Timeline of de facto control

February 1764 – April 1767	France
January 1765 – July 1770	Great Britain
April 1767 – February 1811	Spain
September 1771 – May 1776	Great Britain
February 1811 – August 1829	None
August 1829 – December 1831	United Provinces
December 1831 – January 1832	United States
January–December 1832	None
December 1832 – January 1833	Argentine Confederation
January–August 1833	United Kingdom
August 1833 – January 1834	None
January 1834 – April 1982	United Kingdom
April–June 1982	Argentina
June 1982 – present	United Kingdom

Sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas in Spanish) is disputed between Argentina and the United Kingdom.

The British claim to sovereignty dates from 1690, and the United Kingdom has exercised de facto sovereignty over the archipelago almost continuously since 1833. Argentina has long disputed this claim, having been in control of the islands for a brief period prior to 1833. The dispute escalated in 1982, when Argentina invaded the islands, precipitating the Falklands War.

Contemporary Falkland Islanders prefer to remain British.^[1] They gained full British citizenship with the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983, after the Falklands War.

History of the claims

French claim

France was the first country to establish de facto control in the Falkland Islands, with the foundation of Port Saint Louis in East Falkland, in 1764. The French colony consisted of a small fort and some settlements with a population of around 250. The Islands were named after the Breton port of St. Malo as the Îles Malouines, which remains the French name for the islands. In 1766, France agreed to leave the islands to Spain, with Spain reimbursing France for the cost of the settlement.^[2] France insisted that Spain maintain the colony in Port Louis and thus prevent Britain from claiming the title to the Islands and Spain agreed.^[3]

Spanish claim

In 1493 the Pope Alexander VI issued a Papal bull, Inter caetera, dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal. The following year, the Treaty of Tordesillas between those countries agreed that the dividing line between the two should be 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands.^[4] The Falklands lie on the western (Spanish) side of this line.

Spain made claims that the Falkland Islands were held under provisions in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht which settled the limits of the Spanish Empire in the Americas. However, the treaty only promised to restore the territories in the Americas held prior to the War of the Spanish Succession. The Falkland Islands was not held at the time and was not included in the treaty.^{[citation needed]} When Spain discovered the British and French colonies on the Islands, a diplomatic row broke out among the claimants. In 1766, Spain and France, who were allies at the time, agreed that France would hand over Port Saint Louis, and Spain would repay the cost of the settlement. France insisted that Spain maintain the colony in Port Louis and thus prevent Britain from claiming the title to the Islands and Spain agreed.^[3] Spain and Great Britain enjoyed uneasy relations at the time, and no corresponding agreement was reached.^[2]

The Spanish took control of Port Saint Louis and renamed it Puerto Soledad in 1767. On 10 June 1770, a Spanish expedition expelled the British colony at Port Egmont, and Spain took de facto control of the Islands. Spain and Great Britain came close to war over the issue, but instead, concluded a treaty on 22 January 1771, allowing the British to return to Port Egmont with neither side relinquishing sovereignty claims.^[5] The British returned in 1771 but withdrew from the islands in pursuance of a system of retrenchment in 1774,^[6] leaving behind a flag and a plaque representing their claim to ownership. The British withdrawal was completed in 1776,^[2] leaving Spain in de facto control.

From 1774 to 1811, the islands were ruled as part of the Viceroyalty of the River Plate. In that period, 18 governors were appointed to rule the islands. In 1777, Governor Ramon de Carassa was ordered to destroy the remains at Port Egmont. The British plaque was removed and sent to Buenos Aires.^[3]: 51

Spanish troops remained at Port Louis, known then as Port Soledad, until 1811^[7] when Governor Pablo Guillen Martinez was called back to Montevideo as the revolutionary forces spread through the continent. He left behind a plaque claiming sovereignty for Spain.^[2][8]

British claim

The British first landed on the Falklands in 1690, when Captain John Strong sailed through Falkland Sound, naming this passage of water after Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount of Falkland, the First Lord of the Admiralty at that time. The British were keen to settle the islands as they had the potential to be a strategic naval base for passage around Cape Horn.^[9] In 1765, Captain John Byron landed on Saunders Island. He then explored the coasts of the other islands claiming the archipelago for Britain. The following year, Captain John MacBride returned to Saunders Island and constructed a fort named Port Egmont. The British later discovered the French colony at Port Saint Louis (founded 1764); initiating the first sovereignty dispute.^[2]

In 1770 a Spanish military expedition was sent to the islands after authorities in Buenos Aries became aware of the British colony.^[10] Facing a greater force, the British were expelled from Port Egmont. The colony was restored a year later following British threats of war over the islands.^[2] However, in 1774, economic pressures leading up to the American Revolutionary War forced Great Britain to withdraw from the Falklands along with many of its other overseas settlements.^[11] By 1776 the British had left Port Egmont, leaving behind a plaque asserting British sovereignty over the islands.^[2] Although there was no British administration in the islands, British and American sealers routinely used them to hunt for seals, also taking on fresh water as well as feral cattle, pigs and even penguins for provisions. Whalers also used the islands to shelter from the South Atlantic weather and to take on fresh provisions.

