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{{Short description|Genus of algae}}
{{italic title}}
{{Taxobox
{{Taxobox
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| image = Collodictyon anterior view, showing sulcus, nucleus, blepharoplast, rhizoplast, and four flagella..jpg
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| name = ''Collodictyon''
| image_caption = ''Collodictyon'', with nucleus and four flagella (view from the rear)
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| image = Collodictyon.png
| classification_status = [[incertae sedis]] within [[Eukaryota]]
| classification_status = [[incertae sedis]] within [[Eukaryota]]
| domain = [[Eukaryota]]
| domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
| subphylum = [[Varisulca]]
| unranked_regnum = [[CRuMs]]
| superclassis = [[Multirhiza]]
| classis = [[Diphyllatea]]
| classis = [[Diphyllatea]]
| ordo = [[Diphylleida]]
| ordo = [[Diphylatia]]
| familia = [[Collodictyonidae]]
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| genus = ''Collodictyon''
| familia = [[Collodictyonidae]]
| genus_authority = [[Henry John Carter|Carter]] 1865
| genus = '''''Collodictyon'''''
| type_species = ''Collodictyon triciliatum''
⚫
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| type_species_authority = [[Henry John Carter|Carter]] 1865
| subdivision =''[[Collodictyon sparsevacuolatum]]''<br>
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| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
''[[Collodictyon sphaericum]]''<br>
| subdivision =
⚫
''[[Collodictyon triciliatum]]''
* ''C. hongkongense''
* ''C. indicum''
<!--* ''C. oxycareni'' <small>Franchini 1922</small> -- is ''Crithidia oxycareni'' Franchini 1922, see https://archive.org/stream/zoologicalrecor591922zool/zoologicalrecor591922zool_djvu.txt-->
* ''C. sparsevacuolatum''
⚫
* ''C. triciliatum''
}}
}}


'''''Collodictyon''''' is a genus of single-celled, omnivorous [[eukaryote]]s belonging to the collodictyonids, also known as diphylleids.<ref name="Zhao2012" /><ref name="Rhodes3" /> Due to their mix of cellular components, Collodictyonids do not belong to any well-known [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]]-level grouping of that [[domain (biology)|domain]] and this makes them distinctive from other families.<ref name=tws2Y24/><ref>Skvortzov, B. V. (1968). ''On a new species of the genus Collodictyon Carter, a colourless flagellata new to the Hongkong flora''. ''22'', 451–454.</ref> Recent research places them in a new 'supergroup' together with rigifilids and ''Mantamonas'', with the so-far informal name '[[CRuMs]]'.<ref name="Brown_2018">{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Matthew W|last2=Heiss|first2=Aaron A|last3=Kamikawa|first3=Ryoma|last4=Inagaki|first4=Yuji|last5=Yabuki|first5=Akinori|last6=Tice|first6=Alexander K|last7=Shiratori|first7=Takashi|last8=Ishida|first8=Ken-Ichiro|last9=Hashimoto|first9=Tetsuo|last10=Simpson|first10=Alastair|last11=Roger|first11=Andrew|date=2018-01-19|title=Phylogenomics Places Orphan Protistan Lineages in a Novel Eukaryotic Super-Group|journal=Genome Biology and Evolution|language=en|volume=10|issue=2|pages=427–433|doi=10.1093/gbe/evy014|issn=1759-6653|pmc=5793813|pmid=29360967}}</ref>
'''''Collodictyon''''' is a basal genus of single-celled [[eukaryote]]s not closely related to any heretofore known [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] of that [[domain (biology)|domain]].<ref name=tws2Y24>{{cite news | author= Agence France-Presse (AFP) | title= Scientists find 'man's remotest relative' in lake sludge | work= France 24 International News | date= 26 April 2012 | url= http://www.france24.com/en/20120426-scientists-find-mans-remotest-relative-lake-sludge | accessdate= 2012-04-25}}</ref>


==Taxonomy and phylogeny==
==Taxonomy and phylogeny==
{{cladogram
{{cladogram
|caption=Phylogenetic position of Collodictyon relative to a few example organisms<ref name=Zhao2012/>
|caption=Phylogenetic position of ''Collodictyon'' relative to a few example organisms<ref name=Zhao2012/>
|clades={{clade| style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%
|clades={{clade| style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%
|label1=[[Eukaryotes]]
|label1=[[Eukaryotes]]
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Unikonta]]
|label1=[[Unikonta]]
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Amoebozoa]]
|label1=[[Amoebozoa]]
|1=[[Amoeba]]
|1=[[Amoeba]]
|2={{clade
|2={{clade
|label1=[[metazoa]] (Animals)
|label1=[[metazoa]] (Animals)
|1=[[Human]]s
|1=[[Human]]s
|2=[[Fungi]]
|2=[[Fungi]]
}}
}}
}}
⚫
|2={{clade
|label1="[[bikonta]]"
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
⚫
|1=[[metaphyta|plant]]s
⚫
|2=[[rhodophyta|red algae]]
}}
}}
|2={{clade
|2=''[[Paramecium]]''
|label1="[[bikonta]]"
}}
⚫
|2='''''Collodictyon'''''
⚫
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
}}
⚫
}}
⚫
|1=[[metaphyta|plant]]s
⚫
|2=[[rhodophyta|red algae]]
}}
|2=[[Paramecium]]
}}
|2='''Collodictyon'''
}}
⚫
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}


