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'''Ferulic acid''' is a [[hydroxycinnamic acid]], an organic compound. It is an abundant phenolic [[phytochemical]] found in plant [[cell wall|cell walls]], covalently bonded as side chains to molecules such as [[arabinoxylan]]s. As a component of lignin, ferulic acid is a precursor in the manufacture of other [[aromatic]] compounds. The name is derived from the genus ''[[Ferula]]'', referring to the giant fennel (''Ferula communis'').
'''Ferulic acid''' is a [[hydroxycinnamic acid]], an organic compound. It is an abundant phenolic [[phytochemical]] found in plant [[cell wall|cell walls]], covalently bonded as side chains to molecules such as [[arabinoxylan]]s. As a component of lignin, ferulic acid is a precursor in the manufacture of other [[aromatic]] compounds. The name is derived from the genus ''[[Ferula]]'', referring to the giant fennel (''[[Ferula communis]]'').


== Occurrence in nature ==
== Occurrence in nature ==
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=== In food ===
=== In food ===
Ferulic acid is found in a number of vegetable sources, and occurs in particularly high concentrations in popcorn and bamboo shoots.<ref name="zhao08">{{cite journal|last1=Zhao|first1=Zhaohui|last2=Moghadasian|first2=Mohammed H.|title=Chemistry, natural sources, dietary intake and pharmacokinetic properties of ferulic acid: A review|journal=Food Chemistry|date=August 2008|volume=109|issue=4|pages=691–702|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.039|pmid=26049981}}</ref><ref name="kumar14">{{cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Naresh|last2=Pruthi|first2=Vikas|title=Potential applications of ferulic acid from natural sources|journal=Biotechnology Reports|date=December 2014|volume=4|pages=86–93|doi=10.1016/j.btre.2014.09.002|pmid=28626667|pmc=5466124}}</ref> It is a major metabolite of [[chlorogenic acid]]s in humans along with [[caffeic acid|caffeic]] and [[isoferulic acid]], and is absorbed in the [[small intestine]], whereas other metabolites such as dihydroferulic acid, feruloylglycine and dihydroferulic acid sulfate are produced from chlorogenic acid in the [[large intestine]] by the action of [[gut flora]].<ref name="GCBE">{{cite book|last1=Bagchi|first1=Debasis|last2=Moriyama|first2=Hiroyoshi|last3=Swaroop|first3=Anand|title=Green Coffee Bean Extract in Human Health|date=2016|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781315353982|page=92|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5WKDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT92|accessdate=23 September 2017|language=en}}</ref>
Ferulic acid is found in a number of vegetable sources, and occurs in particularly high concentrations in [[popcorn]] and [[bamboo shoot]]s.<ref name="zhao08">{{cite journal|last1=Zhao|first1=Zhaohui|last2=Moghadasian|first2=Mohammed H.|title=Chemistry, natural sources, dietary intake and pharmacokinetic properties of ferulic acid: A review|journal=Food Chemistry|date=August 2008|volume=109|issue=4|pages=691–702|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.02.039|pmid=26049981}}</ref><ref name="kumar14">{{cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Naresh|last2=Pruthi|first2=Vikas|title=Potential applications of ferulic acid from natural sources|journal=Biotechnology Reports|date=December 2014|volume=4|pages=86–93|doi=10.1016/j.btre.2014.09.002|pmid=28626667|pmc=5466124}}</ref> It is a major metabolite of [[chlorogenic acid]]s in humans along with [[caffeic acid|caffeic]] and [[isoferulic acid]], and is absorbed in the [[small intestine]], whereas other metabolites such as [[dihydroferulic acid]], [[feruloylglycine]] and dihydroferulic acid sulfate are produced from chlorogenic acid in the [[large intestine]] by the action of [[gut flora]].<ref name="GCBE">{{cite book|last1=Bagchi|first1=Debasis|last2=Moriyama|first2=Hiroyoshi|last3=Swaroop|first3=Anand|title=Green Coffee Bean Extract in Human Health|date=2016|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781315353982|page=92|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5WKDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT92|accessdate=23 September 2017|language=en}}</ref>


