The Paralympic Games are a major international multi-sport event for athletes with physical disabilities. This includes athletes with mobility disabilities, amputations, blindness, and cerebral palsy. The Paralympic Games are held every four years, following the Olympic Games, and are governed by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC). The Paralympic Games are sometimes confused with the Special Olympics World Games, which are only for people with intellectual disabilities.

The source of the term "Paralympic" is unclear. The name was originally coined as a portmanteau combining 'paraplegic' (due to its origins as games for people with spinal injuries) and 'Olympic', ^[1] the inclusion of other disability groups rendered this explanation inappropriate. The present formal explanation for the name is therefore that it derives from the Greek preposition παρά, pará ("beside" or "alongside") and thus refers to a competition held in parallel with the Olympic Games.^[1] The summer games of 1988 held in Seoul was the first time the term "Paralympic" came into official use.

Given the wide variety of disabilities that paralympic athletes have, there are several categories in which the athletes compete. The allowable disabilities are broken down into six broad categories. The categories are amputee, cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, wheelchair, visually impaired, and Les Autres (which are athletes with disabilities that don't fall into the other five categories, these include dwarfism, multiple sclerosis, and congenital deformities to name a few). These categories are broken down into classification, which vary from sport to sport.

History

On the day of the opening of the 1948 Summer Olympics in London, Dr. Ludwig Guttmann of Stoke Mandeville Hospital organised a sports competition for British World War II veteran patients with spinal cord injuries. The first Games were called the 1948 International Wheelchair Games, and were intended to coincide with the 1948 Olympics.^[2] Dr. Guttman's aim was to create an elite sports competition for people with disabilities that would be equivalent to the Olympic Games.^[2] The Games were held again at the same location in 1952, and Dutch veterans took part alongside the British, making it the first international competition of its kind. These early competitions, also known as the Stoke Mandeville Games, have been described as the precursors of the Paralympic Games. The first official Paralympic Games, no longer open solely to war veterans, was held in Rome in 1960.^[3][4] 400 athletes from 23 countries competed at the 1960 Games though the only disability represented were athletes in wheelchairs.^[2]

There have been several milestones in the Paralympic movement. The first winter Paralympic Games were held in 1976 in Sweden. This was the first Paralympics in which multiple categories of athletes with disabilities could compete.^[5] At the 1976 Summer Games other groups of athletes with different disabilities were also included. With the inclusion of more disability classifications the 1976 Summer Games expanded to 1,600 athletes from 40 countries.^[5] The growth of the Paralympic Game necessitated the organization of a governing body. The International Coordinating Committee of World Sports Organizations for the Disabled (ICC) was established in 1982. Seven years later this body was reorganized as the International Paralympic Committee (IPC).^[5] The 1988 Summer Paralympics held another milestone for the Paralympic movement. The 1988 Games were the first to use the same facilities as the Olympics of that year. The 1992 Winter Paralympics was the first winter Games to use the same facilities as the winter Olympics.^[5] Since 1960 the Paralympic Games have taken place in the same year as the Olympic Games. In 2001 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee signed an agreement which guaranteed that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games. This agreement will remain in effect until the 2012 Summer Olympics.^[5]

Current

The Paralympic Games are sport events for elite athletes with a physical disability or vision impairment. They are designed to emphasize the participants' athletic achievements, not their disability.^[1] The movement has grown dramatically since its early days – for example the number of athletes participating in the Summer Paralympic Games has increased from 400 athletes in Rome in 1960 to over 3,900 athletes from 146 countries in Beijing in 2008.^[6]

The IPC is the global governing body of the Paralympic Movement. It is comprised of 165 National Paralympic Committees (NPC) and 4 disability-specific international sports federations. The IPC's intenational headquarters are in Bonn, Germany. The IPC is responsible for organising the summer and winter Paralympic Games. It also serves as the International Federation for nine sports. This requires the IPC to supervise and coordinate the World Championships and other competitions for each of the nine sports it regulates.^[1]