Luis Vernet approached the British for permission to build a settlement at the former Spanish settlement of Puerto Soledad, initially in 1826 and again in 1828 following the failure of the earlier expedition. In addition, Vernet requested British protection for his settlement should the British choose to form a permanent presence on the islands. After receiving assurances from the British minister chargé d'affaires, Sir Woodbine Parish, Vernet provided regular reports to the British on the progress of his enterprise. Vernet's appointment as Governor in 1829 was protested against by the British Consul Parish, and in return the Government of the United Provinces of the River Plate merely acknowledged the protest. Britain protested again when Vernet announced his intentions to exercise exclusive rights over fishing and sealing in the islands. (Similar protests were received from the American representative, who protested at the curtailment of established rights and that the United States did not recognise the jurisdiction of the United Provinces over the islands.) Vernet continued to provide regular reports to Parish throughout this period.

The raid of the USS Lexington in December 1831 combined with the United Provinces assertions of sovereignty were the spur for the British to establish a military presence on the islands.

On 2 January 1833, Captain James Onslow, of the brig-sloop HMS Clio, arrived at the Spanish settlement at Port Louis to request that the Argentine flag be replaced with the British one, and for the Argentine administration to leave the islands. While Argentine Lt. Col. José María Pinedo, commander of the Argentine schooner Sarandí, wanted to resist, his numerical disadvantage was obvious, particularly as a large number of his crew were British mercenaries who were unwilling to fight their own countrymen. Such a situation was not unusual in the newly independent states in Latin America, where land forces were strong, but navies were frequently quite undermanned. As such he protested verbally, but departed without a fight on 5 January. The British claim states that the population was not expelled and at least 27 members of Vernet's colony were still in residence in the islands in July 1833.^[12][13] The colony was set up and the islands continued under a British presence until the Falklands War.

After their return in 1833, the British began moves to begin a fully-fledged colony on the islands, initially based upon the settlers remaining in Port Louis. Vernet's deputy, Matthew Brisbane, returned later that year to take charge of the settlement and was encouraged to further Vernet's business interests provided he did not seek to assert Argentine Government authority.^[14][15][16]

In 1841, General Rosas offered to relinquish any Argentine territorial claims in return for relief of debts owed to Barings Bank in the City of London. The British Government chose to ignore the offer.^[17]

A British colonial administration was formed in 1842. This was expanded in 1908, when in addition to South Georgia claimed in 1775, and the South Shetland Islands claimed in 1820 the UK unilaterally declared sovereignty over more Antarctic territory south of the Falklands, including the South Sandwich Islands, the South Orkney Islands, and Graham Land, grouping them into the Falkland Islands Dependencies.

In 1850, the Arana-Southern Treaty otherwise known as the Convention of Settlement was signed between Britain and Argentina. The Convention was referred to as a “peace treaty” many times by both sides; it represented a considerable triumph for General Juan Manuel de Rosas. Several authors, both Argentine and British, argue by failing to mention Argentina’s claim to the islands in the Convention, he effectively dropped it by acquiessance. The Convention of Settlement ended Argentina’s protests over the Falklands. After the Message to Congress in December 1849, the Falklands were not mentioned again in the Messages to Congress for 91 years until 1941.

Following the introduction of the Antarctic Treaty System in 1959 the Falkland Island Dependencies were reduced to include South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Territory south of the 60th parallel was formed into a new dependency, the British Antarctic Territory which overlaps claims by Argentina (Argentine Antarctica) and Chile (Antártica Chilena Province).

In 1976 the British Government commissioned a study on the future of the Falklands, looking at the ability of the Islands to sustain themselves, and the potential for economic development. The study was led by Lord Shackleton, son of the Antarctic explorer, Ernest Shackleton. Argentina reacted with fury to the study and refused to allow Lord Shackleton permission to travel to the Islands from Argentina, forcing the British to send a Royal Navy ship to transport him to the Islands. In response Argentina severed diplomatic links with the UK. An Argentine naval vessel later fired upon the ship carrying Shackleton as he visited his father's grave in South Georgia.^[11]

Shackleton's report found that contrary to popular belief, the Falkland Islands actually provided a surplus by its economic activities and was not dependent on British aid to survive. However the report stressed the need for a political settlement if further economic growth was to be achieved, particularly from the exploitation of any natural resources in the water around the Islands.