In cereals, ferulic acid is localized in the [[bran]] – the hard outer layer of grain. In [[wheat]], phenolic compounds are mainly found in the form of insoluble bound ferulic acid and may be relevant to resistance to wheat fungal diseases.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.01057.x | title = Effect of wheat variety, farming site, and bread-baking on total phenolics | date = 2006 | last1 = Gelinas | first1 = Pierre | last2 = McKinnon | first2 = Carole M. | journal = International Journal of Food Science and Technology | volume = 41 | issue = 3 | pages = 329–332}}</ref> The highest known concentration of ferulic acid [[glucoside]] has been found in [[flaxseed]] {{nowrap|(4.1 ± 0.2 g/kg)}}.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1002/pca.973 | pmid = 17623361 | title = Microwave-assisted extraction of the main phenolic compounds in flaxseed | date = 2007 | last1 = Beejmohun | first1 = Vickram | last2 = Fliniaux | first2 = Ophélie | journal = Phytochemical Analysis | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 275–285}}</ref> It is also found in [[barley]] grain.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Phenolic Compounds of Barley Grain and Their Implication in Food Product Discoloration|first1=Zory|last1=Quinde-Axtell|first2=Byung-Kee|last2=Baik|journal=J. Agric. Food Chem.|date=2006|volume=54|issue=26|pages=9978–84|doi=10.1021/jf060974w|pmid=17177530}}</ref>
In cereals, ferulic acid is localized in the [[bran]] – the hard outer layer of grain. In [[wheat]], phenolic compounds are mainly found in the form of insoluble bound ferulic acid and may be relevant to resistance to wheat fungal diseases.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.01057.x | title = Effect of wheat variety, farming site, and bread-baking on total phenolics | date = 2006 | last1 = Gelinas | first1 = Pierre | last2 = McKinnon | first2 = Carole M. | journal = International Journal of Food Science and Technology | volume = 41 | issue = 3 | pages = 329–332}}</ref> The highest known concentration of ferulic acid [[glucoside]] has been found in [[flaxseed]] ({{val|4.1|0.2|u=g/kg}}).<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1002/pca.973 | pmid = 17623361 | title = Microwave-assisted extraction of the main phenolic compounds in flaxseed | date = 2007 | last1 = Beejmohun | first1 = Vickram | last2 = Fliniaux | first2 = Ophélie | journal = Phytochemical Analysis | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 275–285}}</ref> It is also found in [[barley]] grain.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Phenolic Compounds of Barley Grain and Their Implication in Food Product Discoloration|first1=Zory|last1=Quinde-Axtell|first2=Byung-Kee|last2=Baik|journal=J. Agric. Food Chem.|date=2006|volume=54|issue=26|pages=9978–84|doi=10.1021/jf060974w|pmid=17177530}}</ref>


[[Asterid]] [[eudicot]] plants can also produce ferulic acid. The tea brewed from the leaves of [[yacón]] (''Smallanthus sonchifolius''), a plant traditionally grown in the northern and central [[Andes]], contains quantities of ferulic acid. In [[legume]]s, the white bean variety [[navy bean]] is the richest source of ferulic acid among the common bean (''[[Phaseolus vulgaris]]'') varieties.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Luthria | first1 = Devanand L. | last2 = Pastor-Corrales | first2 = Marcial A. | date = 2006 | title = Phenolic acids content of fifteen dry edible bean (''Phaseolus vulgaris'' L.) varieties | journal = Journal of Food Composition and Analysis | volume = 19 | issue = 2–3| pages = 205–211 | doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2005.09.003}}</ref> It is also found in [[horse gram]]s (''Macrotyloma uniflorum'').{{Citation needed|date=December 2019|reason=removed citation to predatory publisher content}}
[[Asterid]] [[eudicot]] plants can also produce ferulic acid. The tea brewed from the leaves of [[yacón]] (''Smallanthus sonchifolius''), a plant traditionally grown in the northern and central [[Andes]], contains quantities of ferulic acid. In [[legume]]s, the white bean variety [[navy bean]] is the richest source of ferulic acid among the common bean (''[[Phaseolus vulgaris]]'') varieties.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Luthria | first1 = Devanand L. | last2 = Pastor-Corrales | first2 = Marcial A. | date = 2006 | title = Phenolic acids content of fifteen dry edible bean (''Phaseolus vulgaris'' L.) varieties | journal = Journal of Food Composition and Analysis | volume = 19 | issue = 2–3| pages = 205–211 | doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2005.09.003}}</ref> It is also found in [[horse gram]]s (''Macrotyloma uniflorum'').{{Citation needed|date=December 2019|reason=removed citation to predatory publisher content}}


