Medieval

Oxford was first settled by the Anglo-Saxons and was initially known in Old English as Oxnaford and in Old Norse as Öxnafurða.^[1] The name is a portmanteau of "oxen's ford", which literally meant oxen's shallow river crossing. Around 900, an important north-south route for cattle connecting the south of England to the Midlands needed to cross the River Thames.^[2] At Oxford, the Thames splits into many channels, offering a relatively shallow and hence crossable location for people, goods and animals. Oxford thus became a heavily trafficked crossing point and the early Anglo-Saxon settlement developed around the location.^[3] There is still speculation about the precise location of the ford that gave Oxford its name, though any approach to Oxford involved the use of several fords, and thus there were likely multiple fords in use throughout the history of the crossing. Most archeological evidence generally points to the south-west of Oxford where there are low elevations and branching streams that offer shallow crossings.^[2][4]

In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was raided by Danes. In 1002, many Danes were killed in Oxford during the St. Brice's Day massacre ordered by Æthelred the Unready.^[5] The skeletons of more than thirty suspected victims were unearthed in 2008 during the course of building work at St John's College.^[6] The ‘massacre’ was a contributing factor to King Sweyn I of Denmark’s invasion of England in 1003 and the sacking of Oxford by the Danes in 1004.^[7]

Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion in 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert D'Oyly, who ordered the construction of Oxford Castle to confirm Norman authority over the area. Robert D'Oyly also ordered the construction of a stone causeway, known as Grandpont for traffic, including Oxen and the carts that they drew, to cross over the flood plains.^[8][9] D'Oyly set up a monastic community in the castle consisting of a chapel and living quarters for monks (St George in the Castle). The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britain's oldest places of formal education. It was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends.^[10]

During the period of Middle English, Oxford's pronunciation evolved to become Oxenford, as written in "Clerkes Tale of Oxenford" in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales.^[11] Eventually, Modern English saw Oxenford elided to become Oxford, as it is known today.

Additionally, there is evidence of Jews living in the city as early as 1141, and during the 12th century the Jewish community is estimated to have numbered about 80–100.^[12] The city was besieged during The Anarchy in 1142.^[13] In 1191, a city charter translated from Latin wrote,^[14]

"Be it known to all those present and future that we, the citizens of Oxford of the Commune of the City and of the Merchant Guild have given, and by this, our present charter, confirm the donation of the island of Midney with all those things pertaining to it, to the Church of St. Mary at Oseney and to the canons serving God in that place. Since, every year, at Michaelmas the said canons render half a mark of silver for their tenure at the time when we have ordered it as witnesses the legal deed of our ancestors which they made concerning the gift of this same island; and besides, because we have undertaken on our own part and on behalf of our heirs to guarantee the aforesaid island to the same canons wheresoever and against all men; they themselves, by this guarantee, will pay to us and our heirs each year at Easter another half mark which we have demanded; and we and our heirs faithfully will guarantee the aforesaid tenement to them for the service of the aforesaid mark annually for all matters and all services. We have made this concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and confirmation. (There follows a list of witnesses, ending with the phrase, "... and all the Commune of the City of Oxford.")

Oxford's prestige was enhanced by its charter granted by King Henry II, granting its citizens the same privileges and exemptions as those enjoyed by the capital of the kingdom; and various important religious houses were founded in or near the city. Oxford's status as a liberty obtained from this period until the 19th century.^[15] A grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order; and friars of various orders (Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Augustinians and Trinitarians) all had houses of varying importance at Oxford. Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century. The Provisions of Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort; these documents are often regarded as England's first written constitution. Richard I (reigned 6 July 1189 – 6 April 1199) and King John (reigned 6 April 1199 – 19 October 1216) the sons of Henry II, were both born at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, on 8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque in Beaumont Street commemorates these events.^[16]

University of Oxford

The University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th-century records. Of the hundreds of aularian houses that sprang up across the city, only St Edmund Hall (c. 1225) remains. What put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Oxford's earliest colleges were University College (1249), Balliol (1263) and Merton (1264). These colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Greek philosophers. These writings challenged European ideology, inspiring scientific discoveries and advancements in the arts, as society began to see itself in a new way. These colleges at Oxford were supported by the Church in the hope of reconciling Greek philosophy and Christian theology. The relationship between "town and gown" has often been uneasy – as many as 93 students and townspeople were killed in the St Scholastica Day Riot of 1355.