“Spirit in Motion” is the motto for the Paralympic movement. The symbol for the Paralympics is three colors, red, blue, and green, which are most widely represented in the flags of nations. The colors are each in the shape of an Agito (which is Greek for "I move"). The three Agitos circle a central point, which is a symbol for the athletes congregating from all points of the globe.^[7] As the years pass the Paralympics are more and more recognized on the world stage. They are now the world’s largest sporting event after the Olympics and are the fastest growing movement in international sports. The Paralympics are no longer held solely for war veterans but for elite athletes from all over the world.^[8]

Cheating controversies

The Paralympic Games have been damaged by cheating scandals. After the 2000 Sydney Games, a Spanish basketball player came forward alleging that several members of the gold-medal winning Spanish basketball intellectually disabled (ID) team were not disabled. He claimed that only two athletes out of the twelve-member team met the qualifications of an intellectually disabled athlete.^[9] A controversy ensued and the IPC called on the Spanish National Paralympic Committee to launch an investigation.^[10] The investigation uncovered several Spanish athletes who had flaunted the ID rules. In an interview with the president of the federation that oversees ID competition, Fernando Martin Vicente, admitted that athletes around the world were breaking the ID eligiblity rules. The IPC responded by starting an investigation of its own.^[9] The results of the IPC's investigation confirmed the Spanish athlete's allegations and also determined that the incident was not isolated to the basketball ID event or to Spanish athletes.^[9] As a result all ID competitions were suspended indefinitely.^[11] The ban was lifted after the 2008 Games after work had been done to tighten the criteria and controls governing admission of athletes with intellectual disabilities. Four sports, swimming, athletics, table tennis and rowing, and anticipated to hold competitions for ID athletes.^[12][13] The Paralympics have been tainted by steroid use. At the 2008 Games in Beijing, three powerlifters and a German basketball player were banned after having tested positive for steroids.^[12] This pales in comparison to the ten powerlifters and one track athlete who were banned from the 2000 Games.^[14] German skier, Thomas Oelsner, became the first winter Paralympian to test positive for a banned substance. He had won two gold medals at the 2002 Winter Paralympics, but his medals were stripped after his positive drug test.^[15]

Disability categories

• Amputee: Athletes with a partial or total loss of at least one limb.
• Cerebral Palsy: Athletes with non-progressive brain damage, for example cerebral palsy, traumatic brain injury, stroke or similar disabilities affecting muscle control, balance or coordination.
• Intellectual Disability: Athletes with a significant impairment in intellectual functioning and associated limitations in adaptive behavior.
• Wheelchair: Athletes with spinal cord injuries and other disabilities which require them to compete in a wheelchair.
• Visually Impaired: Athletes with vision impairment ranging from partial vision, sufficient to be judged legally blind, to total blindness.
• Les Autres: Athletes with a physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other five categories, such as dwarfism, multiple sclerosis or congenital deformities of the limbs such as that caused by thalidomide (the name for this category is the French for "the others").

These categories apply to both summer and winter Paralympics.^[16]

Classification

Within the six disability categories the athletes still need to be divided according to their differing level of impairment. The classification systems differ from sport to sport, and is intended to even the playing field and allow as many athletes to participate as possible. Classifications vary in accordance with the different skills required to perform the sport.

Archery: Archery is open to athletes with a physical disability. Classifications are broken up into three divisions: W1, spinal cord injured and Cerebral Palsy athletes with impairment in all four limbs. W2, wheelchair users with full arm function. W3, standing amputee, Les Autres and Cerebral Palsy standing athletes. Some athletes in the standing group will sit on a high stool for support but will still have their feet touching the ground.^[17]

Athletics: Athletics is open to all disability groups and uses a functional classification system. A brief classification guide is as follows: prefixing F for field athletes or T for track athletes. F or T 11–13 are visually impaired, F or T 20 are learning difficulty, F or T 32–38 are cerebral palsy, F or T 40–46 amputee and Les Autres, T 51–54 wheelchair track athletes and F 51–58 wheelchair field athletes.^[18]