Argentine claim

Argentina declared its independence from Spain in 1816, although this was not then recognised by any of the major powers. Britain informally recognized Argentine independence on 15 December 1823, as the "province of Buenos Aires" ^[18], and formally recognised it on 2 February 1825 ^[19], but like the US did not recognise the full extent of the territory claimed by the new state.^[20] The new state, the United Provinces of the River Plate, was formed by provinces of the former Viceroyalty of the River Plate and as such claimed sovereignty over the Falklands.

In October 1820, the frigate Heroína, under the command of American privateer Colonel David Jewett, arrived in Puerto Soledad following an eight-month voyage and with most of her crew incapacitated by scurvy and disease. A storm had severely damaged the Heroína and had sunk a Portuguese ship pirated by Jewett called the Carlota,^[21] forcing the Heroina to put into Puerto Soledad for repairs. The captain chose to rest and recover in the islands, seeking assistance from the British explorer James Weddell. Weddell reported that only thirty seamen and forty soldiers out of a complement of two hundred were fit for duty, and that Jewett slept with pistols over his head following an attempted mutiny. On 6 November 1820, Jewett raised the flag of the United Provinces of the River Plate and claimed possession of the islands for the new state. Weddell reported that the letter he received from Jewett read:^[22]

Sir, I have the honour to inform you of the circumstance of my arrival at this port, commissioned by the supreme government of the United Provinces of South America to take possession of these islands in the name of the country to which they naturally appertain. In the performance of this duty, it is my desire to act towards all friendly flags with the most distinguished justice and politeness. A principal object is to prevent the wanton destruction of the sources of supply to those whose necessities compel or invite them to visit the islands, and to aid and assist such as require it to obtain a supply with the least trouble and expense. As your views do not enter into contravention or competition with these orders, and as I think mutual advantage may result from a personal interview, I invite you to pay me a visit on board my ship, where I shall be happy to accommodate you during your pleasure. I would also beg you, so far as comes within your sphere, to communicate this information to other British subjects in this vicinity. I have the honour to be, Sir Your most obedient humble Servant, Signed, Jewett, Colonel of the Navy of the United Provinces of South America and commander of the frigate Heroína.

Many modern authors report this letter as the declaration issued by Jewett.^[14] Captain William Orne of the American Schooner General Knox seems to have missed Jewett’s “possession ceremony”, and Jewett gave him a letter informing him of the claim. On returning to his home port, Salem, Massachusetts, Captain Orne gave Jewett’s letter to the local paper, the Salem Gazette, which published it on 8 June 1821, and it was reprinted by The Times in London on 3 August 1821. If it had not been for the publication of that letter, and an account in a book by James Weddell five years later, the Jewett claim would be unknown today. The Times reprint of the Orne letter was then repeated in a Gibraltar paper and was picked up by the Spanish paper Redactor de Cádiz. It was only when the Cadiz report reached Buenos Aires, as a foreign news story, that Jewett’s “claim” to the Falklands become known in Argentina. It was published in the Buenos Aires Argos on 10 November 1821, over a year after the event.^[23]

Weddell did not believe that Jewett was acting with the interests of the United Provinces in mind but, rather, had merely put into the harbour in order to obtain refreshments for his crew, ensure that they did not desert the ship, capture any Spanish prize ships and that Jewett's assumption of possession was chiefly intended to secure an exclusive claim to the wreck of the French ship Uranie, which had foundered at the entrance of Berkeley Sound a few months earlier. Weddell left the islands on 20 November 1820, noting that Jewett had not yet completed repairs to the Heroína.

In 1823, the Argentines granted land on East Falkland to the merchant Luis Vernet, who first travelled to the islands the following year. That first expedition failed almost as soon as it landed, and a second attempt, in 1826, sanctioned by the British (but delayed until winter by a Brazilian blockade), also failed after arrival in the islands. In 1828, the Argentine government granted Vernet all of East Falkland, including all its resources, with exemption from taxation if a colony could be established within three years. He took settlers, including British Captain Matthew Brisbane, and before leaving once again sought permission first from the British Consulate in Buenos Aires. The British asked for a report on the islands for the British government, and Vernet asked for British protection should they return.^[12]

On Vernet's return to the Falklands, Puerto Soledad was renamed Puerto Luis. The Argentine government appointed Vernet governor in 1829, to which the British objected as an Argentine attempt to foster political and economic ties to the islands. One of Vernet's first acts was to curb seal hunting on the Islands to conserve the dwindling seal population. In response, the British consul at Buenos Aires protested the move and restated the claim of his government. Islanders were born during this period (including Malvina María Vernet y Saez, Vernet's daughter).^[12]

Vernet later seized three American ships, the Harriet, Superior and Breakwater for breaking his restrictions on seal hunting. The Breakwater escaped to raise the alarm and the Superior was allowed to continue its work for Vernet's benefit. Property on board the Harriet was seized and Vernet returned with it to Buenos Aires for the Captain to stand trial. The American Consul in Argentina protested Vernet's actions and stated that the United States did not recognise Argentine sovereignty in the Falklands. The consul dispatched a warship, the USS Lexington, to Puerto Luis to retake the confiscated property.