Three species are currently recognised in this [[genus]]. The type species is ''[[Collodictyon triciliatum]]''. A second species&mdash;''Collodictyon sparsevacuolatum''&mdash;named by Skuja is also recognised; this species is found in [[freshwater]] in the [[United States]] and [[Europe]]. A third species ''Collodictyon sphaericum'' has been described but its description is in doubt. A fourth species&mdash;''Collodictyon hongkongense''&mdash;has been described by Skvortzow but this description is considered inadequate and this species is regarded as being of dubious validity.<ref name=Algaebase>{{cite web | author=MD Guiry in Guiry MD & Guiry GM 2012 | title=Collodictyon HJ Carter, 1865: 289 | work=AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication | publisher=National University of Ireland | location=Galway | url=http://www.algaebase.org/search/genus/detail/?genus_id=45305 | accessdate=28 April 2012}}</ref>
Four species are currently recognised in this [[genus]]. The type species is ''[[Collodictyon triciliatum]]''. A second species&mdash;''Collodictyon sparsevacuolatum''&mdash;named by Skuja is also recognised; this species is found in [[freshwater]] in the [[United States]] and [[Europe]]. A third species ''Collodictyon sphaericum'' has been described but its description is in doubt and reclassified as ''Quadricilia rotundata'' <small>(Skuja 1948) Vørs 1992</small>. A fourth species&mdash;''Collodictyon hongkongense''&mdash;has been described by Skvortzow but this description is considered inadequate and this species is regarded as being of dubious validity.<ref name=Algaebase>{{cite web | author=MD Guiry in Guiry MD & Guiry GM 2012 | title=Collodictyon HJ Carter, 1865: 289 | work=AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication | publisher=National University of Ireland | location=Galway | url=http://www.algaebase.org/search/genus/detail/?genus_id=45305 | accessdate=28 April 2012}}</ref>


* ''C. hongkongense'' <small>Skvortzov 1968</small>
Along with the genus ''[[Diphylleia (protist)|Diphylleia]]'', this organism appears to be only distantly related to the other eukaryotes.<ref name=Zhao2012>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/molbev/mss001 | issn = 0737-4038| last = Zhao | first = Sen |author2=Fabien Burki |author3=Jon Bråte |author4=Patrick Keeling |author5=[[Dag Klaveness (limnologist)|Dag Klaveness]] |author6=Kamran Shalchian-Tabrizi | title = Collodictyon – an Ancient Lineage in the Tree of Eukaryotes | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | accessdate = 2012-05-02 | date = 2012-01-06 | url = http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/01/06/molbev.mss001|pmid=22319147 | pmc=3351787 | volume=29 | issue=6 | pages=1557–68}}</ref><ref>[http://www.livescience.com/19955-ancient-protist-kingdom.html Live Science Strange, Organism Has Unique Roots in the Tree of Life], by Jennifer Welsh, 29 April 2012</ref> They share some morphological features with the species currently placed within the [[Excavata]]. However this latter [[clade]] is considered to be [[polyphyletic]] and in need of resolution (reorganisation into different groups). For this reason inclusion of this genus within the excavates may not assist in understanding its phylogenetic position.
* ''C. indicum'' <small>Iyengar 1981</small>
<!--* ''C. oxycareni'' <small>Franchini 1922</small> -- is ''Crithidia oxycareni'' Franchini 1922, see https://archive.org/stream/zoologicalrecor591922zool/zoologicalrecor591922zool_djvu.txt-->
* ''C. sparsevacuolatum'' <small>Skuja 1956</small>
* ''C. triciliatum'' <small>Carter 1865</small>


Along with the genus ''[[Diphylleia (protist)|Diphylleia]]'', this organism appears to be only distantly related to the other eukaryotes.<ref name=Zhao2012>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/molbev/mss001 | issn = 0737-4038| last = Zhao | first = Sen |author2=Fabien Burki |author3=Jon Bråte |author4=Patrick Keeling | author5-link = Dag Klaveness (limnologist)|author5=Dag Klaveness |author6=Kamran Shalchian-Tabrizi | title = Collodictyon – an Ancient Lineage in the Tree of Eukaryotes | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | date = 2012-01-06 |pmid=22319147 | pmc=3351787 | volume=29 | issue=6 | pages=1557–68}}</ref><ref>[http://www.livescience.com/19955-ancient-protist-kingdom.html Live Science Strange, Organism Has Unique Roots in the Tree of Life], by Jennifer Welsh, 29 April 2012</ref> They share some morphological features with the species currently placed within [[Excavata]] due to the fact that the Collodictyon sulcus is similar because it also contains a supporting structure from left and right microtubular roots that line the entirety of the lips of the Sulcus.<ref name="Brugerolle" /><ref>A., H. A., Aaron A. Heiss Aaron A. Heiss Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Sackler Institute for Comparative Genomics, Heiss, A. A., Aaron A. Heiss Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Sackler Institute for Comparative Genomics, Kolisko, M., Martin Kolisko Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Ekelund, F., Fleming Ekelund Department of Biology, Brown, M. W., Matthew W. Brown Department of Biological Sciences, Roger, A. J., Andrew J. Roger Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Simpson, A. G. B., Alastair G. B. Simpson <nowiki>http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4133-1709</nowiki> Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Electronic supplementary material is available online at <nowiki>https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.4035095</nowiki>., & Al., E. (2018, April 4). ''Combined morphological and phylogenomic re-examination of malawimonads, a critical taxon for inferring the evolutionary history of Eukaryotes''. Royal Society Open Science. Retrieved November 1, 2021, from <nowiki>https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.171707</nowiki>.</ref> However this latter [[clade]] is considered to be [[polyphyletic]] and in need of resolution (reorganisation into different groups). For this reason inclusion of this genus within the excavates may not assist in understanding its phylogenetic position. They also share similar features as Amoebozoa because the feeding groove of ''Collodictyon'' also form pseudopods at the base which have a related function to the pseudopods in Amoebozoa.<ref>Nishibe, Y., Kawabata, Z., & Nakano, S.-ichi. (2002, September 23). ''Grazing on microcystis aeruginosa by the heterotrophic flagellate Collodictyon Triciliatum in a hypertrophic pond''. Aquatic Microbial Ecology. Retrieved November 1, 2021, from https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/ame/v29/n2/p173-179/ .</ref> The pseudopods in both Amoebozoa and ''Collodictyon'' are used in order to catch prey.
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Brugerolle has proposed a family, ''[[Collodictyonidae]]'' for this genus and ''Diphylleia''.<ref name="Brugerolle"/>