Basketball: Basketball is open to wheelchair athletes and athletes with a learning disability. Wheelchair athletes are classified according to their physical ability and are given a points rating between 0.5 – 4.5. The individuals who rate at 0.5 are the most severely disabled and those at 4.5 are the least disabled. A team on court comprises five players and may not exceed a total of 14 points at any given time.^[19]

Boccia: Boccia is open to athletes with cerebral palsy or related neurological conditions who compete from a wheelchair. Classifications are split into four groups; BC1: Athletes are either throwers or foot players (with cerebral palsy). Athletes may compete with an assistant BC2: For throwing players (with cerebral palsy). Players may not have an assistant BC3: Athletes (with severe disability) who use an assistive device and may be assisted by a person, but this assistant must keep their back to the court. BC4: For throwing players. Players may not have an assistant (Non cerebral palsy).^[20]

Cycling: Cycling is open to amputee, Les Autre, cerebral palsy and visually impaired athletes who compete in individual road race and track events. Classifications are broken up into divisions 2, 3 and 4. Athletes in division two are the most severely disabled. Visually impaired athletes compete together with no separate classification system. They ride in tandem with a sighted guide. Amputee, spinal cord injury and Les Autre competitors compete within the classification groupings LC1 – essentially for riders with upper limb disabilities, LC2 – essentially for riders with disabilities in one leg but who are able to pedal normally, LC3 – essentially for riders with a handicap in one lower limb who will usually pedal with one leg only, and LC4 for riders with disabilities affecting both legs.^[21]

Equestrian: Equestrian is open to all disability groups, with riders divided into four grades. Grade 1 incorporates severely disabled riders with Cerebral Palsy, Les Autres and spinal cord injury. Grade 2 incorporates Cerebral Palsy, Les Autres, spinal cord injury and amputee riders with reasonable balance and abdominal control. Grade 3 incorporates Cerebral Palsy, Les Autres, amputee, spinal cord injury and totally blind athletes with good balance, leg movement and co-ordination. Grade 4 incorporates Cerebral Palsy, Les Autres, amputee, spinal cord injury and visually impaired. This last group comprises ambulant athletes with either impaired vision or impaired arm/leg function.^[22]

Fencing: Fencing is open to wheelchair athletes. There are only three classes; class A incorporates those athletes with good balance and recovery and full trunk movement; class B those with poor balance and recovery but full use of one or both upper limbs; class C athletes with severe physical impairment in all four limbs.^[23]

Football: There are two forms of football played at the Paralympics. The first is 5-a-side football, which is open to visually impaired athletes. The second is 7-a-side football, which open to athletes with cerebral palsy. 5-a-side football is open to all visually impaired athletes. Since there are different levels of visual impairment, all players except the goalie (who acts as a guide) are required to wear eye shades. The field dimensions are smaller than able-bodied football, there are only five players on the pitch and the ball makes a sound. Otherwise the rules are exactly the same as able-bodied football.^[24] Athletes competing in 7-a-side football is broken down into classes 5, 6, 7 and 8. All classes comprise ambulant athletes; class 5 being the least physically able, progressing through to class 8 who are minimally affected. Teams must include at least one athlete from either class 5 or 6. Furthermore no more than three players from class 8 are allowed to play at the same time. Other than the fact that the game is played with seven players the rest of the rules and dimensions of the playing field are the same as able-bodied football.^[25]

Goalball: Goalball is open to visually impaired athletes who must wear "black out" masks to ensure all participants can compete equally, therefore eliminating the need for classification. The ball has a bell in it to help the players react to the ball. Complete silence at the venue is required so that the athletes can orient themselves and to ensure fairness. There are no classifications because the visors even the playing field for all competitors.^[26]

