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|date_start = January 1 |
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|event_start = Proclamation of Independence |
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In 1827, the [[Third National Assembly at Troezen]] established the '''Hellenic State''' (Ἑλληνικὴ Πολιτεία) and selected Count [[Ioannis Capodistrias]] as Governor of Greece. (Therefore the state is often called '''Governorate'''.) After his arrival in Greece in January 1828, Capodistrias actively tried to create a functional state and redress the problems of a war-ravaged country, but was soon embroiled in conflict with powerful local magnates and chieftains. He was assassinated by political rivals in 1831, plunging the country into renewed civil strife. He was succeeded by his brother [[Augustinos Kapodistrias|Augustinos]], who was forced to resign after six months. The [[Fifth National Assembly at Nafplion]] drafted a new royal constitution, while the three "Protecting Powers" ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Great Britain]], [[France]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]]) intervened, declaring Greece a Kingdom in the [[London Conference of 1832]], with the Bavarian Prince [[Otto of Greece|Otto of Wittelsbach]] as king. |
In 1827, the [[Third National Assembly at Troezen]] established the '''Hellenic State''' (Ἑλληνικὴ Πολιτεία) and selected Count [[Ioannis Capodistrias]] as Governor of Greece. (Therefore the state is often called '''Governorate'''.) After his arrival in Greece in January 1828, Capodistrias actively tried to create a functional state and redress the problems of a war-ravaged country, but was soon embroiled in conflict with powerful local magnates and chieftains. He was assassinated by political rivals in 1831, plunging the country into renewed civil strife. He was succeeded by his brother [[Augustinos Kapodistrias|Augustinos]], who was forced to resign after six months. The [[Fifth National Assembly at Nafplion]] drafted a new royal constitution, while the three "Protecting Powers" ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Great Britain]], [[France]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]]) intervened, declaring Greece a Kingdom in the [[London Conference of 1832]], with the Bavarian Prince [[Otto of Greece|Otto of Wittelsbach]] as king. |
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==The Greek Declaration of Independence (1822)== |
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While Metternich and his allies were intervening to check reform in southern Europe, the Greeks rose against their masters and declared themselves a free and independent state. This was a source of deep satisfaction to the liberal parties in the West, who had suffered so many disappointments since the opening of the Congress of Vienna. A constitutional assembly was convoked in Greece, and, having completed a provisional constitution, it issued the following manifesto.] |
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We, descendants of the wise and noble peoples of Hellas, we who are the contemporaries of the enlightened and civilized nations of Europe, we who behold the advantages which they enjoy under the protection of the impenetrable aegis of the law, find it no longer possible to suffer without cowardice and self-contempt the cruel yoke of the Ottoman power which has weighed upon us for more than four centuries,- a power which does not listen to reason and knows no other law than its own will, which orders and disposes everything despotically and according to its caprice. After this prolonged slavery we have determined to take arms to avenge ourselves and our country against a frightful tyranny, iniquitous in its very essence, - an unexampled despotism to which no other rule can be compared. |
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The war which we are carrying on against the Turk is not that of a faction or the result of sedition. It is not aimed at the advantage of any single part of the Greek people; it is a national war, a holy war, a war the object of which is to reconquer the rights of individual liberty, of property and honor, - rights which the civilized people of Europe, our neighbors, enjoy to-day; rights of which the cruel and unheard-of tyranny of the Ottomans would deprive us-us alone - and the very memory of which they would stifle in our hearts. |
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Are we, then, less reasonable than other peoples, that we remain deprived of these rights? Are we of a nature so degraded and abject that we should be viewed as unworthy to enjoy them, condemned to remain crushed under a perpetual slavery and subjected, like beasts of burden or mere automatons, to the absurd caprice of a cruel tyrant who, like an infamous brigand, has come from distant regions to invade our borders? Nature has deeply graven these rights in the hearts of all men; laws in harmony with nature have so completely consecrated them that neither three nor four centuries - nor thousands nor millions of centuries - can destroy them. Force and violence have been able to restrict and paralyze them for a season, but force may once more resuscitate them in all the vigor which they formerly enjoyed during many centuries; nor have we ever ceased in Hellas to defend these rights by arms whenever opportunity offered. |
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Building upon the foundation of our natural rights, and desiring to assimilate ourselves to the rest of the Christians of Europe, our brethren, we have begun a war against the Turks, or rather, uniting all our isolated strength, we have formed ourselves into a single armed body, firmly resolved to attain our end, to govern ourselves by wise laws, or to be altogether annihilated, believing it to be unworthy of us, as descendants of the glorious peoples of Hellas, to live henceforth in a state of slavery fitted rather for unreasoning animals than for rational beings. |
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Ten months have elapsed since we began this national war; the all-powerful God has succored us; although we were not adequately prepared for so great an enterprise, our arms have everywhere been victorious, despite the powerful obstacles which we have encountered and still encounter everywhere. We have had to contend with a situation bristling with difficulties, and we are still engaged in our efforts to overcome them. It should not, therefore, appear astonishing that we were not able from the very first to proclaim our independence and take rank among the civilized peoples of the earth, marching forward side by side with them. It was impossible to occupy ourselves with our political existence before we had established our independence. We trust these reasons may justify, in the eyes of the nations, our delay, as well as console us for the anarchy in which we have found ourselves…. |
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EPIDAURUS, January 1822: the First Year of Independence. |
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==War against the ottomans== |
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===Danubian principalities=== |
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Alexander Ypsilantis was elected as the head of the Filiki Eteria in April 1820 and took upon him the task of planning the insurrection. Ypsilantis' intention was to raise all the Christians of the Balkans in rebellion and perhaps force Russia to intervene on their behalf. On 22 February {{smaller|<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.]] 6 March]}}, he crossed the river [[Prut]] with his followers, entering the [[Danubian Principalities]].<ref name="Clogg32">Clogg, ''A Concise History of Greece'', p. 32</ref> In order to encourage the local [[Romanians|Romanian]] Christians to join him, he announced that he had "the support of a Great Power", implying [[Russia]]. Two days after crossing the Prut, Ypsilantis issued a proclamation calling all Greeks and Christians to rise up against the Ottomans.<ref name="Clogg32">Clogg, ''A Concise History of Greece'', p. 32<br/>* Hitchins, ''The Romanians'', 149–150</ref> [[Michael Soutzos]], then [[List of rulers of Moldavia|Prince of Moldavy]] and a member of Filiki Etaireia, set his guard at Ypsilantis' disposal. In the meanwhile, [[Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople]] and the Synod had anathematized and excommunicated both Ypsilantis and Soutzos issuing many encyclicals, an explicit denounce of the Revolution in line with the Orthodox Church policy.<ref>Clogg, ''Review'' pp. 251–252.<br/>* Koliopoulos & Veremis, ''Greece: the Modern Sequel'', pp. 143–144.</ref> |
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{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5" |
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| style="text-align: left;" | "Fight for Faith and Motherland! The time has come, O Hellenes. Long ago the people of Europe, fighting for their own rights and liberties, invited us to imitation ... The enlightened peoples of Europe are occupied in restoring the same well-being, and, full of gratitude for the benefactions of our forefathers towards them, desire the liberation of Greece. We, seemingly worthy of ancestral virtue and of the present century, are hopeful that we will achieve their defense and help. Many of these freedom-lovers want to come and fight alongside us ... Who then hinders your manly arms? Our cowardly enemy is sick and weak. Our generals are experienced, and all our fellow countrymen are full of enthusiasm. Unite, then, O brave and magnanimous Greeks! Let national phalanxes be formed, let patriotic legions appear and you will see those old giants of despotism fall themselves, before our triumphant banners." |
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| style="text-align: left;" | '''''Ypsilantis' Proclamation''' at Iaşi.<ref>Clogg, ''The Movement for Greek Independence'', p. 201</ref> |
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Instead of directly advancing on [[Brăila]], where he arguably could have prevented Ottoman armies from entering the Principalities, and where he might have forced Russia to accept a [[List of French phrases used by English speakers#F|fait accompli]], Ypsilantis remained in [[Iaşi]], and ordered the executions of several pro-Ottoman [[Moldavia]]ns. In [[Bucharest]], where he had arrived in early April after some weeks delay, he decided that he could not rely on the [[Wallachia]]n [[Pandurs]] to continue their [[Oltenia]]n-based revolt and assist the Greek cause. The Pandur leader was [[Tudor Vladimirescu]], who had already reached the outskirts of Bucharest on 16 March {{smaller|<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.]] 28 March]}}. In Bucharest, the relations of the two men deteriorated dramatically; Vladimirescu's first priority was to assert his authority against the newly appointed prince [[Scarlat Callimachi (hospodar)|Scarlat Callimachi]], trying to maintain relations with both Russia and the Ottomans.<ref>Hitchins, ''The Romanians'', 149–150</ref> |
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[[File:AlexanderYpsilantisPruth.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Alexander Ypsilantis crosses the Pruth'', by [[Peter von Hess]] (Benaki Museum, Athens).]] |
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At that point, Kapodistrias, the foreign minister of Russia, was ordered by [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] to send Ypsilantis a letter upbraiding him for misusing the mandate received from the Tsar; Kapodistrias announced to Ypsilantis that his name had been struck off the army list and that he was commanded to lay down arms. Ypsilantis tried to ignore the letter, but Vladimirescu took this as the end of his commitment to the Eteria. A conflict erupted inside his camp and he was tried and put to death by the Eteria on 26 May {{smaller|<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.]] 7 June]}}. The loss of their Romanian allies, followed by an Ottoman intervention on Wallachian soil, sealed defeat for the Greek exiles and culminated in the disastrous [[Battle of Dragashani]] and the destruction of the [[Sacred Band (1821)|Sacred Band]] on 7 June {{smaller|<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.]] 19 June]}}.<ref name="Clogg33">Clogg, ''A Concise History of Greece'', p. 33</ref> |