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Brugerolle has proposed a family, [[Collodictyonidae]] for this genus and ''Diphylleia''.<ref name="Brugerolle"/>
⚫
Another genus that is related to ''Collodictyon'' is ''[[Sulcomonas]].


⚫
Another genus that is related to ''Collodictyon'' is ''[[Sulcomonas]]''.
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Scientists speculate that further study of ''Collodictyon'' may yield insights into the prehistoric beginnings of life hundreds of millions of years ago.<ref name=tws2Y24/> Scientists from [[Norway]] have been studying a particular type of ''Collodictyon'' found living in sludge in [[Årungen]], a lake in the municipality of [[Ås, Akershus|Ås]] in [[Norway]].<ref name=tws2Y24/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apollon.uio.no/english/articles/2012/microorganism.html|title=Mankind's remotest relative|author=Yngve Vogt |date=23 April 2012|work=Apollon}} Original Norwegian press release with pictures of researchers.</ref> Kamran Shalchian-Tabrizi, the leader of the [[Microbial Evolution Research Group]] (MERG), has claimed that these organisms resemble the basal eukaryote.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://phys.org/news/2012-04-scientists-remotest-relative-lake-sludge.html|title=Scientists find 'man's remotest relative' in lake sludge|date=26 April 2012}}</ref>


⚫
Scientists speculate that further study of ''Collodictyon'' may yield insights into the prehistoric beginnings of life hundreds of millions of years ago.<ref name=tws2Y24/> Scientists from [[Norway]] have been studying a particular type of ''Collodictyon'' found living in sludge in [[Årungen]], a lake in the municipality of [[Ås, Akershus|Ås]] in [[Norway]].<ref name=tws2Y24/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apollon.uio.no/english/articles/2012/microorganism.html|title=Mankind's remotest relative|author=Yngve Vogt |date=23 April 2012|work=Apollon}} Original Norwegian press release with pictures of researchers.</ref> Kamran Shalchian-Tabrizi, the leader of the [[Microbial Evolution Research Group]] (MERG), has claimed that these organisms resemble the basal eukaryote.<ref name=tws2Y24>{{cite web|url=http://phys.org/news/2012-04-scientists-remotest-relative-lake-sludge.html|title=Scientists find 'man's remotest relative' in lake sludge|date=26 April 2012}}</ref>
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Collodictyon now appears to have emerged in [[Varisulca]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cavalier-Smith|first=Thomas|last2=Chao|first2=Ema E.|last3=Lewis|first3=Rhodri|date=2016-06-01|title=187-gene phylogeny of protozoan phylum Amoebozoa reveals a new class (Cutosea) of deep-branching, ultrastructurally unique, enveloped marine Lobosa and clarifies amoeba evolution|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S105579031630015X|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=99|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2016.03.023}}</ref>


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Collodictyonids were placed by Cavalier-Smith in [[Varisulca]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cavalier-Smith|first=Thomas|last2=Chao|first2=Ema E.|last3=Lewis|first3=Rhodri|date=2016-06-01|title=187-gene phylogeny of protozoan phylum Amoebozoa reveals a new class (Cutosea) of deep-branching, ultrastructurally unique, enveloped marine Lobosa and clarifies amoeba evolution|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=99|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2016.03.023|pmid=27001604|doi-access=free}}</ref> but this grouping appears to be paraphyletic.
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==Description==
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[[File:Collodictyon anterior view, showing sulcus, nucleus, blepharoplast, rhizoplast, and four flagella..jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sketch of ''Collodictyon'' looking from the rear, with four flagella.]]


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==Description==
The species in this genus range in size from 30 to 50&nbsp;[[µm]] in length,<ref name=tws2Y24/> can grow broad [[pseudopod]]ia, and have four [[flagella]]<ref name=tws2Y24/> and a ventral [[Sulcus (morphology)|feeding groove or sulcus]].<ref name=Zhao2012/> They are devoid of cellulosic cell walls, [[chloroplast]]s or stigmata. There are two to several contractile [[vacuoles]].
The species in this genus range in size from 30 to 50&nbsp;[[μm]] in length,<ref name=tws2Y24/> can grow broad [[pseudopod]]ia, and have four [[flagella]]<ref name=tws2Y24/> and a ventral feeding groove which divides the organism longitudinally called the Sulcus.<ref name=Zhao2012/> They are devoid of cellulosic cell walls, [[chloroplast]]s or stigmata. There are two to several contractile [[vacuoles]].