By 1831, the colony was successful enough to be advertising for new colonists, although a report by the captain of the Lexington suggests that the conditions on the islands were quite miserable.^[24][25] The captain of the Lexington in his report asserts that he destroyed the settlement's powder store and spiked the guns, however it was later claimed that during the raid the Argentine settlement at Puerto Luis was destroyed. Upon leaving to return to Montevideo, the captain of the Lexington declared the islands to be res nullius (the property of no one).^[12] (Darwin's visit in 1833 confirmed the squalid conditions in the settlement, although Captain Matthew Brisbane^[15] (Vernet's deputy) later insisted that those were the result of the attack by the Lexington.) Vernet having returned to Buenos Aires in 1831 before the Lexington's attack resigned as governor. An interim governor, Esteban José Francisco Mestivier, was appointed by the Argentine Government, who with his family arrived at Puerto Luis aboard the schooner Sarandí in October 1832.^[12] Mestivier's appointment again drew protests from the British consul in Buenos Aires.

The Sarandí, under the command of its captain, José María Pinedo, then began to patrol the surrounding seas. Upon its return to Puerto Luis on 29 December 1832, the Sarandí found the colony in an uproar. In Pinedo's absence there had been a mutiny led by a man named Gomila; Mestivier had been murdered and his wife raped. The captain of the French vessel Jean Jacques had meanwhile provided assistance disarming and incarcerating the mutineers. Pinedo dispatched the mutineers to Buenos Aires with the British schooner Rapid. Gomila would be condemned to exile, while six other mutineers were executed.

On 2 January 1833, Captain John Onslow arrived and delivered written requests that Pinedo lower the Argentine flag in favour of the British one, and that the Argentine administration leave the islands. Pinedo asked if war had been declared between Argentina and Great Britain; Onslow replied that it had not. Nonetheless, Pinedo, heavily outmanned and outgunned, left the islands under protest, with the Argentine flag being lowered by British officers and delivered to him. Argentines subsequently claimed that the population of Puerto Luis was expelled at the same time.^[26] Later that year, Manuel Moreno, representing the United Provinces before Britain, protested the occupation, which the British rejected six months later. The British did not answer other formal protests that were made annually until 1849.

Back on the mainland, Pinedo faced court martial; he was suspended for four months and transferred to the army, though he was recalled to the navy in 1845.

Sovereignty discussions

When the Republic of Buenos Aires became aware of events in the Falkland Islands it filed a formal protest with the British representative. The following year the British Government rejected it. The issue was debated annually in the Argentine Congress and a formal protest issued until 1849. The matter was not raised again until 1941. The British Government considers that the Convention of Settlement settled all existing differences between the two nations and there were no further protests until 1885, when Argentina included the Falkland Islands in an officially sponsored map.^[27] In 1888, Argentina made an offer to have the matter subject to arbitration but this was rejected by the British Government. Other than the protest lodged in 1885, the British Government does not acknowledge any further protests by Argentina till the 1940s, although the official position of the Argentine Government is that "During the first half of the twentieth century, the successive Argentine governments made it standard practice to submit protests to the United Kingdom".^[28] The Argentine Government does not identify these annual protests but authors such as Roberto Laver ^[29] claim at least "27 sovereignty claims, both to Britain, domestically in Argentina and to international bodies". In International Law, territorial claims are usually considered defunct if there is a gap of 50 years or more between protests over sovereignty.^[27]

Following World War II, the British Empire declined and colonies in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean gained their independence. Argentina saw this as an opportunity to push its case for gaining sovereignty over the Falkland Islands and raised the issue in the United Nations, first stating its claim after joining the UN in 1945. Following the Argentine claim, the United Kingdom offered to take the dispute over the Falkland Island Dependencies to mediation at the International Court of Justice in The Hague (1947,^[30] 1948^[31] and 1955^[32]); on each occasion Argentina declined.