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[[image:Greek War of Independence (Year 1 events).svg|thumb|350px|Important events of the first year of the war.]] |
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Alexander Ypsilantis, accompanied by his brother Nicholas and a remnant of his followers, retreated to [[Râmnicu Vâlcea]], where he spent some days negotiating with the Austrian authorities for permission to cross the frontier. Fearing that his followers might surrender him to the Turks, he gave out that Austria had declared war on Turkey, caused a [[Te Deum]] to be sung in [[Cozia Monastery]], and, on pretext of arranging measures with the Austrian commander-in-chief, he crossed the frontier. However, the reactionary policies of the [[Holy Alliance]] were enforced by [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]] and the country refused to give asylum for leaders of revolts in neighboring countries. Ypsilantis was kept in close confinement for seven years.<ref>Paroulakis, p. 44.</ref> In Moldavia, the struggle continued for a while, under [[Giorgakis Olympios]] and [[Yiannis Pharmakis]] but, by the end of the year, the provinces had been pacified by the Ottomans. |
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===Peloponnese=== |
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[[File:Siege of Tripolitsa.jpg|thumb|200px|Plan of the [[Siege of Tripolitsa]]. The detachments of Kolokotronis' division, which have surrounded the town are symbolized by the letter "O".]] |
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The [[Peloponnese]], with its long tradition of resistance to the Ottomans, was to become the heartland of the revolt. In the early months of 1821, with the absence of the Ottoman governor of the [[Morea]] ''Mora valisi'' [[Hursid Pasha]] and many of his troops, the situation was favourable for the Greeks to rise against Ottoman occupation. The crucial meeting was held at Vostitsa (modern [[Aigion]]), where chieftains and prelates from all over the Peloponnese assembled on 26 January. There, [[Papaflessas]], a pro-revolution priest who presented himself as representative of [[Filiki Eteria]] clashed with most of the civil leaders and members of the senior clergy, such as Metropolitan Germanos of Patras, who were sceptical and demanded guarantees about a Russian intervention.<ref>Papageorgiou, "First Year of Freedom", p. 59.</ref> As news came of Ypsilantis' march into the Danubian Principalities, the atmosphere in the Peloponnese was tense, and by mid-March, sporadic incidents against Muslims occurred, heralding the start of the uprising. According to the tradition, the Revolution was declared on 25 March 1821 by Metropolitan Germanos who raised the banner with the cross in the Monastery of [[Agia Lavra]], although some historians question the historicity of the event.<ref>Frazee, ''The Orthodox Church and Independent Greece'', p. 19, who also cites (footnote 3) Germanos of Old Patras, ''Recollections of the Greek Revolution'', 12–15.</ref> |
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On 17 March 1821, war was declared on the Turks by the Maniots in [[Areopoli]]. The same day, a force of 2,000 Maniots under the command of [[Petros Mavromichalis]] advanced on the [[Messenia]]n town of [[Kalamata]], where they united with troops under [[Theodoros Kolokotronis]], [[Nikitaras]] and [[Papaflessas]]; Kalamata fell to the Greeks on 23 March.<ref name="Kassis39">Kassis, ''Mani's History'', p. 39.<br/>* Papageorgiou, "First Year of Freedom", p. 60.</ref> In [[Achaia]], the town of [[Kalavryta]] was besieged on 21 March, and in [[Patras]] conflicts lasted for many days. The Ottomans launched sporadic attacks towards the city while the revolutionaries, led by [[Panagiotis Karatzas]], drove them back to the fortress.<ref>Vakalopoulos, "The Great Greek Revolution", pp. 327–331</ref> |
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By the end of March, the Greeks effectively controlled the countryside, while the Turks were confined to the fortresses, most notably those of Patras (recaptured by the Turks on April 3 by Yussuf Pasha), [[Rio, Greece|Rio]], [[Acrocorinth]], [[Monemvasia]], [[Nafplion]] and the provincial capital, [[Tripoli, Greece|Tripolitsa]], where many Muslims had fled with their families at the beginning of the uprising. All these were loosely besieged by local irregular forces under their own captains, since the Greeks lacked artillery. With the exception of Tripolitsa, all sites had access to the sea and could be resupplied and reinforced by the Ottoman fleet. Since May, Kolokotronis organized the siege of Tripolitsa, and, in the meantime, Greek forces twice defeated the Turks, who unsuccessfully tried to repulse the besiegers. Finally, Tripolitsa was seized by the Greeks on 23 September {{smaller|<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Old Style and New Style dates|N.S.]] 5 October]}},<ref>Kassis, ''Mani's History'', p. 39.<br/>* Papageorgiou, "First Year of Freedom", p. 63–64.</ref> and the city was given over to the mob for two days.<ref>St. Clair, ''That Greece Might still Be Free'', p. 45.</ref> After lengthy negotiations, the Turkish forces surrendered Actrocorinth on 14 January 1822.<ref>Papageorgiou, "First Year of Freedom", p. 64.</ref> |
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===Central Greece=== |
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{{double image|right|Zografos-Makriyannis 04.jpg|150|Zografos-Makriyannis 07.jpg|150|[[Panagiotis Zographos]] illustrates under the guindance of [[Yannis Makriyannis|General Makriyannis]] the battles of Alamana (left) and Vassilika (right) (from his ''Scenes from the Greek War of Independence'').}} |
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The first regions to revolt in [[Central Greece]] were [[Phocis]] (24 March), and [[Amfissa|Salona]] (27 March). In [[Boeotia]], [[Livadeia]] was captured by [[Athanasios Diakos]] on 31 March, followed by [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] two days later. In mid-April revolutionary forces entered [[Athens]], and forced the Turkish garrison into the Acropolis. [[Missolonghi]] revolted in 25 May, and the revolution soon spread to other cities of western Central Greece.<ref>Papageorgiou, "First Year of Freedom", p. 60–62.</ref> |
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However, these initial Greek successes were soon put in peril after two subsequent defeats at the battles of [[Battle of Alamana|Alamana]] and Eleftherohori against the army of [[Omer Vrioni]]. Another significant loss for the Greeks was the death of Diakos, a promising military leader, who was captured in Alamana and executed by the Turks, when he denied to declare allegiance to the Sultan. The Greeks managed to halt the Turkish advance at the [[Battle of Gravia]] under the leadership of [[Odysseas Androutsos]], who, with a handful of men, inflicted heavy casualties upon the Turkish army. After his defeat and the successful retreat of Androutsos' force, Omer Vrioni postponed his advance towards Peloponnese awaiting reinforcements; instead, he invaded Livadeia, which he captured in 10 June, and Athens, where he lifted the siege of Acropolis. After a Greek force of 2,000 men managed to destroy at [[Battle of Vassilika|Vassilika]] a Turkish relief army on its way to Turkish forces in Attica, Vrioni abandoned [[Attica]] in September and retreated to [[Ioannina]]. By the end of 1821, the revolutionaries had managed, after their victories at Vassilika and Gravia, to temporarily secure their positions in Central Greece.<ref>Papageorgiou, "First Year of Freedom", p. 64–66.</ref> |
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===Crete=== |
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[[File:Greek revolution pistols.jpg|thumb|left|Weapons used during the revolution (National Historical Museum, Athens).]] |
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Cretan participation in the revolution was extensive, but it failed to achieve liberation from Turkish rule due to Egyptian intervention.<ref name="Detorakis375">Detorakis, ''Turkish rule in Crete'', p. 375</ref> [[Crete]] had a long history of resisting Turkish rule, exemplified by the folk hero [[Daskalogiannis]] who was killed while fighting the Turks.<ref name="Detorakis375"/> In 1821, an uprising by Christians was met with a fierce response from the Ottoman authorities and the execution of several bishops, regarded as ringleaders.<ref>Detorakis, ''Turkish rule in Crete'', p. 365</ref> Despite the Turkish reaction, the rebellion persisted, and thus Sultan [[Mahmud II]] (r. 1808–1839) was forced to seek the aid of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]], trying to lure him with the ''pashalik'' of Crete.<ref name="Detorakis375"/> On 28 May 1822, an Egyptian fleet of 30 warships and 84 transports, led by Hasan Pasha, Mehmet Ali's son-in-law, arrived at [[Souda Bay]] with the task of ending the rebellion and he did not waste any time in the burning of villages throughout Crete.<ref name="Detorakis375"/> |
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After Hasan's accidental death in February 1823, another son-in-law of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Hussein [[Bey]]<ref>Detorakis, ''Turkish rule in Crete'', p. 378</ref> led a well-organised and well-armed joint Turkish-Egyptian force of 12,000 soldiers with the support of artillery and cavalry. He located his encampment at Ayia Varvara in [[Heraklion]]. On 22 June 1823, [[Emmanouil Tombazis]], appointed Commissioner of Crete by the Greek revolutionary government, held the Convention of Arcoudaina in an attempt to reconcile the factions of local captains and unite them against the common threat.<ref>Krimbas, ''Greek Auditors'', 155</ref> He then gathered 3,000 men in [[Gergeri]] to face Hussein. However, the Cretans were defeated by the much larger, and better organised force, and lost 300 men at the battle of Amourgelles on 20 August 1823.<ref>Detorakis, ''Turkish rule in Crete'', p. 379</ref> By the spring of 1824, Hussein had managed to limit the Cretan resistance to just a few mountain enclaves.<ref>St. Clair, ''That Greece Might still Be Free'', 227</ref> |
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Towards the summer of 1825, a body of three to four hundred Cretans, who had fought with other Greeks in the Peloponnese, arrived in Crete, and revitalized the Cretan insurgency (the so-called "Gramvousa period"). On 9 August 1825, led by Dimitrios Kallergis and Emmanouil Antoniadis, this group of Cretans captured the fort at [[Gramvousa]] and other insurgents captured the fort at [[Kissamos]], and attempted to spread the insurgency further afield.<ref>Detorakis, ''Turkish rule in Crete'', p. 381</ref> |
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Although the Ottomans did not manage to retake the forts, they were successful in blocking the spread of the insurgency to western provinces. The insurgents were besieged in Gramvousa for more than two years and they had to resort to piracy to survive. Gramvousa became a hive of piratical activity that greatly affected Turkish–Egyptian and European shipping in the region. During that period the population of Gramvousa became organised and built a school and a church dedicated to the ''Panagia i Kleftrina'' ("Our Lady the piratess"), i.e. St. Mary as the patron of the [[klepht]]s.<ref name="Detorakis383">Detorakis, ''Turkish rule in Crete'', p. 383</ref> In January 1828, the [[Epirus|Epirote]] [[Hatzimichalis Dalianis]] together with 700 landed in Crete and in following March he took possession of [[Francocastello]] castle, [[Sfakia]] region. Soon the local Ottoman ruler, [[Mustafa Naili Pasha]], attacked [[Frangokastello]] with an army of 8,000 men. The castle's defence was doomed after a seven day siege and Dalianis perished along with 385 men.<ref name=Bakker>{{cite book |last=Bakker|first=Johan de |title=Across Crete: From Khania to Herakleion |publisher=I.B.Tauris |pages=82–83 |ref=|isbn=9781850433873 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=bDQJ5ubpxzcC&dq= |date=2003-03-18}}</ref> During 1828, Kapodistrias sent Mavrocordatos with British and French fleets to Crete to deal with the klephts and the pirates. This expedition resulted in the destruction of all pirate ships at Gramvousa and the fort came under British command.<ref name="Detorakis383"/> |