The cell shape is variable but is mostly [[obovoid]] to ellipsoid. The lateral cell margins maybe somewhat angular leading to a broad, truncated rounded apex. This posterior margin narrows posteriorly and either bears 1-3 lobes or is simply broadly rounded. This margin is often pseudopodial.
The cell shape is variable but is mostly [[obovoid]] to ellipsoid. The lateral cell margins maybe somewhat angular leading to a broad, truncated rounded apex. This posterior margin narrows posteriorly and either bears 1-3 lobes or is simply broadly rounded. This margin is often pseudopodial.


The nucleus typically lies in the posterior half of the cell.
The nucleus typically lies in the posterior half of the cell.
[[File:Collodictyon telophase constrict.jpg|thumb|Joining of the Sulcus during Prophase]]

The [[mitochondria]] have tubular [[cristae]].
The [[mitochondria]] have tubular [[cristae]].[[File:Collodictyon.png|thumb|right|250px|Sketch of ''Collodictyon''.]]


[[Organelle]]s called [[dictyosome]]s are present and arranged in a [[horseshoe]] like shape.<ref name="Brugerolle">{{cite journal | last=Brugerolle | first=Guy |author2=Bricheux G|author3=Philippe H|author4=Coffea G | date=March 2002 | title=''Collodictyon triciliatum'' and ''Diphylleia rotans'' (=''Aulacomonas submarina'') form a new family of flagellates (''Collodictyonidae'') with tubular mitochondrial cristae that is phylogenetically distant from other flagellate groups | journal=Protist | volume=153 | issue=1 | pages=59–70 | pmid=12022276 | doi=10.1078/1434-4610-00083}}</ref>
[[Organelle]]s called [[dictyosome]]s are present and arranged in a [[horseshoe]] like shape.<ref name="Brugerolle">{{cite journal | last=Brugerolle | first=Guy |author2=Bricheux G|author3=Philippe H|author4=Coffea G | date=March 2002 | title=''Collodictyon triciliatum'' and ''Diphylleia rotans'' (=''Aulacomonas submarina'') form a new family of flagellates (''Collodictyonidae'') with tubular mitochondrial cristae that is phylogenetically distant from other flagellate groups | journal=Protist | volume=153 | issue=1 | pages=59–70 | pmid=12022276 | doi=10.1078/1434-4610-00083}}</ref>
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Members of this genus are known to reproduce [[asexual reproduction|asexually]] through [[cell division]]. Whether [[sexual reproduction]] occurs is currently unknown.
Members of this genus are known to reproduce [[asexual reproduction|asexually]] through [[cell division]]. Whether [[sexual reproduction]] occurs is currently unknown.
''Collodictyon triciliatum'' has four flagella connected to basal bodies, generally of equal length, as long as or slightly longer than the body of Collodictyon.<ref name="Rhodes3">{{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=Robert Clinton|title=Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum | url=http://ia700200.us.archive.org/21/items/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich.pdf | quote= number of flagella is four (page 238 of original book; page 50 of the pdf file). Flagella are equal in length, as long as the body or possibly longer...|date=29 October 1917|publisher=University of California|location=Berkeley, California}}</ref> Number one flagellum is connected to a dorsal root, while number two flagellum is connected to a ventral root. Number three and four flagella are on either side of these two and have dorsal roots.
''Collodictyon triciliatum'' has four flagella connected to basal bodies, generally of equal length, as long as or slightly longer than the body of Collodictyon.<ref name="Rhodes3">{{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=Robert Clinton|title=Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum | url=https://archive.org/details/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich | quote= number of flagella is four (page 238 of original book; page 50 of the pdf file). Flagella are equal in length, as long as the body or possibly longer...|date=29 October 1917|publisher=University of California|location=Berkeley, California}}</ref> Number one flagellum is connected to a dorsal root, while number two flagellum is connected to a ventral root. Number three and four flagella are on either side of these two and have dorsal roots.