In 1964, the United Nations passed a resolution calling on the UK and Argentina to proceed with negotiations on finding a peaceful solution to the sovereignty question which would be "bearing in mind the provisions and objectives of the Charter of the United Nations and of General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV) and the interests of the population of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas)."^[33]

A series of talks between the two nations took place over the next 17 years until 1981 but failed to reach a conclusion on sovereignty.^[34]

Following the signing of the Communications Agreement, on 3 July 1971 the Argentine Air Force broke the islands' airways isolation by opening an air route with an amphibious flight from Comodoro Rivadavia with Grumman HU-16B Albatross aircraft operated by LADE, Argentina's military airline. In 1972, after an Argentine request, the United Kingdom agreed to allow Argentina to construct a temporary air strip near Stanley. On 15 November 1972 a temporary runway was inaugurated with the first arrival of a Fokker F-27 with subsequent flights arriving twice weekly. Flights were improved in 1978 with Fokker F-28 jets following the completion of a permanent runway funded by the British Government. This service, representing the only connection by air to the islands, was maintained until the 1982 war.^[35][36][37]

Also YPF, which was then the Argentine national oil and gas company, was in charge of supplying the island regularly.^[38]

Negotiations

Although the sovereignty discussions had some success in establishing economic and transport links between the Falklands and Argentina, there was no progress on the question of sovereignty of the Islands.

Whilst maintaining the British claim for sovereignty, the British Government considered transfer of sovereignty worthy of improved relations with Argentina. However, the British Government had limited room for manoeuvre owing to the strength of the Falkland Islands lobby in the Houses of Parliament. Any measure that the Foreign Office suggested on the sovereignty issue was loudly condemned by the Islanders, who re-iterated their determination to remain British. This led to the British Government maintaining a position that the right to self-determination of the Islanders was paramount. In return, Argentina did not recognise the rights of the Islanders and so negotiations on the sovereignty issue effectively remained at a stalemate.^[39]

Confrontation

In 1976, Argentina landed an expedition in Southern Thule, an island in the South Sandwich Islands which at that time was part of the Falkland Islands Dependency. The landing was reported in the UK only in 1978 although the UK government stated a rejection of the notion of sending a force of Royal Marines to dismantle the Argentine base Corbeta Uruguay.

However, a more serious confrontation occurred in 1977 after the Argentine Navy cut off the fuel supply to Port Stanley Airport and stated they would no longer fly the Red Ensign in Falklands waters. (Traditionally ships in a foreign country's waters would fly the country's maritime flag as a courtesy.) The British Government suspected Argentina would attempt another expedition in the manner of its Southern Thule operation. James Callaghan, the British Prime Minister ordered the dispatch of a nuclear submarine, HMS Dreadnought and the frigates Alacrity and Phoebe to the South Atlantic, with rules of engagement set in the event of a clash with the Argentine navy. The British even considered setting up an exclusion zone around the islands, but this was rejected in case it escalated matters. None of this was ever made public at the time, and Callaghan only revealed the operation during Parliamentary debates in 1982 during the Falklands War.

In the end, no military action occurred and diplomatic relations between Argentina and the UK were restored.

Falklands War

The Falklands War of 1982 was the largest and most severe armed conflict over the sovereignty of the islands. The war was largely started following the occupation of South Georgia by Argentine scrap merchants whose number included some Argentine Marines. However the UK had also reduced its presence in the Islands by announcing the withdrawal of HMS Endurance, the Royal Navy's icebreaker ship and only permanent presence in the South Atlantic. The UK had also denied Falkland Islanders full British citizenship under the British Nationality Act 1981.

In 1982, Argentina was in the midst of a devastating economic crisis and large-scale civil unrest against the repressive military junta that was governing the country. On 2 April, with Admiral Jorge Anaya, the Argentine Navy commander-in-chief at the time, as the main architect and supporter of the operation, a combined Argentine amphibious force invaded the Islands. Immediately, the UK severed diplomatic ties with Argentina, began to assemble a task force to retake the Islands and a diplomatic offensive began to gain support for economic and military sanctions. The United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 502 calling on Argentina to withdraw forces from the Islands and to both parties to seek a diplomatic solution.^[40] Another resolution called for an immediate cease fire but was vetoed by both the United States and Britain.^[41] The European Community condemned the invasion and imposed economic sanctions on Argentina, although several EC states expressed reservations about British policy in this area, and two EC states (Denmark and Ireland) defected from cooperation.^[42] France and Germany also temporarily suspended several military contracts with the Argentine military. The United States supported mediated talks, via Secretary of State Alexander Haig, and initially took a neutral stance, although in private substantial material aid was made available to the UK from the moment of invasion. The USA publicly supported the UK's position following the failure of peace talks.