Although there are many sources of ferulic acid in nature, its [[bioavailability]] depends on the form in which it is present: free ferulic acid has limited solubility in water, and hence poor bioavailability. In wheat grain, ferulic acid is found bound to cell wall polysaccharides, allowing it to be released and absorbed in the small intestine.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jcs.2008.12.001 | title =Bioavailability of ferulic acid is determined by its bioaccessibility| date = 2009 | last1 = Anson | first1 = Nuria Mateo | last2 = van den Berg | first2 = Robin | last3 = Bast | first3 = Aalt | last4 = Haenen | first4 = Guido R. M. M. | journal = Journal of Cereal Science | volume = 49 | issue = 2 | pages = 296–300}}</ref>
Although there are many sources of ferulic acid in nature, its [[bioavailability]] depends on the form in which it is present: free ferulic acid has limited solubility in water, and hence poor bioavailability. In wheat grain, ferulic acid is found bound to [[cell wall]] [[polysaccharide]]s, allowing it to be released and absorbed in the small intestine.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.jcs.2008.12.001 | title =Bioavailability of ferulic acid is determined by its bioaccessibility| date = 2009 | last1 = Anson | first1 = Nuria Mateo | last2 = van den Berg | first2 = Robin | last3 = Bast | first3 = Aalt | last4 = Haenen | first4 = Guido R. M. M. | journal = Journal of Cereal Science | volume = 49 | issue = 2 | pages = 296–300}}</ref>


===In herbal medicines===
===In herbal medicines===
Ferulic acid has been identified in [[Chinese medicine]] herbs such as ''[[Angelica sinensis]]'' (female ginseng), ''[[Cimicifuga|Cimicifuga heracleifolia]]''<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sakai|first1=S.|last2=Kawamata|first2=H.|last3=Kogure|first3=T.|last4=Mantani|first4=N.|last5=Terasawa|first5=K.|last6=Umatake|first6=M.|last7=Ochiai|first7=H.|title=Inhibitory effect of ferulic acid and isoferulic acid on the production of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 in response to respiratory syncytial virus infection in RAW264.7 cells.|journal=Mediators of Inflammation|date=1999|volume=8|issue=3|pages=173–175|pmid=10704056|doi=10.1080/09629359990513|pmc=1781798}}</ref> and ''[[Ligusticum|Ligusticum chuangxiong]]''. It is also found in the tea brewed from the European centaury (''[[Centaurium erythraea]]''), a plant used as a medical herb in many parts of Europe.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1021/jf001145s | title = Antioxidant Activity ofCentaurium erythraeaInfusion Evidenced by Its Superoxide Radical Scavenging and Xanthine Oxidase Inhibitory Activity | date = 2001 | last1 = Valentão | first1 = P. | last2 = Fernandes | first2 = E. | last3 = Carvalho | first3 = F. | last4 = Andrade | first4 = P. B. | last5 = Seabra | first5 = R. M. | last6 = Bastos | first6 = M. L. | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 49 | issue = 7 | pages = 3476–3479 | pmid = 11453794}}</ref>
Ferulic acid has been identified in [[Chinese medicine]] herbs such as ''[[Angelica sinensis]]'' (female ginseng), ''[[Cimicifuga|Cimicifuga heracleifolia]]''<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sakai|first1=S.|last2=Kawamata|first2=H.|last3=Kogure|first3=T.|last4=Mantani|first4=N.|last5=Terasawa|first5=K.|last6=Umatake|first6=M.|last7=Ochiai|first7=H.|title=Inhibitory effect of ferulic acid and isoferulic acid on the production of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 in response to respiratory syncytial virus infection in RAW264.7 cells|journal=Mediators of Inflammation|date=1999|volume=8|issue=3|pages=173–175|pmid=10704056|doi=10.1080/09629359990513|pmc=1781798}}</ref> and ''[[Ligusticum|Ligusticum chuangxiong]]''. It is also found in the tea brewed from the European centaury (''[[Centaurium erythraea]]''), a plant used as a medical herb in many parts of Europe.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1021/jf001145s | title = Antioxidant Activity of ''Centaurium erythraea'' Infusion Evidenced by Its Superoxide Radical Scavenging and Xanthine Oxidase Inhibitory Activity | date = 2001 | last1 = Valentão | first1 = P. | last2 = Fernandes | first2 = E. | last3 = Carvalho | first3 = F. | last4 = Andrade | first4 = P. B. | last5 = Seabra | first5 = R. M. | last6 = Bastos | first6 = M. L. | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 49 | issue = 7 | pages = 3476–3479 | pmid = 11453794}}</ref>


=== In processed foods ===
=== In processed foods ===
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== Metabolism ==
== Metabolism ==
[[File:CaffeicAcIn.png|thumb|300px|left|In plants, ferulic acid (right) is derived from phenylalanine, which is converted to 4-hydroxycinnamic acid (left) and then [[caffeic acid]].]]
[[File:CaffeicAcIn.png|thumb|300px|left|In plants, ferulic acid (right) is derived from [[phenylalanine]], which is converted to [[4-hydroxycinnamic acid]] (left) and then [[caffeic acid]].]]