==Distribution==
==Distribution==


Originally ''Collodictyon triciliatum'' was described from the island of [[Bombay]] and later in central Europe.<ref name=Carter1865/><ref name="Rhodes">{{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=Robert Clinton|title=Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum|url=http://ia700200.us.archive.org/21/items/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich.pdf|date=29 October 1917|publisher=University of California|location=Berkeley, California}}</ref> In Europe this species is found from [[Spain]]<ref name="Sánchez">{{cite web|url=http://www.algaebase.org/pdf/5628C2061d8b133993QgU3570F03/catalogocloros.pdf|title=Lista florística y bibliográfica de los clorófitos (Chlorophyta) de la Península Ibérica, Islas Baleares e Islas Canarias|author1=Cambra Sánchez, J.|author2=Álvarez Cobelas, M. |author3=Aboal Sanjurjo, M|year=1988|publisher=Asociación Española de Limnología|page=9|accessdate=28 April 2012}}</ref> to [[Norway]].<ref name=Zhao2012/> ''Collodictyon'' has also been reported in North America.<ref name=Algaebase/><ref name=Rhodes/><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.2307/2421034| issn = 0003-0031| volume = 27| issue = 1| pages = 191–202| last = Lackey| first = James B.| title = The Plankton Algae and Protozoa of Two Tennessee Rivers| journal = American Midland Naturalist| date = 1942-01-01| jstor = 2421034}}</ref>
Originally ''Collodictyon triciliatum'' was described from the island of [[Bombay]] and later in central Europe.<ref name=Carter1865/><ref name="Rhodes">{{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=Robert Clinton|title=Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum|url=https://archive.org/details/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich|date=29 October 1917|publisher=University of California|location=Berkeley, California}}</ref> In Europe this species is found from [[Spain]]<ref name="Sánchez">{{cite web|url=http://www.algaebase.org/pdf/5628C2061d8b133993QgU3570F03/catalogocloros.pdf|title=Lista florística y bibliográfica de los clorófitos (Chlorophyta) de la Península Ibérica, Islas Baleares e Islas Canarias|author1=Cambra Sánchez, J.|author2=Álvarez Cobelas, M.|author3=Aboal Sanjurjo, M.|year=1988|publisher=Asociación Española de Limnología|page=9|accessdate=28 April 2012}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> to [[Norway]].<ref name=Zhao2012/> ''Collodictyon'' has also been reported in North America.<ref name=Algaebase/><ref name=Rhodes/><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.2307/2421034| issn = 0003-0031| volume = 27| issue = 1| pages = 191–202| last = Lackey| first = James B.| title = The Plankton Algae and Protozoa of Two Tennessee Rivers| journal = American Midland Naturalist| date = 1942-01-01| jstor = 2421034}}</ref>


==Feeding==
==Feeding==
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The feeding habits of this organism have rarely been studied.
The feeding habits of this organism have rarely been studied.


{{Quote|In its feeding habits, Collodictyon is most interesting. When hungry, it can be distinguished from [[wiktionary:moribund|moribund]] stages in which all food is extruded by pseudopial projections from the lateral groove or sulcal region ... these pseudopodia ... function actively whenever the organism is seeking food. At these times when coming in contact with [[Protozoa]] or [[algae]] which it may use for food, they are wafted to the [[sulcal]] region by the flagella, or else Collodictyon aligns itself alongside of its prey with the pseudopodia in contact. ... Both the flagella and the pseudopodia appear sensitive to food stimulus ...|Robert Clinton Rhodes, 1917<ref name="Rhodes2">{{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=Robert Clinton|title=Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum|url=http://ia700200.us.archive.org/21/items/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich.pdf|quote= (page 220 from original book; page 32 from the pdf) ... In its feeding habits, Collodictyon is most interesting. When hungry, it can be distinguished from moribund stages in which all food is extruded by pseudopial projections from the lateral groove or sulcal region ... these pseudopodia ... function actively whenever the organism is seeking food. At these times when coming in contact with Protozoa or algae which it may use for food, they are wafted to the sulcal region by the flagella, or else Collodictyon aligns itself alongside of its prey with the pseudopodia in contact. ... Both the flagella and the pseudopodia appear sensitive to food stimulus ...|date=29 October 1917|publisher=University of California|location=Berkeley, California}}</ref>}}
{{Quote|In its feeding habits, Collodictyon is most interesting. When hungry, it can be distinguished from [[wiktionary:moribund|moribund]] stages in which all food is extruded by pseudopial projections from the lateral groove or sulcal region ... these pseudopodia ... function actively whenever the organism is seeking food. At these times when coming in contact with [[Protozoa]] or [[algae]] which it may use for food, they are wafted to the [[sulcal]] region by the flagella, or else Collodictyon aligns itself alongside of its prey with the pseudopodia in contact. ... Both the flagella and the pseudopodia appear sensitive to food stimulus ...|Robert Clinton Rhodes, 1917<ref name="Rhodes2">{{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=Robert Clinton|title=Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum|url=https://archive.org/details/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich|quote= (page 220 from original book; page 32 from the pdf) ... In its feeding habits, Collodictyon is most interesting. When hungry, it can be distinguished from moribund stages in which all food is extruded by pseudopial projections from the lateral groove or sulcal region ... these pseudopodia ... function actively whenever the organism is seeking food. At these times when coming in contact with Protozoa or algae which it may use for food, they are wafted to the sulcal region by the flagella, or else Collodictyon aligns itself alongside of its prey with the pseudopodia in contact. ... Both the flagella and the pseudopodia appear sensitive to food stimulus ...|date=29 October 1917|publisher=University of California|location=Berkeley, California}}</ref>}}


Dag Klaveness reported that the creatures are "not sociable" and will cannibalize each other when food is scarce.<ref name=tws2Y24/> ''Collodictyon'' will ingest freshwater algae and appears to be unable to survive on a diet of bacteria alone. Curiously the algae remain viable at least for a while after being engulfed. It is possible that the algae are "enslaved".<ref name="Rhodes2"/>
Dag Klaveness reported that the creatures are "not sociable" and will cannibalize each other when food is scarce.<ref name=tws2Y24/> ''Collodictyon'' will ingest freshwater algae and appears to be unable to survive on a diet of bacteria alone. Curiously the algae remain viable at least for a while after being engulfed. It is possible that the algae are "enslaved".<ref name="Rhodes2"/>
Line 94: Line 103:
==History==
==History==