Judo: Judo is open to visually impaired athletes. The rules are the same as able-bodied judo except that the players are allowed contact with their opponent prior to the start of the match. There is no classification as such, participants being divided into weight categories in the same way as able-bodied judo athletes.^[27]

Powerlifting: Powerlifting is open to athletes with Cerebral Palsy, spinal cord injuries, amputations (lower limb only), and Les Autres. Since the competition is a test of upper body strength the classifications are by weight category as in able-bodied powerlifting competition.^[28]

Sailing: Sailing is open to amputee, Cerebral Palsy, visually impaired, wheelchair and Les Autres athletes. There are three events for single, double, and triple-crew boats. Classification for sailing in the three-person event is based on a functional points system with low points for severely disabled athletes rising by scale to high points for less disabled athletes. A classification committee will evaluate each sailor and assign a point from one to seven based on their level of ability. Each crew of three is allowed a maximum of 14 points between them. The single-person event can be crewed regardless of points but the sailor must have at least a minimum level of disability which prevents them from competing on equal terms with able-bodied sailors. The two-person event is designed for more severely disabled athletes.^[29]

Shooting: Shooting is open to athletes with a physical disability. There are only two classes of competition, wheelchair and standing. There are two types of events, pistol and rifle. The athletes are broken down into classes based on their upper body functionality, balance, muscle strength and limb mobility. The three classes are SH1-competitors do not require a shooting stand, SH2-competitors cannot support the weight of the gun and require a shooting stand, and SH3-Rifle competitors with a visual impairment.^[30]

Swimming: Classification is divided into three groups: S1 to S10 are those with physical impairment. S1 will have the most severe impairment and an S10 a lesser impairment, for example a hand amputation. Athletes are judged on their muscle strenght, joint range of motion, limb lenght and movement co-ordination. S11 to S13 are those with a visual impairment. S11 will have little or no vision, S12 can recognise the shape of a hand and have some ability to see, S13 greater vision than the other two classes but less than 20 degrees of vision. S14 is for athletes with a learning difficulty.^[31]

Table Tennis: Table tennis is open to athletes with a physical disability. There are individual, doubles and team events. A match is 5 sets of 11 points each. The athletes are broken down into 10 divisions based on their level of function. Classes 1 to 5 are comprised of athletes competing from a wheelchair with class 1 being the most severely disabled and class 5 the least disabled. Classes 6 to 10 encompass ambulant athletes with class 6 the most severely disabled and class 10 the least.^[32]

Tennis: Tennis at the Paralympics is played with all the same rules as able-bodied tennis with the exception that the ball is allowed to bounce twice, and the first bounce must be with in the bounds of the court. It is open to athletes with a mobility related disability which means that they cannot compete on equal terms with able-bodied tennis players. The game is played from a wheelchair, with two classes, paraplegic (at least one leg must have a permanent and substantial loss of function) and quadriplegic (at least three limbs must have a permanent and substantial loss of function).^[33]

Volleyball: Volleyball is open to athletes with a physical disability and is performed from a seated position. In sitting volleyball the court is smaller than standard and has a lower net. In the sitting games the only classification rule is that each team may have only one player who fits the minimum disability rule, which is that their disability prevents them from competing on equal terms with able-bodied athletes. The other players on the team must demonstrate a higher level of disability.^[34]

Wheelchair rugby: Athletes are classified on a points system similar to wheelchair basketball, with the most severely disabled athlete being graded 0.5 points rising to 3.5 points for the physically more able. Each team has four players and is allowed a maximum of 8 points on court at any one time.