The sweating sickness epidemic in 1517 was particularly devastating to Oxford and Cambridge where it killed half of both cities' populations, including many students and dons.^[17] Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford is unique in combining a college chapel and a cathedral in one foundation. Originally the Priory of St Frideswide, the building was extended and incorporated into the structure of the Cardinal's College shortly before its refounding as Christ Church in 1546, since when it has functioned as the cathedral of the Diocese of Oxford. The Oxford Martyrs were tried for heresy in 1555 and subsequently burnt at the stake, on what is now Broad Street, for their religious beliefs and teachings. The three martyrs were the bishops Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley, and the archbishop Thomas Cranmer.^[18] The Martyrs' Memorial stands nearby, round the corner to the north on St Giles'.

Early modern

English Civil War

During the English Civil War, Oxford housed the court of Charles I in 1642, after the king was expelled from London. The town yielded to Parliamentarian forces under General Fairfax in the Siege of Oxford of 1646. It later housed the court of Charles II during the Great Plague of London in 1665–66. Although reluctant to do so, he was forced to evacuate when the plague got too close. The city suffered two serious fires in 1644 and 1671.^[19]

Late modern

In 1790, the Oxford Canal connected the city with Coventry. The Duke's Cut was completed by the Duke of Marlborough in 1789 to link the new canal with the River Thames; and, in 1796, the Oxford Canal company built its own link to the Thames, at Isis Lock. In 1844, the Great Western Railway linked Oxford with London via Didcot and Reading,^[20][21] and other rail routes soon followed. In the 19th century, the controversy surrounding the Oxford Movement in the Church of England drew attention to the city as a focus of theological thought. A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion of Cowley Barracks in 1876.^[22]

Local government in Oxford was reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, and the boundaries of the borough were extended to include a small area east of the River Cherwell. The boundaries were further extended in 1889 to add the areas of Grandpont and New Hinksey, south of the Thames, which were transferred from Berkshire to Oxfordshire. At the same time Summertown and the western part of Cowley were also added to the borough. In 1890 Oxford became a county borough.^[15] Oxford Town Hall was built by Henry T. Hare; the foundation stone was laid on 6 July 1893 and opened by the future King Edward VII on 12 May 1897. The site has been the seat of local government since the Guild Hall of 1292 and though Oxford is a city and a Lord Mayoralty, the building is still called by its traditional name of "Town Hall".

20th and 21st centuries

During the First World War, the population of Oxford changed. The number of University members was significantly reduced as students, fellows and staff enlisted. Some of their places in college accommodation were taken by soldiers in training. Another reminder of the ongoing war was found in the influx of wounded and disabled soldiers, who were treated in new hospitals housed in buildings such as the university's Examination School, the town hall and Somerville College.^[23] During the Second World War, Oxford was largely ignored by the German air raids during the Blitz, primarily as Hitler had plans to make Oxford the new capital city.^[24] Also perhaps due to the lack of heavy industry such as steelworks or shipbuilding that would have made it a target, although it was still affected by the rationing and influx of refugees fleeing London and other cities.^[25] The university's colleges served as temporary military barracks and training areas for soldiers before deployment.^[26]

By the early 20th century, there was rapid industrial and population growth, with the printing and publishing industries becoming well established by the 1920s. In 1929 the boundaries of the city were extended to include the suburbs of Headington, Cowley and Iffley to the east, and Wolvercote to the north.^[15] Also during the 1920s, the economy and society of Oxford underwent a huge transformation as William Morris established Morris Motors Limited to mass-produce cars in Cowley, on the south-eastern edge of the city. By the early 1970s over 20,000 people worked in Cowley at the huge Morris Motors and Pressed Steel Fisher plants. Oxford was now a city of two halves: the university city to the west of Magdalen Bridge and the car town to the east. This led to the witticism that "Oxford is the left bank of Cowley".