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===Macedonia=== |
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[[File:Emmanouil Papas-Serres, Greece.JPG|thumb|Statue of [[Emmanouel Pappas]] in [[Serres]].]] |
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The economic ascent of [[Thessaloniki]] and of the other urban centres of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] coincided with the cultural and political renaissance of the Greeks. The ideals and patriotic songs of Rigas Feraios and others had made a profound impression upon the Thessalonians. Α few years later, the revolutionary fervour of the southern Greeks was to spread to these parts, and the seeds of Filiki Eteria were speedily to take root. The leader and coordinator of the revolution in Macedonia was [[Emmanouel Pappas]] from the village of [[Emmanouil Pappas|Dobista]], [[Serres prefecture|Serres]], who was initiated into the Filiki Eteria in 1819. Papas had considerable influence over the local Ottoman authorities, especially the local governor, Ismail Bey, and offered much of his personal wealth for the cause.<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia''</ref> |
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Following the instructions of Alexander Ypsilantis, that is to prepare the ground and to rouse the inhabitants of Macedonia to rebellion, Papas loaded arms and munitions from Constantinople on a ship on 23 March and proceeded to [[Mount Athos]], considering that this would be the most suitable spring-board for starting the insurrection. As Vacalopoulos notes, however, "adequate preparations for rebellion had not been made, nor were revolutionary ideals to be reconciled with the ideological world of the monks within the Athonite regime".<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia'', p.592</ref> On 8 May, the Turks, infuriated by the landing of sailors from [[Psara]] at [[Stomio, Larissa|Tsayezi]], by the capture of Turkish merchants and the seizure of their goods, rampaged through the streets of Serres, searched the houses of the notables for arms, imprisoned the Metropolitan and 150 merchants, and seized their goods as a reprisal for the plundering by the Psarians.<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia'', pp. 594–595</ref> |
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In Thessaloniki, governor Yusuf Bey (the son of Ismail Bey) imprisoned in his headquarters more than 400 hostages, of whom more than 100 were monks from the monastic estates. He also wished to seize the powerful notables of [[Polygyros]], who got wind of his intentions and fled. On 17 May, the Greeks of Polygyros took up arms, killed the local governor and 14 of his men, and wounded three others; they also repulsed two Turkish detachments. On 18 May, when Yusuf learned of the incidents at Polygyros and the spreading of the insurrection to the villages of [[Chalkidiki]], he ordered half of his hostages to be slaughtered before his eyes. The Mulla of Thessalonica, Hayrıülah, gives the following description of Yusuf's retaliations: |
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{{blockquote|Every day and every night you hear nothing in the streets of Thessaloniki but shouting and moaning. It seems that Yusuf Bey, the ''Yeniceri Agasi'', the ''Subaşı'', the ''hocas'' and the ''ulemas'' have all gone raving mad.<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia'', pp. 595–596</ref>}} |
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[[File:Ypsilantis-Pappas letter.jpg|left|thumb|Letter of [[Alexander Ypsilantis (1792–1828)|Alexander Ypsilantis]] to [[Emmanouel Pappas]], dated 8 October 1820.]] |
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It would take until the end of the century for the city's Greek community to recover.<ref>Mazower, ''Salonica, City of Ghosts'', pp. 132–139</ref> The revolt, however, gained momentum in Mount Athos and [[Kassandra, Chalkidiki|Kassandra]], and the island of [[Thasos]] joined it.<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia'', pp. 601–603</ref> Meanwhile, the revolt in Chalkidiki was progressing slowly and unsystematically. In June 1821 the insurgents tried to cut communications between [[Thrace]] and the south, attempting to prevent the ''[[serasker]]'' Hadji Mehmet Bayram Pasha from transferring forces from Asia Minor to southern Greece. Even though the rebels delayed him, they were ultimately defeated at the pass of [[Rentina, Thessaloniki|Rentina]].<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia'', p.609</ref> |
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The insurrection in Chalkidiki was, from then on, confined to the peninsulas of Mount Athos and Kassandra. On 30 October 1821, an offensive led by the new Pasha of Thessaloniki, Mehmet Emin Abulubud, resulted in a decisive Ottoman victory at Kassandra. The survivors, among them Papas, were rescued by the Psarian fleet, which took them mainly to [[Skiathos]], [[Skopelos]] and [[Skyros]]. However, Papas died en route to join the revolution at [[Hydra, Saronic Islands|Hydra]]. [[Sithonia]], Mount Athos and Thasos subsequently surrendered on terms.<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia'', pp. 615–619</ref> |
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Nevertheless, the revolt spread from [[central Macedonia|Central]] to [[Western Macedonia]], from [[Mount Olympus|Olympus]] to [[Pieria (prefecture)|Pieria]] and [[Vermion Mountains|Vermion]]. In the autumn of 1821, Nikolaos Kasomoulis was sent to southern Greece as the "representative of South-East Macedonia", and met Demetrius Ypsilantis. He then wrote to Papas from Hydra, asking him to visit Olympus to meet the captains there and to "fire them with the required patriotic enthusiasm".<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia'', pp. 627–628</ref> At the beginning of 1822, [[Anastasios Karatasos]] and [[Aggelis Gatsos]] arranged a meeting with other ''armatoloi''; they decided that the insurrection should be based on three towns: [[Naousa, Imathia|Naoussa]], [[Kastania (Pieria), Greece|Kastania]], and [[Siatista]].<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia'', pp. 628–629</ref> |
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In March 1822, Mehmed Emin secured decisive victories at [[Kolindros]] and Kastania.<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia'', pp. 633–636</ref> Further north, in the vicinity of Naousa, [[Zafeirakis Theodosiou]], Karatasos and Gatsos organized the city's defense, and the first clashes resulted in a victory for the Greeks. Mehmed Emin then appeared before the town with 10,000 regular troops and 10,600 irregulars. Failing to get the insurgents to surrender, Mehmed Emin launched a number of attacks pushing them further back and finally captured Naousa in April, helped by the enemies of Zafeirakis, who had revealed an unguarded spot, the "Alonia".<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia'', pp. 635–637</ref> Reprisals and executions ensued, and women are reported to have flung themselves over the Arapitsa waterfall to avoid dishonor and being sold in slavery. Those who broke through the siege of Naousa fell back in [[Kozani]], Siatista and [[Aspropotamos River]], or were carried by the Psarian fleet to the [[northern Aegean]] islands.<ref>Vacalopoulos, ''History of Macedonia'', pp. 638–639</ref> |
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===Cyprus=== |
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On June 9, 1821 3 ships sailed from Cyprus with General [[Konstantinos Kanaris]]. They landed at Asprovrisi, of Lapithou. Kanaris brought with him papers from the Filiki Etaireia, and the ships were welcomed with rapturous applause and patriotic cries from the local Greeks of the area, who helped Kanaris and the soldiers from Cyprus as much as they could. |
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Kanaris brought with him the Cypriots who created the "Column of Cypriots" («Φάλαγγα των Κυπρίων»), led by General Chatzipetros, which fought with extraordinary heroism in Greece. In total, over 1000 Cypriots fought in the War of Independence, many of whom died. At Missolonghi many were killed, and at the Battle of Athens in 1827, around 130 were killed. General Chatzipetros, showing military decorations declared "These were given to me by the heroism and braveness of the Column of Cypriots". In the National Library, there is a list of 580 names of Cypriots who fought in the War between 1821 and 1829. |
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The Cypriot battalion brought with them their own distinctive war banner, consisting of a white flag with a large blue cross, and the words "GREEK FLAG OF THE MOTHERLAND CYPRUS" emblazoned in the top left corner. The flag was hoisted on a wooden mast, carved and pointed at the end to act as a lance in battle. The legendary battle flag is currently stored at the National Historical Museum of Athens. |
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Throughout the War of Independence, supplies were brought from Cyprus by the Filiki Etairia to aid the Greek struggle. The Greeks of Cyprus underwent great risk to provide these supplies, and secretly load them onto boats arriving at intervals from Greece, as the Ottoman Rulers in Cyprus at the time were very wary of Cypriot insurgency and sentenced to death any Greek Cypriots found aiding the Greek cause. Incidences of these secret loading trips from Cyprus were recorded by the French consul to Cyprus, Mechain.<ref>http://www.synexelixi.org/el/component/content/article/60-kypros-1821</ref> |
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Back in Cyprus during the war, the local population suffered greatly at the hands of the Ottoman rulers of the islands, who were quick to act with great severity at acts of patriotism and sympathy of the Greeks of Cyprus to the Revolution, fearing a similar uprising in Cyprus. The leader of the Greeks of the island at the time, [[Archbishop Kyprianos]] was initiated into the Filiki Etairia in 1818 and had promised to aid the cause of the Greek Elladites with food and money. |
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In early July 1821, the Cypriot Archimandrite Theofylaktos Thiseas arrived in [[Larnaca]] as a messenger of the Filiki Etairia, bringing orders to Kyprianos, while proclamations were distributed in every corner of the island. However, the local pasha, [[Küçük Mehmet]], intercepted these messages and reacted with fury, calling in reinforcements, confiscating weapons and arresting several prominent Cypriots. Archbishop Kyprianos was urged (by his friends) to leave the island as the situation worsened but refused to do so. Finally, on July 9, 1821 Küçük Mehmet had the gates to the walled city of Nicosia closed and executed, by beheading or hanging, 470 important Cypriots amongst them Chrysanthos (bishop of Paphos), Meletios (bishop of Kition) and Lavrentios of (bishop of Kyrenia). The next day, all abbots and monks of monasteries of Cyprus were executed. In addition, the Ottomans arrested all the Greek leaders of the villages and imprisoned them before executing them, as they were suspected of inspiring patriotism in their local population. In total, it is estimated that over 2,000 Greeks of Cyprus were slaughtered as an act of revenge for participating in the revolution. This was a very significant proportion of the population of the total island at the time. Küçük Mehmet had declared ''"I have in my mind to slaughter the Greeks in Cyprus, to hang them, to not leave a soul..."'' before undertaking these massacres. From the 9th to the 14th of July, the Ottomans killed all prisoners on the list of the pasha, and in the next 30 days, looting and massacres spread throughout Cyprus as 4,000 Turkish soldiers from Syria arrived on the island. |
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{| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:20em; max-width: 35%;" cellspacing="5" |