''Collodictyon triciliatum'' was originally named by H. J. Carter in 1865.<ref name=Carter1865>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1080/00222936508681805| issn = 0374-5481| volume = 15| issue = 88| pages = 277–293| last = Carter| first = H.J.| title = XXXII.—On the fresh- and salt-water Rhizopoda of England and India| journal = Journal of Natural History Series 3| series = 3| year = 1865}}</ref>
''Collodictyon triciliatum'' was originally named by H. J. Carter in 1865.<ref name=Carter1865>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/22251825#page/292/mode/1up |accessdate=11 February 2018 |issn= 0374-5481 |volume= 15 |issue=88 |pages= 277–293 |last= Carter |first= H.J. |title= XXXII.—On the fresh- and salt-water Rhizopoda of England and India |journal= Journal of Natural History |series= Series 3 |year=1865|doi=10.1080/00222936508681805 }}</ref>
Carter's original species description is as follows:
Carter's original species description is as follows:


Line 100: Line 109:
body it may incept . . . ; enclosing crude material for nourishment in stomachal spaces, and ejecting the refuse, like Amoeba. Provided with a nucleus and contracting [[Vesicle (biology and chemistry)|vesicles]].|Carter, 1865<ref name="Rhodes"/>}}
body it may incept . . . ; enclosing crude material for nourishment in stomachal spaces, and ejecting the refuse, like Amoeba. Provided with a nucleus and contracting [[Vesicle (biology and chemistry)|vesicles]].|Carter, 1865<ref name="Rhodes"/>}}


In 1917, it was classified as being one of the "simplest and most primitive" type of ''[[Polymastigina]]''.<ref name="Rhodes4">{{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=Robert Clinton|title=Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum|url=http://ia700200.us.archive.org/21/items/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich.pdf|quote= (page 239 of original book; page 51 of pdf file) ... Collodictyon is "one of the simplest and most primitive of the Polymastigina"...|date=29 October 1917|publisher=University of California|location=Berkeley, California}}</ref>
In 1917, it was classified as being one of the "simplest and most primitive" type of ''[[Polymastigina]]''.<ref name="Rhodes4">{{cite book|last=Rhodes|first=Robert Clinton|title=Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum|url=https://archive.org/details/binaryfissioninc00rhodrich|quote= (page 239 of original book; page 51 of pdf file) ... Collodictyon is "one of the simplest and most primitive of the Polymastigina"...|date=29 October 1917|publisher=University of California|location=Berkeley, California}}</ref>

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==See also==
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{{Commons category}}
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*''Collodictyon triciliatum'' at 400x in phase contrast by microuruguay 25 June 2011 {{youtube|AsY8s-HnTMQ}}


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
<references/>


{{Eukaryota classification}}
{{Eukaryota classification}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1954417}}

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==See also==
⚫
*''Collodictyon triciliatum'' at 400x in phase contrast by microuruguay 25 June 2011 {{youtube|AsY8s-HnTMQ}}
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{{commons category}}

[[Category:Eukaryote genera]]
[[Category:Eukaryote genera]]
[[Category:Origin of life]]
[[Category:Origin of life]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Henry John Carter]]

Latest revision as of 18:28, 27 April 2024

Collodictyon
Collodictyon, with nucleus and four flagella (view from the rear)
Scientific classification
(incertae sedis within Eukaryota)
Domain:
Eukaryota
(unranked):
CRuMs
Class:
Diphyllatea
Order:
Diphylleida
Family:
Collodictyonidae
Genus:
Collodictyon

Carter 1865
Type species
Collodictyon triciliatum
Carter 1865
Species
  • C. hongkongense
  • C. indicum
  • C. sparsevacuolatum
  • C. triciliatum

Collodictyon is a genus of single-celled, omnivorous eukaryotes belonging to the collodictyonids, also known as diphylleids.[1][2] Due to their mix of cellular components, Collodictyonids do not belong to any well-known kingdom-level grouping of that domain and this makes them distinctive from other families.[3][4] Recent research places them in a new 'supergroup' together with rigifilids and Mantamonas, with the so-far informal name 'CRuMs'.[5]

Taxonomy and phylogeny[edit]

Eukaryotes
Phylogenetic position of Collodictyon relative to a few example organisms[1]

Four species are currently recognised in this genus. The type species is Collodictyon triciliatum. A second species—Collodictyon sparsevacuolatum—named by Skuja is also recognised; this species is found in freshwater in the United States and Europe. A third species Collodictyon sphaericum has been described but its description is in doubt and reclassified as Quadricilia rotundata (Skuja 1948) Vørs 1992. A fourth species—Collodictyon hongkongense—has been described by Skvortzow but this description is considered inadequate and this species is regarded as being of dubious validity.[6]

  • C. hongkongense Skvortzov 1968
  • C. indicum Iyengar 1981
  • C. sparsevacuolatum Skuja 1956
  • C. triciliatum Carter 1865

Along with the genus Diphylleia, this organism appears to be only distantly related to the other eukaryotes.[1][7] They share some morphological features with the species currently placed within Excavata due to the fact that the Collodictyon sulcus is similar because it also contains a supporting structure from left and right microtubular roots that line the entirety of the lips of the Sulcus.[8][9] However this latter clade is considered to be polyphyletic and in need of resolution (reorganisation into different groups). For this reason inclusion of this genus within the excavates may not assist in understanding its phylogenetic position. They also share similar features as Amoebozoa because the feeding groove of Collodictyon also form pseudopods at the base which have a related function to the pseudopods in Amoebozoa.[10] The pseudopods in both Amoebozoa and Collodictyon are used in order to catch prey.