=== Biosynthesis ===
=== Biosynthesis ===
Ferulic acid is biosynthesized in plants from [[caffeic acid]] by the action of the enzyme [[caffeate O-methyltransferase|caffeate ''O''-methyltransferase]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Shahadi |first1=Fereidoon|last2=Naczk |first2=Marian|title= Phenolics in Food and Nutraceuticals|url= https://archive.org/details/phenolicsfoodnut00shah_938 |url-access= limited |publisher= CRC Press|location= Florida|isbn= 978-1-58716-138-4|page= [https://archive.org/details/phenolicsfoodnut00shah_938/page/n12 4] |date= 2004}}</ref>
Ferulic acid is biosynthesized in plants from [[caffeic acid]] by the action of the enzyme [[caffeate O-methyltransferase|caffeate ''O''-methyltransferase]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Shahadi |first1=Fereidoon|last2=Naczk |first2=Marian|title= Phenolics in Food and Nutraceuticals|url= https://archive.org/details/phenolicsfoodnut00shah_938 |url-access= limited |publisher= CRC Press|location= Florida|isbn= 978-1-58716-138-4|page= [https://archive.org/details/phenolicsfoodnut00shah_938/page/n12 4] |date= 2004}}</ref>


Ferulic acid, together with dihydroferulic acid, is a component of [[lignocellulose]], serving to crosslink the lignin and polysaccharides, thereby conferring rigidity to the cell walls.<ref name="IiyamaLam1994">{{cite journal|last1=Iiyama|first1=K.|last2=Lam|first2=T. B.-T.|last3=Stone|first3=B. A.|title=Covalent Cross-Links in the Cell Wall|journal=Plant Physiology|volume=104|issue=2|date=1994|pages=315–320|issn=0032-0889|doi=10.1104/pp.104.2.315|pmid=12232082|pmc=159201}}</ref>
Ferulic acid, together with [[dihydroferulic acid]], is a component of [[lignocellulose]], serving to crosslink the lignin and polysaccharides, thereby conferring rigidity to the cell walls.<ref name="IiyamaLam1994">{{cite journal|last1=Iiyama|first1=K.|last2=Lam|first2=T. B.-T.|last3=Stone|first3=B. A.|title=Covalent Cross-Links in the Cell Wall|journal=Plant Physiology|volume=104|issue=2|date=1994|pages=315–320|issn=0032-0889|doi=10.1104/pp.104.2.315|pmid=12232082|pmc=159201}}</ref>




It is an intermediate in the synthesis of [[monolignol]]s, i.e., the monomers of [[lignin]], and is also used for the synthesis of [[lignan]]s.
It is an intermediate in the synthesis of [[monolignol]]s, the monomers of [[lignin]], and is also used for the synthesis of [[lignan]]s.


=== Biodegradation ===
=== Biodegradation ===
Ferulic acid is converted by certain strains of yeast, notably strains used in brewing of [[wheat beer]]s, such as [[Torulaspora delbrueckii|''Saccharomyces delbrueckii'']] (''Torulaspora delbrueckii''), to [[4-vinyl guaiacol]] (2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol) which gives beers such as [[Weissbier]] and Wit their distinctive "clove" flavour. ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' (dry baker's yeast) and ''[[Pseudomonas fluorescens]]'' are also able to convert trans-ferulic acid into 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol.<ref>{{Cite journal
Ferulic acid is converted by certain strains of yeast, notably strains used in brewing of [[wheat beer]]s, such as [[Torulaspora delbrueckii|''Saccharomyces delbrueckii'']] (''Torulaspora delbrueckii''), to [[4-vinyl guaiacol]] (2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol) which gives beers such as [[Weissbier]] and Wit their distinctive clove-like flavour. ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' (dry baker's yeast) and ''[[Pseudomonas fluorescens]]'' are also able to convert ''trans''-ferulic acid into 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Huang | first1 = Z.
| last1 = Huang | first1 = Z.
| last2 = Dostal | first2 = L.
| last2 = Dostal | first2 = L.
| last3 = Rosazza | first3 = J. P.
| last3 = Rosazza | first3 = J. P.
| title = Microbial transformations of ferulic acid by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pseudomonas fluorescens
| title = Microbial transformations of ferulic acid by ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' and ''Pseudomonas fluorescens ''
| journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology
| journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology
| volume = 59
| volume = 59
Line 99: Line 99:
| last2 = Dostal | first2 = L.
| last2 = Dostal | first2 = L.
| last3 = Rosazza | first3 = J. P.
| last3 = Rosazza | first3 = J. P.
| title = Purification and characterization of a ferulic acid decarboxylase from Pseudomonas fluorescens
| title = Purification and characterization of a ferulic acid decarboxylase from ''Pseudomonas fluorescens ''
| journal = Journal of Bacteriology
| journal = Journal of Bacteriology
| volume = 176
| volume = 176
Line 111: Line 111:


== Ecology ==
== Ecology ==
Ferulic acid is one of the compounds that initiate the ''vir'' (virulence) region of ''[[Agrobacterium tumefaciens]]'', inducing it to infect plant cells.<ref name="Kalo99">{{cite journal|last1=Kalogeraki|first1=Virginia S.|last2=Zhu|first2=Jun|last3=Eberhard|first3=Anatol|last4=Madsen|first4=Eugene L.|last5=Winans|first5=Stephen C.|title=The phenolic vir gene inducer ferulic acid is O-demethylated by the VirH2 protein of an Agrobacterium tumefaciens Ti plasmid|journal=Molecular Microbiology|date=November 1999|volume=34|issue=3|pages=512–522|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2958.1999.01617.x|pmid=10564493|s2cid=28658847|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Ferulic acid is one of the compounds that initiate the ''vir'' (virulence) region of ''[[Agrobacterium tumefaciens]]'', inducing it to infect plant cells.<ref name="Kalo99">{{cite journal|last1=Kalogeraki|first1=Virginia S.|last2=Zhu|first2=Jun|last3=Eberhard|first3=Anatol|last4=Madsen|first4=Eugene L.|last5=Winans|first5=Stephen C.|title=The phenolic ''vir'' gene inducer ferulic acid is ''O''-demethylated by the VirH2 protein of an ''Agrobacterium tumefaciens'' Ti plasmid|journal=Molecular Microbiology|date=November 1999|volume=34|issue=3|pages=512–522|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2958.1999.01617.x|pmid=10564493|s2cid=28658847|doi-access=free}}</ref>


== Extraction ==
== Extraction ==

Revision as of 19:51, 4 January 2021

Ferulic acid
Names
Preferred IUPAC name
(2E)-3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)prop-2-enoic acid
Other names
2-propenoic acid, 3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-
ferulic acid
3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid
3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)acrylic acid
3-methoxy-4-hydroxycinnamic acid
4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid
(2E)-3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid
Ferulate
Coniferic acid
trans-ferulic acid
(E)-ferulic acid
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
DrugBank
ECHA InfoCard 100.013.173 Edit this at Wikidata
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C10H10O4/c1-14-9-6-7(2-4-8(9)11)3-5-10(12)13/h2-6,11H,1H3,(H,12,13)/b5-3+ checkY
    Key: KSEBMYQBYZTDHS-HWKANZROSA-N checkY
  • InChI=1/C10H10O4/c1-14-9-6-7(2-4-8(9)11)3-5-10(12)13/h2-6,11H,1H3,(H,12,13)/b5-3+
    Key: KSEBMYQBYZTDHS-HWKANZROBE
  • COc1cc(ccc1O)/C=C/C(=O)O
Properties
C10H10O4
Molar mass 194.18 g/mol
Appearance Crystalline powder
Melting point 168 to 172 °C (334 to 342 °F; 441 to 445 K)
0.78 g/L[1]
Acidity (pKa) 4.61[1]
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 2: Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury. E.g. chloroformFlammability 1: Must be pre-heated before ignition can occur. Flash point over 93 °C (200 °F). E.g. canola oilInstability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no code
2
1
0
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
checkY verify (what is checkY☒N ?)

Ferulic acid is a hydroxycinnamic acid, an organic compound. It is an abundant phenolic phytochemical found in plant cell walls, covalently bonded as side chains to molecules such as arabinoxylans. As a component of lignin, ferulic acid is a precursor in the manufacture of other aromatic compounds. The name is derived from the genus Ferula, referring to the giant fennel (Ferula communis).