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| style="text-align: left;"| |
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''"Hellenism is the true contemporary race of the world,'' |
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<br>''Nobody could be found to eliminate it,'' |
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<br>''Nobody, for it is protected from above by my God,'' |
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<br>''If Hellenism is lost, truly the whole world shall weep."'' |
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|- |
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| style="text-align: left;" | '''Archbishop Kyprianos' response to Kucuk Mehmet's threat to wipe out the Greeks of Cyprus'''<ref>http://www2.cytanet.com.cy/lyc-str-nic/arch_kyprianos.htm</ref> |
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|} |
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Archbishop Kyprianos was defiant in his death. He was aware of his fate and impending death, yet stood by the Greek cause. He is revered throughout Cyprus as a noble patriot and defender of the Orthodox faith and Hellenic cause. An English explorer by the name of Carne spoke to the Archbishop before the events of 9 July, who was quoted as saying: "My death is not far away. I know they [the Ottoman] are waiting for an opportunity to kill me". Kyprianos chose to stay, despite these fear, and provide protection and counsel for the people of Cyprus as their leader. To this day, his response (in the form of a poem) to Küçük Mehmet's declaration (seen in the previous paragraph) to kill the Greeks of Cyprus in mass purges maintains legendary status in Cyprus and Greece. |
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He was publicly hanged from a tree opposite the former palace of the Lusignan Kings of Cyprus on 9 July 1821. The events leading up to his execution were documented in an epic poem written in the Cypriot dialect by [[Vassilis Michaelides]]. |
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===1822–1824=== |
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Until 1825, revolutionary activity was fragmented, because of the lack of a strong central leadership and guidance. However, the Greek side withstood the Turkish attacks, because, during the same period, the Ottoman military campaigns were periodic, and the Ottoman presence in the rebel areas uncoordinated due to logistical problems. The Greek military leaders preferred battlefields, where they could annihilate the numerical superiority of the opponent, and, at the same time, the lack of artillery hampered Ottoman military efforts.<ref>Tzakis, "The Military Events", pp. 73–78</ref> |
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The revolutionaries didn't manage to profit from their early successes in 1821 and, consequently, the Ottomans took the offensive, organising two military campaigns in Western and Eastern Greece led by [[Mustafa Reshit Pasha]] and [[Mahmud Dramali Pasha]] respectively. The latter crossed Roumeli and invaded Morea, but suffered a serious defeat in [[Battle of Dervenakia|Dervenakia]].<ref>Dakin, ''The Greek Struggle for independence'', pp. 96–8.</ref> The campaign in Western Greece ended alike: Mustafa Reshit's army was defeated in a battle near [[Battle of Karpenisi|Karpenisi]], during which the [[Souliot]] [[Markos Botsaris]] was shot dead.<ref>Dakin, ''The Greek Struggle for independence'', p. 99.</ref> The announcement of his death in Europe generated a wave of sympathy for the Greek cause. |
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===Revolution in peril: Infighting=== |
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{{details|Greek civil wars of 1824–1825}} |
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{{double image|right|Londos2.jpg|120|Kolokotronis Theodore.JPG|140|[[Andreas Londos]] (left) and [[Theodoros Kolokotronis]] (right) were opponents during the first civil war, when the Peloponnesians were divided. They allied themselves during the second and bloodiest phase of the infighting.}} |
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The First National Assembly was formed at [[Epidaurus]] in late December 1821, consisted almost exclusively of Peloponnesian notables. The Assembly drafted the [[Greek Constitution of 1822|first Greek Constitution]] and appointed the members of an executive and a legislative body that were to govern the liberated territories. Mavrokordatos saved the office of president of the executive for himself, while Ypsilantis, who had called for the Assembly, was elected president of the legislative body, a place of limited significance.<ref>Dakin, ''The Greek Struggle for independence'', pp. 87–9.</ref> Military leaders and representatives of Filiki Eteria were marginalized, but gradually Kolokotronis' political influence grew, and he soon managed to control, along with the captains he influenced, the Peloponnesian Senate. The central administration tried to marginalize Kolokotronis who also had under his control the fort of [[Nafplion]]. In November 1822, the central administration decided that the new National Assembly would take place in Nafplio, and asked Kolokotronis to return the fort to the government. Kolokotronis refused, and the Assembly was finally gathered in March 1823 in [[Astros, Greece|Astros]]. Central governance was strengthened at the expense of regional bodies, a [[Greek Constitution of 1823|new constitution]] was voted, and new members were elected for the executive and the legislative bodies.<ref>Rotzokos, "Civil Wars", 143–151</ref> |
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Trying to coax the military leaders, the central administration proposed to Kolokotronis that he participate in the executive body as vice-president. Kolokotronis accepted, but he caused a serious crisis, when he prevented Mavrokordatos, who had been elected president of the legislative body, from assuming his position. His attitude towards Mavrokordatos caused outrage amongst the members of the legislative body.<ref>Rotzokos, "Civil Wars", 152–154</ref> The crisis culminated, when the legislature, which was controlled by the Roumeliotes and the Hydriots, overturned the executive, and fired its president, Petros Mavromichalis. Kolokotronis and most of the Peloponnesian notables and captains supported Mavromichalis, who remained president of his executive in Tripolitsa. However, a second executive, supported by the islanders, the Roumeliotes, and some Achaean notables—[[Andreas Zaimis]] and [[Andreas Londos]] were the most prominent—was formed at [[Kranidi]] with [[Georgios Kountouriotis|Kountouriotis]] as president. In March 1824, the forces of the new executive besieged Nafplion and Tripolitsa. After one month of fighting and negotiations, an agreement was reached between Kolokotronis, from one side, and Londos and Zaimis, from the other side. In 22 May the first phase of the civil war officially ended, but most of the members of the new executive were displeased by the moderate terms of the agreement that Londos and Zaimis brokered.<ref>Dimitropoulos, ''Theodoros Kolokotronis'', 79–81<br/>* Rotzokos, "Civil Wars", 154–161</ref> |
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During this period, the two first instalments of the English loan had arrived, and the position of the government was strengthened; but the infighting was not yet over. Zaimis and the other Peloponnesians who supported Kountouriotis came into conflict with the executive body, and allied with Kolokotronis who roused the residents of Tripolitsa against the local tax collectors of the government. Papaflessas and Makriyannis failed to suppress the rebellion, but Kolokotronis remained inactive for some period, overwhelmed by the death of his son, Panos. The government regrouped its armies, which now consisted mainly of Roumeliotes and Souliots, and were led by [[Ioannis Kolettis]] who wanted a complete victory. Under Kolettis' orders, two bodies of Roumeliotes and Souliots invaded the Peloponnese: the first under Gouras occupied [[Corinth]] and raided the province; the second under Karaiskakis, [[Kitsos Tzavelas]] and others, attacked in Achaea Londos and Zaimis. In January 1825, a Roumeliote force, led by Kolettis himself arrested Kolokotronis, Deligiannis' family and others. In May 1825, under the pressure of the Egyptian intervention, those imprisoned were released and granted amnesty.<ref>Dimitropoulos, ''Theodoros Kolokotronis'', 79–81<br/>* Rotzokos, "Civil Wars", 164–170.</ref> |
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===War at sea=== |
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From the early stages of the revolution, success at sea was vital for the Greeks. If they failed to counter the [[Ottoman Navy]], it would be able to resupply the isolated Ottoman garrisons and land reinforcements from the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s Asian provinces at will, crushing the rebellion. The Greek fleet was primarily outfitted by prosperous Aegean islanders, principally from three islands: [[Hydra, Saronic Islands|Hydra]], [[Spetses]] and [[Psara]]. Each island equipped, manned and maintained its own squadron, under its own admiral. Although they were manned by experienced crews, the Greek ships were not designed for warfare, equipped with only light guns and staffed by armed merchantmen.<ref>Brewer, pp. 89–91.</ref> Against them stood the Ottoman fleet, which enjoyed several advantages: its ships and supporting craft were built for war; it was supported by the resources of the vast Ottoman Empire; command was centralized and disciplined under the [[Kapudan Pasha]]. The total Ottoman fleet size consisted of 23 masted [[ship of the line|ships of the line]], each with about 80 guns and 7 or 8 [[frigate]]s with 50 guns, 5 corvettes with about 30 guns and around 40 [[brig]]s with 20 or fewer guns.<ref>Brewer, pp. 91–92.</ref> |
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[[File:Fire ship by Volanakis.jpg|thumb|240px|The burning of the Ottoman frigate at Eressos by [[Dimitrios Papanikolis]].]] |
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In the face of this situation, the Greeks decided to use [[fire ship]]s ({{lang-el|πυρπολικά or μπουρλότα}}), which had proven themselves effective for the Psarians during the [[Orlov Revolt]] in 1770. The first test was made at [[Eresos]] on May 27, 1821, when an Ottoman frigate was successfully destroyed by a fire ship under [[Dimitrios Papanikolis]]. In the fire ships, the Greeks found an effective weapon against the Ottoman vessels. In subsequent years, the successes of the Greek fire ships would increase their reputation, with acts such as the destruction of the Ottoman flagship by [[Constantine Kanaris]] at [[Chios]], after the [[Chios Massacre|massacre of the island's population in June 1822]], acquiring international fame. Overall, 59 fire ship attacks were carried out, of which 39 were successful. |
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At the same time, conventional naval actions were also fought, at which naval commanders like [[Andreas Vokos Miaoulis|Andreas Miaoulis]], [[Nikolis Apostolis]], [[Iakovos Tombazis]] and [[Antonios Kriezis]] distinguished themselves. The early successes of the Greek fleet in direct confrontations with the Ottomans at Patras and Spetses gave the crews confidence and contributed greatly to the survival and success of the uprising in the Peloponnese. |
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Later, however, as Greece became embroiled in a [[civil war]], the Sultan called upon his strongest subject, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]], for aid. Plagued by internal strife and financial difficulties in keeping the fleet in constant readiness, the Greeks failed to prevent the capture and destruction of [[Kasos]] and [[Destruction of Psara|Psara]] in 1824, or the landing of the Egyptian army at [[Methoni, Messenia|Methoni]]. Despite victories at [[Samos Island|Samos]] and Gerontas, the Revolution was threatened with collapse until the intervention of the Great Powers in the [[Battle of Navarino]] in 1827. |
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===Egyptian intervention=== |