The British Task Force began offensive action against Argentina on 23 April 1982 and recaptured South Georgia following a short naval engagement. The operation to recover the Falkland Islands began 1 May and after fierce naval and air engagements an amphibious landing was made at San Carlos Bay on 21 May. On 14 June the Argentine forces surrendered and control of the islands returned to the UK.

Following the Argentine surrender, two Royal Navy ships sailed to the South Sandwich Islands and expelled the Argentine military from Thule Island, leaving no Argentine presence in the Falkland Islands Dependencies.

Post war

Following the 1982 war, the British increased their presence in the Falkland Islands. RAF Mount Pleasant was constructed. This allowed fighter jets to be based on the islands and strengthened the UK's ability to reinforce the Islands at short notice. The military garrison was substantially increased and a new garrison was established on South Georgia. The Royal Navy South Atlantic patrol was strengthened to include both HMS Endurance and a Falkland Islands guard ship.

As well as this military build-up, the UK also passed the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983, which granted full British citizenship to the islanders. To show British commitment to the islands, high-profile British dignitaries visited the Falklands, including Margaret Thatcher, the Prince of Wales and Princess Alexandra, The Hon Lady Ogilvy. The UK has also pursued links to the islands from Chile, which had provided help to British Forces during the Falklands War. LAN now provides a direct air link to Chile from Mount Pleasant.

In 1985 the Falkland Islands Dependencies, comprising at that time the island groups of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, and Shag Rocks and Clerke Rocks, became a distinct British overseas territory — South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.

Under the 1985 constitution the Falkland Islands Government (FIG) became a parliamentary representative democratic dependency, with the governor as head of government and representative of the Queen. Members of the FIG are democratically elected, the Governor is effectively a figurehead. Theoretically the Governor has the power under the 1985 constitution to exercise executive authority, in practice he is obliged to consult the Executive Council in the exercise of his functions. The main responsibilities of the Governor are external affairs and public services.^[43] Effectively under this constitution, the Falkland Islands are self-governing with the exception of foreign policy, although the FIG represents itself at the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonisation as the British Government no longer attends.

Relations between the UK and Argentina remained hostile following 1982, and diplomatic relations were not restored until 1989. Although the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution calling for the UK and Argentina to return to negotiations over the Islands' future,^[44] the UK ruled out any further talks over the Islands' sovereignty. The UK also maintained an arms embargo against Argentina that was initiated during the 1982 war, which forced Argentine armed forces, traditionally a UK buyer, to switch to other markets.^{[citation needed]}

Relations improved further in the 1990s between the UK and Argentina. In 1998, Carlos Menem, the President of Argentina visited London, where he reaffirmed his country's claims to the Islands, although he stated that Argentina would use only peaceful means for their recovery. In 2001, Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom visited Argentina where he stated that he hoped the UK and Argentina could resolve their differences that led to the 1982 war. However, no talks on sovereignty took place during the visit and Argentina's President Néstor Kirchner stated that he regarded gaining sovereignty over the islands as a 'top priority' of his government.^[45]

Argentina renewed claims in June 2006 citing concern over fishing and petroleum rights, amid concern when Britain changed from annually granting fishing concessions, to granting a 25 year concession.^[46] On 28 March 2009, UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown stated that there was “nothing to discuss” with Cristina Kirchner, the Argentine president, over sovereignty of the islands, when they met in Chile on his pre-2009 G-20 London Summit world tour.^[47] On 22 April 2009 Argentina made a formal claim to the UN to an area of the continental shelf encompassing the Falklands, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands, and parts of Antarctica, citing 11 years worth of maritime survey data.^[48] The UK quickly protested these claims.^[49]

In February 2010, in response to British plans to begin drilling for oil,^[50] the Argentine government announced that ships travelling to the Falklands (as well as South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands) would require a permit to use Argentine territorial waters. The British and Falkland governments stated that this announcement did not affect the waters surrounding the islands.^[51][52] Despite the new restrictions, Desire Petroleum began drilling for oil on 22 February, about 54 nautical miles (100 km, 62 mi) north of the Islands.^[53]

In 2011 the Mercosur bloc agreed to close ports to ships flying the Falkland Islands flags, while British-flagged ships would continue to be allowed.

Current claims

Argentina

The Argentine government has maintained a claim over the Falkland Islands since 1833, and renewed it as recently as August 2012.^[54] It considers the archipelago part of the Tierra del Fuego Province, along with South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.