Winter Paralympics: Events with "B" in the code are for athletes with visual impairment, codes LW1 to LW9 are for athletes who stand to compete and LW10 to LW12 are for athletes who compete sitting down.^[35] In biathlon events, which contain a target shooting component, blind and visually impaired athletes are able to compete through the use of acoustic signals, whose signal intensity varies dependant upon whether or not the athlete is on target.^[36]

Notable champions and acheivements

Ragnhild Myklebust of Norway holds the record for the most medals ever won at the Winter Paralympic Games. Competing in a variety of events in 1988, 1992, 1994 and 2002, she won a total of 22 medals, of which 17 were gold. She won five gold medals at the 2002 Games and then retired at the age of 58.^[37] Neroli Fairhall, a paraplegic archer from New Zealand, was the first paraplegic competitor to participate in the Olympic Games, the 1984 Summer Olympic Games at Los Angeles. She placed thirty-fourth in the Olympic archery competition. She was also a Paralympic gold medalist.^[38]

Summer Games

	Summer Paralympic Games
Year	Games	Host City	Country
1960 Summer Paralympics	I	Rome	Italy
1964 Summer Paralympics	II	Tokyo	Japan
1968 Summer Paralympics	III	Tel Aviv	Israel
1972 Summer Paralympics	IV	Heidelberg	West Germany
1976 Summer Paralympics	V	Toronto	Canada
1980 Summer Paralympics	VI	Arnhem	Netherlands
1984 Summer Paralympics	VII	Stoke Mandeville New York	United Kingdom United States
1988 Summer Paralympics	VIII	Seoul	South Korea
1992 Summer Paralympics	IX	Barcelona	Spain
1996 Summer Paralympics	X	Atlanta	United States
2000 Summer Paralympics	XI	Sydney	Australia
2004 Summer Paralympics	XII	Athens	Greece
2008 Summer Paralympics	XIII	Beijing	China
2012 Summer Paralympics	XIV	London	United Kingdom
2016 Summer Paralympics	XV	Rio de Janeiro	Brazil

Source:^[39]

Summer sports

The following sports are currently on the Summer Paralympic Games program:

• Archery
• Athletics (track and field)
• Boccia
• Cycling
• Equestrian
• Football 5-a-side
• Football 7-a-side
• Goalball
• Judo
• Powerlifting
• Rowing
• Sailing
• Shooting
• Swimming
• Table Tennis
• Volleyball (sitting)
• Wheelchair basketball
• Wheelchair fencing
• Wheelchair rugby
• Wheelchair tennis

Sources:^[40][41][42]

The following sports are not included in the Summer Paralympic Games program, but are governed by the IPC^[40]:

• Bowls
• Wheelchair dance sport

Winter Games

	Winter Paralympic Games
Year	Games	Host City	Country
1976 Winter Paralympics	I	Örnsköldsvik	Sweden
1980 Winter Paralympics	II	Geilo	Norway
1984 Winter Paralympics	III	Innsbruck	Austria
1988 Winter Paralympics	IV	Innsbruck	Austria
1992 Winter Paralympics	V	Tignes – Albertville	France
1994 Winter Paralympics	VI	Lillehammer	Norway
1998 Winter Paralympics	VII	Nagano	Japan
2002 Winter Paralympics	VIII	Salt Lake City	United States
2006 Winter Paralympics	IX	Turin	Italy
2010 Winter Paralympics	X	Vancouver	Canada
2014 Winter Paralympics	XI	Sochi	Russia

Source:^[39]

Winter sports

The following sports are on the current Winter Paralympic Games program:

• Alpine skiing
• Ice sledge hockey
• Nordic skiing
  • Biathlon
  • Cross-country skiing
• Wheelchair curling

Source:^[40][42]

See also

• All-time Paralympic Games medal table
• Deaflympics
• Disabled sports
• Extremity Games

References

Further reading

• P. David Howe, The Cultural Politics of the Paralympic Movement. Through an Anthropological Lens, Routledge, 2008, ISBN 978-0-415-28887-3
• Peterson, Cynthia and Robert D. Steadward. Paralympics : Where Heroes Come, 1998, One Shot Holdings, ISBN 0968209203.
• Thomas and Smith, Disability, Sport and Society, Routledge, 2008, ISBN 978-0-415-37819-2.

External links

• Paralympic Link Directory
• Official IPC Website
• Paralympics History By Susana Correia in Accessible Portugal Online Magazine