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{{See also|Third Siege of Missolonghi|Ottoman–Egyptian Invasion of Mani}} |
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Egyptian intervention was initially limited to Crete and Cyprus. However, the success of Muhammad Ali's troops in both places settled the Turks on the horns of a very difficult dilemma, since they were afraid of their [[wāli]]'s expansionist ambitions. Muhammad Ali finally agreed to send his son [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]] to Greece in exchange not only for Crete and Cyprus, but for the Peloponnese and [[Syria]] as well.<ref name="Howarth182">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', p. 182.<br/>* Sayyid-Marsot, ''Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali'', p. 206.</ref> |
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[[File:Ibrahim-messolonghi.jpg|thumb|left|240px|''Ibrahim attacks Missolonghi'' by Giuseppe Pietro Mazzola (1748-1838).]] |
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[[File:The sortie of Messologhi by Theodore Vryzakis.jpg|thumb|200px|''The sortie of Missolonghi'' by [[Theodoros Vryzakis]] (1855, oil on canvas, [[National Gallery of Athens]]).]] |
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Ibrahim Pasha landed at [[Methoni, Messenia|Methoni]] on 24 February 1825 and a month later he was joined by his army of 10,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry.<ref name="Howarth186">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', p. 186.</ref> He proceeded to [[Battle of Sphacteria (1825)|defeat the Greek garrison]] on the small island of [[Sphacteria]] off the coast of Messenia.<ref name="Howarth188">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', p. 188.</ref> With the Greeks in disarray, Ibrahim ravaged the Western Peloponnese and killed [[Papaflessas]] at the [[Battle of Maniaki]]. The Greek government, in an attempt to stop the Egyptians, released Kolokotronis from captivity, but he too was unsuccessful. By the end of June, Ibrahim had captured the city of [[Argos]] and was within striking distance of [[Nafplion]]. The city was saved by Commodore Gawen Hamilton of the [[Royal Navy]] who placed his ships in a position which looked like he would assist in the defence of the city.<ref name="Howarth233189">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', p. 189.</ref> |
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At the same time, the Turkish armies in Central Greece were besieging the city of [[Missolonghi]] for the [[Third Siege of Missolonghi|third time]]. The siege had begun on 15 April 1825, the day on which Navarino had fallen to Ibrahim.<ref name="Howarth190">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', pp. 233–34.</ref> In early autumn, the Greek navy under the command of [[Miaoulis]] forced the Turkish fleet in the [[Gulf of Corinth]] to retreat, after attacking it with fire ships. The Turks were joined by Ibrahim in mid-winter, but his army had no more luck in penetrating Missolonghi's defences.<ref name="Howarth194">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', p. 192–194.</ref> |
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In the spring of 1826, Ibrahim managed to capture the marshes around the city, although not without heavy losses. He thus cut the Greeks off from the sea and blocked off their supply route.<ref name="Howarth195">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', p. 195.</ref> Despite the Egyptians and the Turks offering them terms to stop the attacks, the Greek refused and continued to fight. On 22 April the Greeks decided to sail from the city during the night with 3,000 men to cut a path through the Egyptian lines and allow 6,000 women, children and non-combatants to follow.<ref name="Howarth196">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', p. 196.</ref> However, a [[Bulgaria]]n deserter informed Ibrahim of the Greek's intention and he had his entire army deployed; only 1,800 Greeks managed to cut their way through the Egyptian lines. Between 3,000 and 4,000 women and children were enslaved and many of the people who remained behind decided to blow themselves up with gun powder rather than be enslaved.<ref name="Howarth197">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', p. 197.</ref> |
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Ibrahim sent an envoy to the Maniots demanding that they surrender or else he would ravage their land as he had done to the rest of the Peloponnese. Instead of surrendering, the Maniots simply replied: |
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{{cquote|<br>''From the few Greeks of Mani and the rest of Greeks who live there to Ibrahim Pasha. We received your letter in which you try to frighten us saying that if we don't surrender, you'll kill the Maniots and plunder Mani. That's why we are waiting for you and your army. We, the inhabitants of Mani, sign and wait for you.''<ref name="Kassis40">Kassis, ''Mani's History'', p. 40.</ref>}} |
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[[Ottoman–Egyptian Invasion of Mani|Ibrahim tried to enter Mani]] from the north-east near Almiro on 21 June 1826, but he was forced to stop at the fortifications at Vergas in northern Mani. His army of 7,000 men was held off by an army of 2,000 Maniots and 500 refugees from other parts of Greece until Kolokotronis attacked the Egyptians from the rear and forced them to retreat. Ibrahim again tried to enter Mani, but again the Maniots defeated the Turkish and Egyptian forces. The Maniots pursued the Egyptians all the way to Kalamata before returning to Vergas. This battle was costly for Ibrahim not only because he suffered 2,500 casualties, but it also ruined his plan to invade Mani from the north. Ibrahim tried several times to take Mani, but each time his forces were repulsed, and suffered much heavier casualties than the Greeks.<ref name="Kassis40-1">Kassis, ''Mani's History'', pp. 40–1.</ref> |
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==British/French/Russian Intervention== |
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{{See also|Battle of Navarino|Eastern Question}} |
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===Initial hostility=== |
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When the news of the Greek Revolution were first received, the reaction of the European powers was uniformly hostile. They recognized the degeneration of the [[Ottoman Empire]] but they did not know how to handle this situation (a problem known as the "Eastern Question"). Afraid of the complications the partition of the empire might raise, the British foreign minister, [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Viscount Castlereagh]], as well as the Austrian foreign minister, Prince [[Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich|Metternich]], and the Tsar of Russia, [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]], shared the same view concerning the necessity of preserving the ''status quo'' and the peace of Europe. They also pleaded that they maintain the [[Concert of Europe]]. |
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Metternich also tried to undermine the Russian foreign minister, [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]], who was of Greek origin. Kapodistrias demanded that Alexander declare war on the Ottomans in order to liberate Greece and increase the greatness of Russia. Metternich persuaded Alexander that Kapodistrias was in league with the Italian [[Carbonari]] (an Italian revolutionary group) leading Alexander to disavow him. As a result of the Russian reaction to Alexander Ypsilantis, Kapodistrias resigned as foreign minister and moved to [[Switzerland]].<ref>Troyat, ''Alexander of Russia'', pp. 269–270</ref> Nevertheless, Alexander's position was ambivalent, since he regarded himself as the protector of the Orthodox Church, and his subjects were deeply moved by the hanging of the Patriarch. These factors explain why, after denouncing the Greek Revolution, Alexander dispatched an ultimatum to Constantinople on 27 July 1821. However, the danger of war passed temporarily, after Metternich and Castlereagh persuaded the Sultan to make some concessions to the Tsar.<ref>Stavrianos, ''The Balkans since 1453'', pp. 286–288</ref> On December 14, 1822, the Holy Alliance denounced the Greek Revolution, considering it audacious and clumsy. |
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===Change of stance=== |
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{{double image|right|George Canning by Richard Evans.jpg|100|Vernet nikolas 1.jpg|120|Left: [[George Canning]] was the architect of the [[Treaty of London (1827)|Treaty of London]], which launched European intervention in the Greek conflict.<br />Right:[[Tsar Nicholas I]] co-signed the Treaty of London, and then launched the [[Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)|Russo-Turkish War]] of 1828–1829, which finally secured Greek independence.}} |
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In August 1822, [[George Canning]] was appointed by the British government as Foreign Secretary succeeding Castlereagh. Canning was influenced by the mounting popular agitation against the Ottomans and believed that a settlement could no longer be postponed. He also feared that Russia might undertake unilateral action against the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Stavrianos, ''The Balkans since 1453'', p. 288</ref> In March 1823, Canning declared that "when a whole nation revolts against its conqueror, the nation cannot be considered as piratical but as a nation in a state of war". In February of the same year, he notified the Ottoman Empire that the United Kingdom would maintain friendly relations with the Turks only under the condition that the latter respected the Christian subjects of the Empire. The Commissioner of the Ionian Islands that belonged to the United Kingdom, was ordered to consider the Greeks in a state of war and give them the right to cut off certain areas from which the Turks could get provisions. These measures led to the increase of British influence. This influence was reinforced by the issuing of two loans that the Greeks managed to conclude with British fund-holders in 1824 and 1825. These loans, which, in effect, made the City of London the financier of the Revolution,{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} inspired the creation of the "British" political party in Greece, whose opinion was that the Revolution could only end in success with the help of the United Kingdom. At the same time, parties affiliated to Russia and France made their appearance. These parties would later strive for power during king Otto's reign.<ref>Newer and Modern History"(Ιστορία Νεότερη και Σύγχρονη), Vas. Sfyroeras, Schoolbook for Triti Gymnasiou, 6th edition, Athens 1996, pp. 191–192</ref> |
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When Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] succeeded Alexander in December 1825, Canning decided to act immediately: he sent the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]] to Russia, and the outcome was the St. Petersburg Protocol of April 4, 1826. According to the Protocol, the two powers agreed to mediate between the Ottomans and the Greeks on the basis of complete autonomy of Greece under Turkish sovereignty. Before he met with Wellington, the Tsar had already sent an ultimatum to the Porte, demanding that the Principalities be evacuated immediately and that plenipotentiaries be sent to Russia to settle outstanding issues. The Sultan agreed to send the plenipotentiaries, and on October 7, 1826 signed the [[Akkerman Convention]], in which Russian demands concerning Serbia and the principalities were accepted.<ref>Stavrianos, ''The Balkans since 1453'', pp. 288–289</ref> |
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[[File:Naval Battle of Navarino by Garneray.jpg|thumb|left|220px|''The Naval Battle of Navarino'' by [[Ambroise Louis Garneray]] (1827).]] |