Occurrence in nature

As a building block of lignocelluloses, such as pectin[2] and lignin, ferulic acid is ubiquitous in the plant kingdom.

In food

Ferulic acid is found in a number of vegetable sources, and occurs in particularly high concentrations in popcorn and bamboo shoots.[3][4] It is a major metabolite of chlorogenic acids in humans along with caffeic and isoferulic acid, and is absorbed in the small intestine, whereas other metabolites such as dihydroferulic acid, feruloylglycine and dihydroferulic acid sulfate are produced from chlorogenic acid in the large intestine by the action of gut flora.[5]

In cereals, ferulic acid is localized in the bran – the hard outer layer of grain. In wheat, phenolic compounds are mainly found in the form of insoluble bound ferulic acid and may be relevant to resistance to wheat fungal diseases.[6] The highest known concentration of ferulic acid glucoside has been found in flaxseed (4.1±0.2 g/kg).[7] It is also found in barley grain.[8]

Asterid eudicot plants can also produce ferulic acid. The tea brewed from the leaves of yacón (Smallanthus sonchifolius), a plant traditionally grown in the northern and central Andes, contains quantities of ferulic acid. In legumes, the white bean variety navy bean is the richest source of ferulic acid among the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) varieties.[9] It is also found in horse grams (Macrotyloma uniflorum).[citation needed]

Although there are many sources of ferulic acid in nature, its bioavailability depends on the form in which it is present: free ferulic acid has limited solubility in water, and hence poor bioavailability. In wheat grain, ferulic acid is found bound to cell wall polysaccharides, allowing it to be released and absorbed in the small intestine.[10]

In herbal medicines

Ferulic acid has been identified in Chinese medicine herbs such as Angelica sinensis (female ginseng), Cimicifuga heracleifolia[11] and Ligusticum chuangxiong. It is also found in the tea brewed from the European centaury (Centaurium erythraea), a plant used as a medical herb in many parts of Europe.[12]

In processed foods

Cooked sweetcorn releases increased levels of ferulic acid.[13] As plant sterol esters, this compound is naturally found in rice bran oil, a popular cooking oil in several Asian countries.[14]

Ferulic acid glucoside can be found in commercial breads containing flaxseed.[15] Rye bread contains ferulic acid dehydrodimers.[16]

Metabolism

In plants, ferulic acid (right) is derived from phenylalanine, which is converted to 4-hydroxycinnamic acid (left) and then caffeic acid.

Biosynthesis

Ferulic acid is biosynthesized in plants from caffeic acid by the action of the enzyme caffeate O-methyltransferase.[17]

Ferulic acid, together with dihydroferulic acid, is a component of lignocellulose, serving to crosslink the lignin and polysaccharides, thereby conferring rigidity to the cell walls.[18]


It is an intermediate in the synthesis of monolignols, the monomers of lignin, and is also used for the synthesis of lignans.

Biodegradation

Ferulic acid is converted by certain strains of yeast, notably strains used in brewing of wheat beers, such as Saccharomyces delbrueckii (Torulaspora delbrueckii), to 4-vinyl guaiacol (2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol) which gives beers such as Weissbier and Wit their distinctive clove-like flavour. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (dry baker's yeast) and Pseudomonas fluorescens are also able to convert trans-ferulic acid into 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol.[19] In P. fluorescens, a ferulic acid decarboxylase has been isolated.[20]

Ecology

Ferulic acid is one of the compounds that initiate the vir (virulence) region of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, inducing it to infect plant cells.[21]

Extraction

It can be extracted from wheat bran and maize bran using concentrated alkali.[22]

UV–visible spectrum of ferulic acid, with λmax at 321 nm and a shoulder at 278 nm

Other applications

Mass spectrometry

It is used as a matrix for proteins in MALDI mass spectrometry analyses.[23]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Mota, Fátima L.; Queimada, António J.; Pinho, Simão P.; Macedo, Eugénia A. (August 2008). "Aqueous Solubility of Some Natural Phenolic Compounds". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 47 (15): 5182–5189. doi:10.1021/ie071452o. hdl:10198/1506.
  2. ^ Saulnier, Luc; Thibault, Jean-François (1 March 1999). "Ferulic acid and diferulic acids as components of sugar-beet pectins and maize bran heteroxylans". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 79 (3): 396–402. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(19990301)79:3<396::AID-JSFA262>3.0.CO;2-B.
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source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ferulic_acid&diff=prev&oldid=998305253

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