Brugerolle has proposed a family, Collodictyonidae for this genus and Diphylleia.[8]

Another genus that is related to Collodictyon is Sulcomonas.

Scientists speculate that further study of Collodictyon may yield insights into the prehistoric beginnings of life hundreds of millions of years ago.[3] Scientists from Norway have been studying a particular type of Collodictyon found living in sludge in Årungen, a lake in the municipality of Ås in Norway.[3][11] Kamran Shalchian-Tabrizi, the leader of the Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), has claimed that these organisms resemble the basal eukaryote.[3]

Collodictyonids were placed by Cavalier-Smith in Varisulca,[12] but this grouping appears to be paraphyletic.

Description[edit]

The species in this genus range in size from 30 to 50 μm in length,[3] can grow broad pseudopodia, and have four flagella[3] and a ventral feeding groove which divides the organism longitudinally called the Sulcus.[1] They are devoid of cellulosic cell walls, chloroplasts or stigmata. There are two to several contractile vacuoles.

The cell shape is variable but is mostly obovoid to ellipsoid. The lateral cell margins maybe somewhat angular leading to a broad, truncated rounded apex. This posterior margin narrows posteriorly and either bears 1-3 lobes or is simply broadly rounded. This margin is often pseudopodial.

The nucleus typically lies in the posterior half of the cell.

Joining of the Sulcus during Prophase

The mitochondria have tubular cristae.

Sketch of Collodictyon.

Organelles called dictyosomes are present and arranged in a horseshoe like shape.[8]

Members of this genus are known to reproduce asexually through cell division. Whether sexual reproduction occurs is currently unknown.

Collodictyon triciliatum has four flagella connected to basal bodies, generally of equal length, as long as or slightly longer than the body of Collodictyon.[2] Number one flagellum is connected to a dorsal root, while number two flagellum is connected to a ventral root. Number three and four flagella are on either side of these two and have dorsal roots.

Distribution[edit]

Originally Collodictyon triciliatum was described from the island of Bombay and later in central Europe.[13][14] In Europe this species is found from Spain[15] to Norway.[1] Collodictyon has also been reported in North America.[6][14][16]

Feeding[edit]

Diagram of Collodictyon failed ingestion of a Pandorina. The Pandorina escapes and the Collodictyon dies from water loss. Sketched by researcher Robert Clinton Rhodes; sketch appeared in print in 1917.

The feeding habits of this organism have rarely been studied.

In its feeding habits, Collodictyon is most interesting. When hungry, it can be distinguished from moribund stages in which all food is extruded by pseudopial projections from the lateral groove or sulcal region ... these pseudopodia ... function actively whenever the organism is seeking food. At these times when coming in contact with Protozoa or algae which it may use for food, they are wafted to the sulcal region by the flagella, or else Collodictyon aligns itself alongside of its prey with the pseudopodia in contact. ... Both the flagella and the pseudopodia appear sensitive to food stimulus ...

— Robert Clinton Rhodes, 1917[17]

Dag Klaveness reported that the creatures are "not sociable" and will cannibalize each other when food is scarce.[3] Collodictyon will ingest freshwater algae and appears to be unable to survive on a diet of bacteria alone. Curiously the algae remain viable at least for a while after being engulfed. It is possible that the algae are "enslaved".[17]

History[edit]

Collodictyon triciliatum was originally named by H. J. Carter in 1865.[13] Carter's original species description is as follows:

Pyriform, straight, or slightly bent upon itself, bifid (two-lobed) at the small extremity, presenting at the larger one an indentation, from which spring three cilia. Structure transparent, cancellated, composed of globular cells, with a strongly marked, greenish granule here and there in the triangular spaces between them. Locomotive, swimming by means of the cilia; subpolymorphic, flexible, yielding, capable of assuming a globular form ... or one more or less modified by the body it may incept . . . ; enclosing crude material for nourishment in stomachal spaces, and ejecting the refuse, like Amoeba. Provided with a nucleus and contracting vesicles.

— Carter, 1865[14]

In 1917, it was classified as being one of the "simplest and most primitive" type of Polymastigina.[18]

See also[edit]

  • Collodictyon triciliatum at 400x in phase contrast by microuruguay 25 June 2011 Video on YouTube