Supporters of the Argentine position make the following claims:

• That sovereignty of the islands was transferred to Argentina from Spain upon independence, a principle known as uti possidetis juris.
• That Spain never renounced sovereignty over the islands, even when a British settlement existed.
• That Great Britain abandoned its settlement in 1776, and formally renounced sovereignty in the Nootka Sound Convention. Argentina has always claimed the Falklands, and never renounced its claim.
• That the British dropped their claim by acquiescence by not protesting the many years of pacific and effective Spanish occupation, after the abandonment of Port Egmont.^[55][56]
• That the re-establishment of British rule on the Falklands (referred to as an "act of force" by Argentina) was illegal under international law, and this has been noted and protested by Argentina since 17 June 1833.^[57]
• That the principle of self-determination is not applicable since the current inhabitants are not aboriginal and were brought to replace the Argentine population (see below).^[58]
• That the Argentine population was expelled by an "act of force" in 1833.^[58]
• That the islands are located on the continental shelf facing Argentina, which would give them a claim, as stated in the 1958 UN Convention on the Continental Shelf.^[59]
• That Great Britain was looking to extend its territories in Americas as shown with the British invasions of the Río de la Plata years earlier.^[60]

The Nootka Sound Conventions

In 1789, both the United Kingdom and Spain attempted settlement in the Nootka Sound, on Vancouver Island. On 25 October 1790, these two Kingdoms approved the Nootka Sound Convention, also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo del Escorial. The Conventions included provisions recognising that the coasts and islands of South America colonised by Spain at the time were Spanish, and that areas south of the southernmost settlements were off limits to both countries, provided (in a secret article) that no third party settled there either. The conventions were unilaterally repudiated by Spain in 1795^{[citation needed]} but implicitly revived by the Treaty of Madrid^{[disambiguation needed]} in 1814.^{[citation needed]}

The sixth article of the convention states:^[61]

It is further agreed with respect to the eastern and western coasts of South America and the islands adjacent, that the respective subjects shall not form in the future any establishment on the parts of the coast situated to the south of the parts of the same coast and of the islands adjacent already occupied by Spain; it being understood that the said respective subjects shall retain the liberty of landing on the coasts and islands so situated for objects connected with their fishery and of erecting thereon huts and other temporary structures serving only those objects.

Whether or not this includes the islands is disputed.^[62][63]

Constitution of Argentina

The Argentine claim is included in the transitional provisions of the Constitution of Argentina as amended in 1994:^[64][65]

The Argentine Nation ratifies its legitimate and non-prescribing sovereignty over the Malvinas, Georgias del Sur and Sandwich del Sur Islands and over the corresponding maritime and insular zones, as they are an integral part of the National territory. The recovery of these territories and the full exercise of sovereignty, respecting the way of life for its inhabitants and according to the principles of international law, constitute a permanent and unwavering goal of the Argentine people.

United Kingdom

In 1964 the Argentine government raised the matter at the United Nations in a sub-committee of the Special Committee on the situation with regard to the implementation of the UN Declaration of the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. In reply the British Representative on the Committee declared that the British Government held that the question of sovereignty over the islands was "not negotiable". Following a report by the Special Committee, UN Resolution 2065 was passed on 16 December 1965, at the General Assembly. In its preamble it referred to the UN's "cherished aim to bring colonialism to an end everywhere", and later added that all settlements between nations had to be peaceful and, in this case, "in the interests of the population of the Falkland Islands".^[66]

In January 1966 the British Foreign Secretary, Michael Stewart, visited Buenos Aires when the Argentine claim to the islands was raised with him, following which, in July, a preliminary meeting was held in London, where the British delegation "formally rejected" the Argentine Ambassador's suggestion that Britain's occupation of the Islands was illegal.^[66]

On 2 December 1980 the Minister of State, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Nicholas Ridley, stated in the House of Commons: "We have no doubt about our sovereignty over the Falkland Islands... we have a perfectly valid title".^[66] The British government regards the right of the islanders to self-determination as "paramount"^[66][67] and rejects the idea of negotiations over sovereignty without the islanders' consent.^[68] Supporters of the British position argue:

• That the British were the first to claim the islands in 1690 and have never renounced that claim.
• That the British both claimed the islands and settled in them before Argentina existed.^[69]
• That the islands have been continuously and peacefully occupied by the UK since 1833, with the exception of "2 months of illegal occupation" by Argentina.
• That Argentina's attempts to colonise the islands in 1820–33 were "sporadic and ineffectual".
• That the islands had no indigenous or settled population before British settlement.
• That the Arana-Southern Treaty of 1850 (the 'Convention of Settlement'), ended all possible claims by Argentina on the Falkland Islands.
• That in an Argentine-inspired poll in 1994, 87% of the island's population rejected any form of discussion of sovereignty under any circumstances, preferring to remain British.^[70]
• That the principle of uti possidetis juris "is not accepted as a general principle of international law".
• That the title ceded to the Spanish by France in 1767 would have reverted by Fundamental breach when the Spanish breached the agreement to maintain a colony at Port Louis to prevent the British gaining title.^{[citation needed]}
• That the UN Special Committee on Decolonization resolutions calling for negotiations "are flawed because they make no reference to the Islanders' right to choose their own future".^[71]
• The European Union Treaty of Lisbon ratifies that the Falkland Islands belong to Britain.^[67]