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The Greeks formally applied for the mediation provided in the Petersburg Protocol, while the Turks and the Egyptians showed no willingness to stop fighting. Canning therefore prepared for action by negotiating the [[Treaty of London (1827)|Treaty of London]] (July 6, 1827) with France and Russia. This provided that the Allies should again offer negotiations, and if the Sultan rejected it they would exert all the means which circumstances would allow to force the cessation of hostilities. Meanwhile, news reached Greece in late July 1827, that Mehmet Ali's new fleet was completed in [[Alexandria]] and sailing towards [[Pylos|Navarino]] to join the rest of the Egyptian-Turkish fleet. The aim of this fleet was to attack Hydra and knock the island's fleet out of the war. On 29 August, the Porte formally rejected the Treaty of London's stipulations, and, subsequently, the commanders-in-chief of the [[Mediterranean Fleet (United Kingdom)|British]] and [[Mediterranean Fleet (France)|French]] Mediterranean fleets, Admiral [[Edward Codrington]] and Admiral [[Henri de Rigny]] sailed into the Gulf of Argos and requested to meet with Greek representatives onboard the [[HMS Asia (1824)|HMS Asia]].<ref name="Howarth231">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', p. 231</ref> |
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[[File:ModernEgypt, Muhammad Ali by Auguste Couder, BAP 17996.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Muhammad Ali Pasha]] (by [[Auguste Couder]], 1841, [[Palace of Versailles]]), whose expedition to the Peloponnese precipitated European intervention in the Greek conflict.]] |
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After the Greek delegation, led by Mavrocordatos, accepted the terms of the Treaty, the Allies prepared to insist upon the armistice, and their fleets were instructed to intercept supplies destined for Ibrahim's forces. When Mehmet Ali's fleet, which had been warned by the British and French to stay away from Greece, left Alexandria and joined other Ottoman/Egyptian units at Navarino on September 8, Codrington arrived with his squadron off Navarino on September 12. On October 13, Codrington was joined, off Navarino, by his allied support, a French squadron under De Rigny and a Russian squadron under [[Login Petrovich Geiden|L. Heyden]]. Upon their arrival at Navarino, Codgrinton and de Rigny tried to negotiate with Ibrahim but Ibrahim insisted that by the Sultan's order he must destroy Hydra. Codrington responded by saying that if Ibrahim's fleets attempted to go anywhere but home, he would have to destroy them. Ibrahim agreed to write to the Sultan to see if he would change his orders but he also complained about the Greeks being able to continue their attacks. Codrington promised that he would stop the Greeks and Philhellenes from attacking the Turks and Egyptians. After doing this, he disbanded most of his fleet which returned to Malta while the French went to the Aegean.<ref name="Howarth233-34">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', pp. 231–34.</ref> |
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However, when Frank Hastings, a Philhellene, destroyed a Turkish naval squadron, Ibrahim sent out a detachment of his fleet out of Navarino in order to defeat Hastings. Codrington had not heard of Hastings actions and thought that Ibrahim was breaking his agreement. Codrington intercepted the force and made them retreat and did so again on the following day when Ibrahim lead the fleet in person. Codrington assembled his fleet once more, with the British returning from Malta and the French from the Aegean. They were also joined by the Russian contingent led by Count [[Login Geiden]]. Ibrahim now began a campaign to annihilate the Greeks of the Peloponnese as he thought the Allies had reneged on their agreement.<ref name="Howarth236-37">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', pp. 236–37.</ref> |
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On 20 October 1827, as the weather got worse, the British, Russian and French fleets entered the Bay of Navarino in peaceful formation to shelter themselves and to make sure that Egyptian-Turkish fleet did not slip off and attack Hydra. When a British [[frigate]] sent a boat to request the Egyptians to move their fire ships, the officer onboard was shot by the Egyptians. The frigate responded with musket fire in retaliation and an Egyptian ship fired a cannon shot at the French flagship, the Sirene, which returned fire.<ref name="Howarth239">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', p. 239.</ref> |
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A full engagement was begun which ended in a complete victory for the Allies and in the annihilation of the Egyptian-Turkish fleet. Of the 89 Egyptian-Turkish ships that took part in the battle, only 14 made it back to Alexandria and their dead amounted to over 8,000. The Allies didn't lose a ship and suffered only 181 deaths. The Porte demanded compensation from the Allies for the ships but his demand was refused on the grounds that the Turks had acted as the aggressors. The three countries' ambassadors also left Constantinople. In England, the battle was criticized as being an 'untoward event' towards Turkey who was called an 'ancient ally'. Codrington was recalled and blamed for having allowed the retreating Egyptian-Turkish ships to carry 2,000 Greek slaves. In France, the news of the battle was greeted with great enthusiasm and the government had an unexpected surge in popularity. Russia formally took the opportunity to declare war on the Turks.<ref name="Howarth241">Howarth, ''The Greek Adventure'', p. 241.</ref> |
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In October 1828, the Greeks regrouped and formed a new government under Kapodistrias. They then advanced to seize as much territory as possible, including [[Athens]] and [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]], before the Western powers imposed a ceasefire. As far as the Peloponnese was concerned, the United Kingdom and Russia accepted the offer of France to send an army to expel Ibrahim's forces. [[Nicolas Joseph Maison]], who was given command of the French expeditionary Corps, landed on August 30, 1828 at [[Petalidi]], and helped the Greeks evacuate the Peloponnese from all the hostile troops by October 30 . Maison thus implemented the convention Codrington had negotiated and signed in Alexandria with Muhammad Ali, and which provided for the withdrawal of all Egyptian troops from the Peloponnese.<ref>Finlay, ''History of the Greek Revolution'', II, 192–193<br />* Williams, ''The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors'', 102</ref> |
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The final major engagement of the war was the [[Battle of Petra]], which occurred north of [[Attica]]. Greek forces under Demetrius Ypsilantis, for the first time trained to fight as a regular European army rather than as guerilla bands, advanced against Aslan Bey's forces and defeated them. The Turks surrendered all lands from [[Livadeia]] to the [[Spercheios River]] in exchange for safe passage out of [[Central Greece]]. As [[George Finlay]] stresses:<ref>Finlay, ''History of the Greek Revolution'', II, 208</ref> |
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{{blockquote|Thus Prince Demetrius Hypsilantes had the honor of terminating the war which his brother had commenced on the banks of the Pruth.}} |
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==From autonomy to independence== |
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{{double image|right|Kapodistrias2.jpg|100|Otto of Greece.jpg|120|Left:[[Ioannis Kapodistrias]] was the first head of state (Governor) of independent Greece.<br />Right:After Kapodistrias' assassination, the London Conference (1832) established the [[Kingdom of Greece]] with [[Otto of Greece|Otto of Bavaria]] as the first King.}} |
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On 21 December 1828 the ambassadors of the United Kingdom, Russia, and France met in the island of [[Poros]], and prepared a Protocol, which provided for the creation of an autonomous state ruled by a monarch, whose authority should be confirmed by a [[Firman (decree)|firman]] of the Sultan. The proposed borderline ran from [[Arta, Greece|Arta]] to [[Volos]], and, despite Kapodistrias' efforts, the new state would include only the islands of [[Cyclades]], [[Sporades]], [[Samos]], and maybe [[Crete]]. Based on the Protocol of Poros, the London Conference agreed on the Protocol of 22 March 1829, which accepted most of the ambassadors' proposals, but drew the borders farther south than the initial proposal, and did not include Samos and Crete in the new state.<ref>Dimakis, ''The Great Powers and the Struggle of 1821'', 525</ref> |
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[[File:Greekhistory.GIF|thumb|left|Map showing the original territory of the [[Kingdom of Greece]] as laid down in the Treaty of 1832 (in dark blue).]] |
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Under the [[Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)|pressure of Russia]], the Porte finally agreed on the terms of the Treaty of London of 6 July 1827, and of the Protocol of 22 March 1829. Soon afterward, the United Kingdom and France conceived the idea of an independent Greek state, trying to limit the influence of Russia on the new state.<ref>Bridge & Bullen, ''The Great Powers and the European States System'', 83<br />* Dimakis, ''The Great Powers and the Struggle of 1821'', 526–527</ref> Russia was not delighted by the idea, but could not reject it, and, consequently, the three powers finally agreed to create an independent Greek state under their joint protection, and concluded the Protocols of 3 February 1830.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gr/NR/rdonlyres/E1DA0D5F-5493-4BF4-8FD3-D5CD6C6BB96C/0/1830_london_protocol.doc |title=London Protocol |accessdate=26 December 2008 |format=DOC |publisher=Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}</ref> By one of the Protocols, the Greek throne was initially offered to [[Leopold I of Belgium|Leopold]], Prince of [[Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] and the future [[Monarchy of Belgium|King of Belgium]]. Discouraged by the gloomy picture painted by Kapodistrias and unsatisfied with the Aspropotamos-Zitouni borderline, which replaced the more favorable line running from Arta to Volos considered by the Great Powers earlier, he refused. Negotiations temporarily stalled after Kapodistrias was assassinated in 1831 in [[Nafplion]] by the Mavromichalis' clan after having demanded that they unconditionally submit to his authority. When they refused, Kapodistrias put Petrobey in jail, sparking vows of vengeance from his clan.<ref>Clogg, ''A Short History of Modern Greece'', pp. 66–67<br />* Verzijl, ''International Law in Historical Perspective'', pp. 462–463</ref> |
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The '''Τreaty of Constantinople''' was the product of the Constantinople Conference which opened in February 1832 with the participation of the [[Great power|Great Powers]] ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], [[July Monarchy|France]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]]) on the one hand and the [[Ottoman Empire]] on the other. The factors which shaped the treaty included the refusal of [[Léopold I of Belgium|Léopold]], King of [[Belgium]], to assume the [[Greece|Greek]] throne. He ''inter alia'' was not at all satisfied with the Aspropotamos-Zitouni borderline, which replaced the more favorable Arta-Volos line considered by the Great Powers earlier. |
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==First administrative and political institutions== |
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[[File:Areios Pagos Anatolikis Ellados.svg|thumb|right|200px|The flag of the Areopagus of [[Eastern Continental Greece]] with symbols of faith, charity (love), and hope.]] |
