cows and sheep. Public access to farmland and moorland was also restricted (pictured), greatly reducing tourism in affected areas, particularly in the Lake District. Vaccination was used in the Netherlands, but not in the UK due to concerns that vaccinated livestock could not be exported. The outbreak cost an estimated £8 billion in the UK.

Viruses & Subviral agents: bat virome • elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus • HIV • introduction to viruses • Playa de Oro virus • poliovirus • prion • rotavirus • virus

Diseases: colony collapse disorder • common cold • croup • dengue fever • gastroenteritis • Guillain–Barré syndrome • hepatitis B • hepatitis C • hepatitis E • herpes simplex • HIV/AIDS • influenza • meningitis • myxomatosis • polio • pneumonia • shingles • smallpox

Epidemiology & Interventions: 2007 Bernard Matthews H5N1 outbreak • Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations • Disease X • 2009 flu pandemic • HIV/AIDS in Malawi • polio vaccine • Spanish flu • West African Ebola virus epidemic

Virus–Host interactions: antibody • host • immune system • parasitism • RNA interference

Methodology: metagenomics

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