Falkland Islands Constitution

The Falkland Islands Constitution, which came into force on 1 January 2009, claims the right to self-determination, stating that:^[72]

All peoples have the right to self-determination and by virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development and may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural wealth and resources without prejudice to any obligations arising out of international economic co-operation, based upon the principle of mutual benefit and international law; The realisation of the right of self-determination must be promoted and respected in conformity with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations.

International position

The position of third countries or international organizations on the sovereignty of the islands is varied. Whilst some countries maintain neutrality on the issue or consider it a bilateral one others call on both countries to resolve the dispute through peaceful means and others to begin dialogue over the sovereignty claim. Some countries support outright the British respective the Argentine claim of sovereignty over the islands. The wording of the statements are often sophisticated and subject to interpretation.^[73][74][75]

The European Union classes the islands as an overseas country or territory of the UK, subject to EU law in some areas, and eligible for some European funding initiatives.^[76] The inclusion of the islands in an appendix to the proposed European Constitution provoked a hostile Argentine response.^[77] Its mention is retained in an annex to the treaty replacing the abandoned Constitution, the Treaty of Lisbon.

France has been particularly supportive of the British position.^[78][79]

The Commonwealth of Nations recognises the islands as a British territory.^[80]

China has repeatedly endorsed the Argentinian claim over the islands.^[81][82]

Peru, Brazil, Chile and Mexico officially support the Argentine claim over the Falklands and the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands,^[83] and have voiced their support at international organisations.^{[84][85][86][87]}

Neutral or calling for negotiations

The United Nations have called on both countries to begin dialogue over the sovereignty claim.^[88]

In 1946 the UK included the Falkland Islands on the UN list of non-self-governing territories under Chapter XI of the UN charter.^[89] However, the General Assembly of the United Nations did not explicitly address the issue of the Falkland Islands until 1965, which Resolution 2065 noted:

the existence of a dispute between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over [said] Islands", and invited those governments "to proceed without delay with the negotiations... with a view to finding a peaceful solution to the problem, bearing in mind the provisions and objectives of the Charter of the United Nations and of General Assembly UN Resolution 1514 (XV) and the interests of the population of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).

The UN General Assembly and the UN Decolonization Committee have repeated this call for the resumption of negotiations since then,^[90] and especially since the restoration of democracy in Argentina in 1983.^[91] The Falkland Islands Government has requested that the UN Decolonization Committee send a fact finding mission to the islands^[92]. To date, that request has not been answered (the committee has never visited the islands). Following the visit by the chairman of the C24 to Argentina, the FIG called for a reciprocal visit to the islands.^[93]

The Organization of American States (OAS) General Assembly has repeatedly endorsed Argentine proposals calling the United Kingdom to restart the negotiations.^[94]

The Ibero-American Summit has called for negotiations.^[95][96][97]

In 1823 the President of the United States, James Monroe, in his address to the United States Congress put forward a statement that was to become known as the Monroe Doctrine. In his statement he forewarned the imperial European powers against interfering in the affairs of the newly independent Latin American states or potential United States territories. The doctrine was seen by many Americans as an opportunity to build up trade relations with Latin America.^[98] However in 1833, United States Secretary of State Edward Livingston declined to invoke the Monroe Doctrine when the United Kingdom resumed its presence in the Falkland Islands.^[99] The United States has maintained a policy of official neutrality on the islands' sovereignty since the 1940s. Despite this, the US provided material aid and intelligence to the British during the Falklands War.^[100] The CIA World Factbook lists the islands as Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas); and Central Intelligence Agency maps state that the islands are administered by the United Kingdom and claimed by Argentina. In 2012 the U.S. position was given as "We recognize de facto United Kingdom administration of the islands but take no position regarding sovereignty", and encouraging both parties to resolve differences through normal diplomatic channels.^[101]

During the 1982 war, the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries maintained an official neutrality, despite Argentine diplomatic attempts to acquire support at the United Nations Security Council. Although the UK suspected possible Soviet interference by providing Argentina with satellite intelligence or arms, Argentina claimed after the war that no support was received. Former President Mikhail Gorbachov has stated no decision was taken to collaborate with Argentina, however a Russian journalist claims Soviet satellite intelligence was supplied.^[102]

References

Sources

51°40′S 59°30′W / 51.667°S 59.500°W / -51.667; -59.500