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After the fall of Kalamata, the Messenian Senate, the first of the Greeks' local governing councils, held its inaugural session. At almost the same time, the Achean Directorate was summoned in Patras, but its members were soon forced to flee to Kalavryta. With the initiative of the Messenian Senate, a Peloponnesian assembly convened, and elected on May 26 a Senate. Most of the members of the Peloponnesian Senate were local notables (lay and ecclesiastical) or persons controlled by them. When [[Demetrios Ypsilantis]] arrived in Peloponnese as official representative of Filiki Eteria, he tried to assume control of the Revolution's affairs, and he thus proposed a new system of electing the members of the Senate, which was supported by the military leaders, but opposed by the notables.{{cref|vi}} Assemblies convened also in Central Greece (November 1821) under the leadership of two Phanariots: [[Alexandros Mavrokordatos]] in the western part, and [[Theodoros Negris]] in the eastern part. These assemblies adopted two [[Greek local statutes|local statutes]], the Charter of Western Continental Greece and the Legal Order of Eastern Continental Greece, drafted mainly by Mavrokordatos and Negris respectively. The statutes provided for the creation of two local administrative organs in Central Greece, an [[Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece|Areopagus]] in the east, and a [[Senate of Western Continental Greece|Senate]] in the west.<ref>Koliopoulos & Veremis, ''Greece: the Modern Sequel'', pp. 14–17.<br/>* Papageorgiou, "First Year of Freedom", pp. 67–70.</ref> The three local statutes were recognized by the [[First National Assembly at Epidaurus|First National Assembly]], but the respective administrative institutions were turned into administrative branches of the central government. They were later dissolved by the [[Second National Assembly at Astros|Second National Assembly]].<ref>Koliopoulos & Veremis, ''Greece: the Modern Sequel'', pp. 19–20.<br/>* Theodoridis, "A Modern State", pp. 129–130.</ref> |
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==National Assemblies== |
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{{Refimprove|date=December 2009}} |
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[[File:Nea Epidavros2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Memorial with the text of the Declaration of Independence signed on 1 January 1822 at the Assembly of Epidaurus.]] |
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===First National Assembly of Epidaurus=== |
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The '''First National Assembly of Epidaurus''' ({{Lang-el|'''Α' Εθνοσυνέλευση της Επιδαύρου'''}}, 1821–1822) was the first meeting of the [[Greek National Assembly]], a national representative political gathering of the Greek revolutionaries. |
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The assembly opened in December 1821 at Piada (today Nea (New) [[Epidaurus]]). It was attended by representatives from regions involved in the [[Greek Revolution|revolution]] against [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule. |
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The majority of the representatives were local notables and clergymen from the provinces of the [[Morea]], [[Rumeli]] and the islands. In addition, a number of [[Phanariotes]] and academics attended. However, a number of prominent revolutionaries, including [[Alexander Ypsilanti (1792-1828)|Alexandros Ypsilantis]] and the most prominent chieftains from Rumeli and the Peloponnese were absent. Of the 59 representatives at the assembly, 20 were landowners, 13 were ship-owners, 12 were intellectuals, 4 were military leaders, 3 were archpriests, 3 were merchants, with and 4 others. |
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The assembly passed a number of important documents, including the: |
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* The ''Provisional Regime of Greece'' (''Προσωρινό Πολίτευμα της Ελλάδος''), sometimes translated as ''Temporary Constitution of Greece'' (more commonly known as the [[Greek Constitution of 1822]]), which also included a [[Declaration of Independence]] |
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The Assembly elected a five-member executive on 15 January 1822, which was presided over by [[Prince Alexander Mavrocordatos|Alexandros Mavrocordatos]]. The executive in turn appointed the first government which had 8 ministries. |
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The first legislature had 33 members. |
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Another characteristic of the First National Assembly is the absence of any reference in the Constitution to the [[Filiki Eteria]], although [[Dimitrios Ypsilantis]], brother of [[Alexander Ypsilanti (1792-1828)|Alexandros Ypsilantis]] and official representative of the [[Filiki Eteria]], was appointed president of the legislature, a body controlled by the local notables. |
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===Second National Assembly at Astros=== |
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The '''Second National Assembly at Astros''' ({{lang-el|'''Β' Εθνοσυνέλευση στο Άστρος'''}}) was the second [[Greek National Assembly]], a national representative body of the Greeks who had [[Greek War of Independence|rebelled]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]]. |
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It convened at [[Astros, Greece|Astros]] between 29 March and 18 April 1823 under the chairmanship of [[Petros Mavromichalis]]. Its most important task was the revision of the [[Greek Constitution of 1822|Constitution of Epidaurus]], adopted in the [[First National Assembly of Epidaurus|First National Assembly]]. The new Constitution was voted on April 13, and was called the ''[[Greek Constitution of 1823|Epidaurus Law]]'' to stress its continuity with the one of 1822. It was legally more articulate as compared to its predecessor. It allowed a slight superiority to the Legislative power as opposed to the Executive, given the fact that the latter's veto power was circumcised from an absolute to a suspending one. The new Constitution also marked an improvements as far as the protection of [[human rights]] was concerned: property was protected, as was the honor and the security not only of Greeks but of all persons on Greek territory; it established the [[freedom of the press]] and abolished [[slavery]]. It also abolished [[Greek local statutes|local governments]]. However, the great disadvantage of the yearly term of the Administrative branches remained unaltered, a result of the ever-growing distrust between politicians and the military. The Assembly of Astros passed a new electoral law, according to which the right to vote was bestowed to ''men'' rather than to ''seniors'', while the voting age went down from 30 to 25 years. |
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===Third Greek National Assembly at Troezen=== |
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The '''Third [[Greek National Assembly]] at [[Troezen]]''' ({{lang-el|'''Γ' Εθνοσυνέλευση της Τροιζίνας'''}}) was convened during the latter stages of the [[Greek Revolution]]. |
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The long-delayed Third National Assembly was initially convened in April 1826 at [[Epidaurus|Piada]], but cut short by the news of the [[Third Siege of Missolonghi|Fall of Missolonghi]]. Attempts to arrange a new Assembly in the autumn also failed due to disagreements among the various factions. Instead, two rival assemblies were established at [[Aegina]] and [[Ermioni|Kastri]]. Finally, after much deliberation, all parties agreed to participate in an assembly at Troezen. 168 delegates assembled there on 19 March 1827, under the chairmanship of [[Georgios Sisinis]]. |
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Having suffered from internal dissensions, the Assembly decided to create a supreme post to preside over the Executive, creating thus the office of ''Governor of Greece'', to which it elected the then most distinguished Greek, Count [[John Capodistria]], for a seven-year term, on April 3. A Governmental Commission was set up to administer Greece until his arrival. |
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On 1 May, the Assembly approved by vote of the ''[[Greek Constitution of 1827|Political Constitution of Greece]]''. For the first time, the Constitution was not labeled "Provisional", signaling the Greek aspirations for complete independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]]. This Constitution consisted of 150 articles. It established key principles in [[Greek constitution|Greek Constitutional history]] which remain to this day, such as the statement "''Sovereignty lies with the people; every power derives from the people and exists for the people''". It established a strict [[separation of powers]], vesting the executive power to the Governor and assigning to the body of the representatives of the people, named [[Boule (ancient Greece)|Boule]], the legislative power. The Governor only had a suspending veto on the bills, and lacked the right to dissolve the Parliament. He was ''inviolable'', while the ''Secretaries of the State'', in other words the Ministers, assumed the responsibility for his public actions (thus introducing into the text of the 1827 Constitution the first elements of the so called ''parliamentary principle''). |
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On 4 May 1827, a day before its dissolution, the Assembly also voted for establishing [[Nafplion]] as the capital of Greece and seat of both parliament and government. |
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===Fourth National Assembly at Argos=== |
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The '''Fourth National Assembly at [[Argos]]''' ({{lang-el|Δ' Εθνοσυνέλευση Άργους}}) was a [[Greece|Greek]] convention which sat at [[Argos]] from 11 July to 6 August 1829, during the [[Greek War of Independence]]. |
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The Fourth National Assembly followed on from the [[Third National Assembly at Troezen]] (1827), which had adopted a [[Greek Constitution of 1827|new constitution]] selected [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]] as Governor of Greece with extensive powers for a seven-year term. The Assembly counted 236 representatives from all over Greece (including territories, such as [[Crete]] or [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], that were still under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] control), for the first time elected via suffrage. |
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The Assembly adopted a series of reforms suggested by Kapodistrias, most notably: |
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* the replacement of the ''[[Panellinion]]'' advisory council with a 27-member [[Greek Senate|Senate]] |
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* the adoption of the [[Greek phoenix|phoenix]] as the country's currency |
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===Fifth National Assembly=== |
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The '''Fifth National Assembly''' ({{lang-el|Ε' Εθνοσυνέλευση}}) of the Greeks convened at [[Argos]] on 5 December 1831, before relocating to [[Nafplion]] in early 1832. |
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The Assembly, the last of a series of [[Greek National Assemblies|similar conventions]] of the [[Greek War of Independence]], approved the [[London Conference of 1832|selection]], by the [[Great Powers]], of the [[Bavaria]]n prince [[Otto of Greece|Otto]] as King of Greece. On 15 March 1832, it adopted a new [[Greek Constitution of 1832|constitution]], titled the "Political Constitution of Greece" (Πολιτικόν Σύνταγμα της Ελλάδος) and often referred to as the "[[Hegemon]]ic Constitution" (Ηγεμονικόν Σύνταγμα). In the event, the assembly disbanded soon after owing to intense differences among its members. After Otto's arrival in February 1833, the constitution was ignored by the Regency which exercised government until 1835, and after that by Otto himself, who ruled as an [[absolute monarch]]. Independent Greece received its [[Greek Constitution of 1844|first constitution]] only after the [[3 September 1843 Revolution]]. |
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==Administration of Ioannis Kapodistrias== |