On 6 May 1954, Roger Bannister, a 25-year-old medical student, ran the first authenticated sub-four-minute mile at the Iffley Road running track in Oxford. Although he had previously studied at Oxford University, Bannister was studying at St Mary's Hospital Medical School in London at the time.^[27] He later returned to Oxford University and became Master of Pembroke College. Oxford's second university, Oxford Brookes University, formerly the Oxford School of Art, then Oxford Polytechnic, based at Headington Hill, was given its charter in 1991 and for ten years has been voted the best new university in the UK.^[28] It was named to honour the school's founding principal, John Henry Brookes.

Cowley suffered major job losses in the 1980s and 1990s during the decline of British Leyland, but is now producing the successful Mini for BMW on a smaller site. Much of the original car factory at Cowley was demolished in the 1990s, and is now the site of the Oxford Business Park.^[29] The influx of migrant labour to the car plants and hospitals, recent immigration from South Asia, and a large student population, have given Oxford a notably cosmopolitan character, especially in the Headington and Cowley Road areas with their many bars, cafes, restaurants, clubs, Asian shops and fast food outlets and the annual Cowley Road Carnival. Oxford is one of the most diverse small cities in Britain: the most recent population estimates for 2011^[30] showed that 22% of the population were from black or minority ethnic groups, compared to 13% in England.^[31]

See also

• St. Brice's Day massacre (1003)
• Oxford Parliament (1258)
• St Scholastica Day riot (1355)
• Oxford Martyrs (1555)
• Oxford Parliament (1644)
• Siege of Oxford (1644–6)
• Oxford Parliament (1681)
• Timeline of Oxford

References

Bibliography

Published in the 19th century

• George Alexander Cooke (1800), "Oxford", Topographical and statistical description of the county of Oxford, London: Printed for C. Cooke, OL 7126442M
• J.N. Brewer (1813), "Oxford", Beauties of England and Wales, vol. 12, London: J. Harris, hdl:2027/yale.39002040781982
• New Pocket Companion for Oxford, Oxford: Printed for J. Cooke, 1814, OCLC 43132323, OL 20441538M
• James Ingram (1837), Memorials of Oxford, Oxford: J. H. Parker
• "Oxford", Great Western Railway Guide, London: James Wyld, 1839, OCLC 12922212
• Oxford University and city guide, on a new plan, Oxford: Henry Slatter, 1841, OL 13510937M
• "Oxford", Black's Picturesque Tourist and Road-book of England and Wales (3rd ed.), Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1853
• Theodore Alois Buckley (1862), "Oxford", Great Cities of the Middle Ages (2nd ed.), London: Routledge, Warne, & Routledge
• James J. Moore (1878), Historical handbook and guide to Oxford (2nd ed.), Oxford: T. Shrimpton and Son, OL 6296488M
• Edward C. Alden (1890), Alden's Oxford Guide (16th ed.), Oxford: Alden & Co., OCLC 10923077, OL 23324274M
• "Oxford", Great Britain (4th ed.), Leipsic: Karl Baedeker, 1897, OCLC 6430424
• Charles Gross (1897). "Oxford". Bibliography of British Municipal History. New York: Longmans, Green, and Co.
• Visitor's guide to Oxford, Oxford: Parker & Co., 1897, OCLC 13779765, OL 25410017M

Published in the 20th century

• Andrew Lang (1906). Oxford. Boston: Cornhill Publishing Co. OL 13507496M.
• Cecil Headlam (1907). The story of Oxford. London: Dent & Co. OL 14043719M.
• Rhoda Murray (1912). The making of Oxford. Oxford: B.H. Blackwell. OL 25402026M.
• Edward Godfrey Cox (1949). "Cambridge and Oxford". Reference Guide to the Literature of Travel. University of Washington publications. Language and literaturev. 9-10, 12. Vol. 3: Great Britain. Seattle: University of Washington. hdl:2027/mdp.39015049531448 – via Hathi Trust.
• W. N. Hargreaves-Mawdsley (1973). Oxford in the Age of John Locke. Centers of Civilization Series. USA: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806110387. OL 5284855M.
• A. R. Woolley (1975). The Clarendon Guide to Oxford (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-951047-4.
• Christopher Hibbert, ed. (1988). The Encyclopaedia of Oxford. Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-39917-X.

Published in the 21st century

• Daniel A. Bell; Avner de-Shalit (2011), "Oxford", Spirit of Cities: Why the Identity of a City Matters in a Global Age, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ISBN 9780691151441

External links

• A Brief History of Oxford
• The Oxford Guide: Category History