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e Zhao, Sen; Fabien Burki; Jon Bråte; Patrick Keeling; Dag Klaveness; Kamran Shalchian-Tabrizi (2012-01-06). "Collodictyon – an Ancient Lineage in the Tree of Eukaryotes". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 29 (6): 1557–68. doi:10.1093/molbev/mss001. ISSN 0737-4038. PMC 3351787. PMID 22319147.
  2. ^ a b Rhodes, Robert Clinton (29 October 1917). Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum. Berkeley, California: University of California. number of flagella is four (page 238 of original book; page 50 of the pdf file). Flagella are equal in length, as long as the body or possibly longer...
  3. ^ a b c d e f g "Scientists find 'man's remotest relative' in lake sludge". 26 April 2012.
  4. ^ Skvortzov, B. V. (1968). On a new species of the genus Collodictyon Carter, a colourless flagellata new to the Hongkong flora. 22, 451–454.
  5. ^ Brown, Matthew W; Heiss, Aaron A; Kamikawa, Ryoma; Inagaki, Yuji; Yabuki, Akinori; Tice, Alexander K; Shiratori, Takashi; Ishida, Ken-Ichiro; Hashimoto, Tetsuo; Simpson, Alastair; Roger, Andrew (2018-01-19). "Phylogenomics Places Orphan Protistan Lineages in a Novel Eukaryotic Super-Group". Genome Biology and Evolution. 10 (2): 427–433. doi:10.1093/gbe/evy014. ISSN 1759-6653. PMC 5793813. PMID 29360967.
  6. ^ a b MD Guiry in Guiry MD & Guiry GM 2012. "Collodictyon HJ Carter, 1865: 289". AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication. Galway: National University of Ireland. Retrieved 28 April 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Live Science Strange, Organism Has Unique Roots in the Tree of Life, by Jennifer Welsh, 29 April 2012
  8. ^ a b c Brugerolle, Guy; Bricheux G; Philippe H; Coffea G (March 2002). "Collodictyon triciliatum and Diphylleia rotans (=Aulacomonas submarina) form a new family of flagellates (Collodictyonidae) with tubular mitochondrial cristae that is phylogenetically distant from other flagellate groups". Protist. 153 (1): 59–70. doi:10.1078/1434-4610-00083. PMID 12022276.
  9. ^ A., H. A., Aaron A. Heiss Aaron A. Heiss Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Sackler Institute for Comparative Genomics, Heiss, A. A., Aaron A. Heiss Department of Invertebrate Zoology and Sackler Institute for Comparative Genomics, Kolisko, M., Martin Kolisko Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Ekelund, F., Fleming Ekelund Department of Biology, Brown, M. W., Matthew W. Brown Department of Biological Sciences, Roger, A. J., Andrew J. Roger Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Simpson, A. G. B., Alastair G. B. Simpson http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4133-1709 Centre for Comparative Genomics and Evolutionary Bioinformatics, Electronic supplementary material is available online at https://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.4035095., & Al., E. (2018, April 4). Combined morphological and phylogenomic re-examination of malawimonads, a critical taxon for inferring the evolutionary history of Eukaryotes. Royal Society Open Science. Retrieved November 1, 2021, from https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.171707.
  10. ^ Nishibe, Y., Kawabata, Z., & Nakano, S.-ichi. (2002, September 23). Grazing on microcystis aeruginosa by the heterotrophic flagellate Collodictyon Triciliatum in a hypertrophic pond. Aquatic Microbial Ecology. Retrieved November 1, 2021, from https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/ame/v29/n2/p173-179/ .
  11. ^ Yngve Vogt (23 April 2012). "Mankind's remotest relative". Apollon. Original Norwegian press release with pictures of researchers.
  12. ^ Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Chao, Ema E.; Lewis, Rhodri (2016-06-01). "187-gene phylogeny of protozoan phylum Amoebozoa reveals a new class (Cutosea) of deep-branching, ultrastructurally unique, enveloped marine Lobosa and clarifies amoeba evolution". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 99: 275–296. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2016.03.023. PMID 27001604.
  13. ^ a b Carter, H.J. (1865). "XXXII.—On the fresh- and salt-water Rhizopoda of England and India". Journal of Natural History. Series 3. 15 (88): 277–293. doi:10.1080/00222936508681805. ISSN 0374-5481. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
  14. ^ a b c Rhodes, Robert Clinton (29 October 1917). Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum. Berkeley, California: University of California.
  15. ^ Cambra Sánchez, J.; Álvarez Cobelas, M.; Aboal Sanjurjo, M. (1988). "Lista florística y bibliográfica de los clorófitos (Chlorophyta) de la Península Ibérica, Islas Baleares e Islas Canarias" (PDF). Asociación Española de Limnología. p. 9. Retrieved 28 April 2012.[permanent dead link]
  16. ^ Lackey, James B. (1942-01-01). "The Plankton Algae and Protozoa of Two Tennessee Rivers". American Midland Naturalist. 27 (1): 191–202. doi:10.2307/2421034. ISSN 0003-0031. JSTOR 2421034.
  17. ^ a b Rhodes, Robert Clinton (29 October 1917). Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum. Berkeley, California: University of California. (page 220 from original book; page 32 from the pdf) ... In its feeding habits, Collodictyon is most interesting. When hungry, it can be distinguished from moribund stages in which all food is extruded by pseudopial projections from the lateral groove or sulcal region ... these pseudopodia ... function actively whenever the organism is seeking food. At these times when coming in contact with Protozoa or algae which it may use for food, they are wafted to the sulcal region by the flagella, or else Collodictyon aligns itself alongside of its prey with the pseudopodia in contact. ... Both the flagella and the pseudopodia appear sensitive to food stimulus ...
  18. ^ Rhodes, Robert Clinton (29 October 1917). Binary Fission in Collodictyon tricilliatum. Berkeley, California: University of California. (page 239 of original book; page 51 of pdf file) ... Collodictyon is "one of the simplest and most primitive of the Polymastigina"...
source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collodictyon&diff=1221074998&oldid=785490433

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