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On his arrival, Kapodistrias launched a major reform and modernisation programme that covered all areas. He re-established military unity, bringing an end to the second phase of the civil war; re-organised the military, which was then able to reconquer territory lost to the Ottoman military during the civil wars; introduced the first modern [[quarantine]] system in Greece, which brought epidemics like [[typhoid fever]], [[cholera]] and [[dysentery]] under control for the first time since the start of the War of Independence; negotiated with the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire the borders and the degree of independence of the Greek state and signed the peace treaty that ended the War of Independence with the Ottomans; introduced the [[Greek phoenix|phoenix]], the first modern Greek currency; organised local administration; and, in an effort to raise the living standards of the population, introduced the cultivation of the [[potato]] into Greece. |
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The way Kapodistrias introduced the cultivation of the potato remains famously anecdotal today. Having ordered a shipment of potatoes, at first he ordered that they be offered to anyone interested. However the potatoes were met with indifference by the population and the whole scheme seemed to be failing. Therefore Kapodistrias, knowing of the contemporary Greek attitudes, ordered that the whole shipment of potatoes be unloaded in public display on the docks of Nafplion, and placed severe-looking guards guarding it. Soon, rumours circulated that for the potatoes to be so well guarded they had to be of great importance. People would gather to look at the so-important potatoes and soon some tried to steal them. The guards had been ordered in advance to turn a blind eye to such behaviour, and soon the potatoes had all been "stolen" and Kapodistrias' plan to introduce them to Greece had succeeded. |
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Furthermore, as part of his programme he tried to undermine the authority of the traditional clans or dynasties which he considered the useless legacy of a bygone and obsolete era.<ref>John S. Koliopoulos, ''Brigands with a Cause - Brigandage and Irredentism in Modern Greece 1821-1912'', Clarendon Press Oxford (1987), p. 67.</ref> However, he underestimated the political and military strength of the ''capetanei'' (καπεταναίοι – commanders) who had led the revolt against [[Turkey]] in 1821, and who had expected a leadership role in the post-revolution Government. When a dispute between the ''capetanei'' of [[Laconia]] and the appointed governor of the province escalated into an armed conflict, he called in Russian troops to restore order, because much of the army was controlled by ''capetanei'' who were part of the rebellion. |
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== Hydriot rebellion and the Battle of Poros == |
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George Finlay's 1861 ''History of Greek Revolution'' records that by 1831 Kapodistrias's government had become hated, chiefly by the independent Maniates, but also by the [[Roumeliotes]] and the rich and influential merchant families of [[Hydra island|Hydra]], [[Spetses]] and [[Psara]]. The Hydriots' customs dues were the chief source of the municipalities' revenue, so they refused to hand these over to Kapodistrias. It appears that Kapodistrias had refused to convene the National Assembly and was ruling as a despot, possibly influenced by his Russian experiences. The municipality of Hydra instructed Admiral [[Miaoulis]] and [[Mavrocordatos]] to go to Poros and to seize the Hellenic Navy's fleet there. This Miaoulis did, the intention being to prevent a blockade of the islands, so for a time it seemed as if the National Assembly would be called. |
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Kapodistrias called on the British and French residents to support him in putting down the rebellion, but this they refused to do, but Admiral Richord (or Ricord) took his ships north to Poros. Colonel (later General) Kallergis took a half-trained force of Greek Army regulars and a force of irregulars in support. With less than 200 men, Miaoulis was unable to make much of a fight; Fort Heidek on [[Bourtzi]] Island was overrun by the regulars and the brig ''Spetses'' (once Laskaria Bouboulina's ''Agamemnon'') sunk by Richord's force. Encircled by the Russians in the harbor and Kallergis's force on land, Poros surrendered. Miaoulis was forced to set charges in the flagship ''Hellas'' and the corvette ''Hydra'', blowing them up when he and his handful of followers returned to Hydra. Kallergis's men were enraged by the loss of the ships and sacked Poros, carrying off plunder to Nauplion. |
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The loss of the best ships in the fleet crippled the Hellenic Navy for many years, but it also weakened Kapodistrias's position. He did finally call the National Assembly but his other actions triggered more opposition and that led to his downfall. |
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==Assassination and creation of the greek kingdom== |
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[[Image:Agiospyriodn.JPG|thumb|250px|Icon of St. Spyridon gazes down upon the spot where Kapodistrias was assassinated]] |
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In 1831, Kapodistrias ordered the imprisonment of [[Petros Mavromichalis|Petrobey Mavromichalis]], the [[Bey]] of the [[Mani Peninsula]], one of the wildest and most rebellious parts of Greece. This was a mortal offence to the Mavromichalis family, and on October 9, 1831 (September 27 in the [[Julian Calendar]]) Kapodistrias was assassinated by Petrobey's brother [[Konstantinos Mavromichalis|Konstantis]] and son [[Georgios Mavromichalis|Georgios]] on the steps of the church of [[Saint Spyridon]] in [[Nafplio]]. |
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Kapodistrias woke up early in the morning and decided to go to church despite the urges of his servants and bodyguards to stay at home. When he reached the church he saw his assassins waiting for him. When he reached the church steps, Konstantis and Georgios came close as if to greet him. Suddenly Konstantis drew his pistol and fired, missing, the bullet sticking in the church wall where it is still visible today. He then drew his dagger and stabbed Kapodistrias in the stomach while Georgios shot Kapodistrias in the head. Konstantis was shot by General Fotomaras, who watched the murder scene from his own window. Georgios managed to escape and hide in the French Embassy; after a few days he surrendered to the Greek authorities. He was sentenced to death by a court-martial and was executed by firing squad. His last wish was that the firing squad not shoot his face, and his last words were "Peace Brothers!" |
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Ioannis Kapodistrias was succeeded as Governor by his younger brother, [[Augustinos Kapodistrias]]. Augustinos ruled only for six months, during which the country was very much plunged into chaos. Under the [[London Conference of 1832|protocol]] signed on May 7, 1832 between Bavaria and the protecting Powers, and basically dealing with the way in which the Regency was to be managed until [[Otto of Greece|Otto]] reached his majority (while also concluding the second Greek loan, for a sum of £2,400,000 sterling), Greece was defined as an independent kingdom, with the Arta-Volos line as its northern frontier. The Ottoman Empire was indemnified in the sum of 40,000,000 piastres for the loss of the territory. The borders of the Kingdom were reiterated in the London Protocol of August 30, 1832 signed by the Great Powers, which ratified the terms of the Constantinople Arrangement in connection with the border between Greece and the Ottoman Empire and marked the end of the [[Greek War of Independence]] creating modern Greece as an independent state free of the Ottoman Empire. |
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==Heads of State== |
==Heads of State== |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* [[History of the Hellenic Republic]] |
* [[History of the Hellenic Republic]] |
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==References== |
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{{reflist}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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[[Category:Greek War of Independence|First Hellenic Republic]] |
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[[ru:Первая Греческая Республика]] |
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Revision as of 10:07, 22 November 2011
Hellenic Republic Ἑλληνικὴ Πολιτεία Ellīnikī́ Politía | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1822–1832 | |||||||||||||||
| Status | Unrecognized state (1822-1828) Independent (1828-1832) | ||||||||||||||
| Capital | Nafplion | ||||||||||||||
| Common languages | Greek | ||||||||||||||
| Religion | Greek Orthodox | ||||||||||||||
| Government | Republic | ||||||||||||||
| Governor | |||||||||||||||
• 1828-1831 | Ioannis Kapodistrias | ||||||||||||||
• 1831-1832 | Augustinos Kapodistrias | ||||||||||||||
• 1832-1833 | Governmental Commission | ||||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||||
• Start of Greek Revolution | February 23, 1821 Wallachia mid March 1821 Peloponnese | ||||||||||||||
• Proclamation of Independence | January 1 1822 | ||||||||||||||
| May 7 1832 | |||||||||||||||
| August 30, 1832 | |||||||||||||||
| Currency | Phoenix | ||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||
The First Hellenic Republic (Greek: Αʹ Ελληνική Δημοκρατία) is a name used to refer to the provisional Greek state during the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire. It is a purely historiographical term, highlighting the constitutional and democratic nature of the revolutionary regime prior to the establishment of the independent Kingdom of Greece, and associating this period of Greek history with the later Second and Third Republics. The term "First Hellenic Republic" is hardly ever used in the Greek bibliography, while the term "Second Hellenic Republic" is scantly used and the term "Third Hellenic Republic" is in wide usage.
In the first stages of the 1821 uprising, various areas elected their own regional governing councils. These were replaced by a central administration at the First National Assembly of Epidaurus in early 1822, which also adopted the first Greek Constitution, marking the birth of the modern Greek state. The councils continued in existence however, and central authority was not firmly established until 1824/1825. The new state was not recognized by the Great Powers of the day, which, after initial successes, was threatened with collapse both from within due to civil war and from the victories of the Turko-Egyptian army of Ibrahim Pasha.
However, by this time (1827), the Great Powers had come to agree to the formation of an autonomous Greek state under Ottoman suzerainty, as stipulated in the Treaty of London. Ottoman refusal to accept these terms led to the Battle of Navarino, which effectively secured complete Greek independence.
In 1827, the Third National Assembly at Troezen established the Hellenic State (Ἑλληνικὴ Πολιτεία) and selected Count Ioannis Capodistrias as Governor of Greece. (Therefore the state is often called Governorate.) After his arrival in Greece in January 1828, Capodistrias actively tried to create a functional state and redress the problems of a war-ravaged country, but was soon embroiled in conflict with powerful local magnates and chieftains. He was assassinated by political rivals in 1831, plunging the country into renewed civil strife. He was succeeded by his brother Augustinos, who was forced to resign after six months. The Fifth National Assembly at Nafplion drafted a new royal constitution, while the three "Protecting Powers" (Great Britain, France and Russia) intervened, declaring Greece a Kingdom in the London Conference of 1832, with the Bavarian Prince Otto of Wittelsbach as king.
Heads of State
- Ioannis Kapodistrias (January 24, 1828 - October 9, 1831)
- Augustinos Kapodistrias (October 9, 1831 - April 9, 1832)
- Governmental Commission (April 9, 1832 - February 2, 1833)