A hacker is a member of the computer programmer subculture originated in the 1960s in the United States academia, in particular around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)'s Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) and MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.^{[citation needed]} Nowadays, this subculture is mainly associated with the free software movement.^{[citation needed]}

Contents 1 Definition 2 History 3 Ethics and principles 4 Artifacts and customs 5 Documents 6 Use outside of computing 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

[edit] Definition

The Jargon File, a compendium of hacker slang, defines hacker as "A person who enjoys exploring the details of programmable systems and stretching their capabilities, as opposed to most users, who prefer to learn only the minimum necessary." ^[1] The Request for Comments (RFC) 1392, the Internet Users' Glossary, amplifies this meaning as "A person who delights in having an intimate understanding of the internal workings of a system, computers and computer networks in particular." ^[2] As documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general public's usage of the word hacker to refer to security breakers, calling them “crackers” instead. This includes both “good” crackers (“white hat hackers”) who use their computer security related skills and knowledge to learn more about how systems and networks work and to help to discover and fix security holes, as well as those more shady crackers (“black hat hackers”) who use the same skills to author harmful software (like viruses, trojans, etc.) and illegally infiltrate secure systems with the intention of doing harm to the system.^{[citation needed]} The programmer subculture of hackers, in contrast to the cracker community, generally sees computer security related activities as contrary to the ideals of the original and true meaning of the hacker term that instead related to playful cleverness.^{[citation needed]}

The prevalent meaning of hacker meaning security breaker is so strong that even within the computer context, many incorrectly believe the programmer subculture to be computer security related, too, and confusing it with white hat hackers.^{[citation needed]} The actual ideals of the programmer subculture hackers have nothing to do with computer security. Rather, they are about the right to have a software system that can be freely studied, modified and shared with other hackers. This implies the rejection of any monopoly on knowledge of such systems.^{[citation needed]} However, it does not, neither in theory, nor in practice, imply breaking into computers or exploiting security holes to achieve these goals.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] History

Before communications between computers and computer users was as networked as it is now, there were multiple independent and parallel hacker subcultures, often unaware or only partially aware of each others' existence.^{[citation needed]} All of these had certain important traits in common:^{[citation needed]}

• Creating software and sharing it with each other
• Placing a high value on freedom of inquiry; hostility to secrecy
• Information-sharing as both an ideal and a practical strategy
• Upholding the right to fork
• Emphasis on rationality
• Distaste for authority
• Playful cleverness, taking the serious humorously and their humor seriously

These sorts of subcultures were commonly found at academic settings such as college campuses.^{[citation needed]} The MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the University of California, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon University were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture.^{[citation needed]} They evolved in parallel, and largely unconsciously, until the Internet, where a legendary PDP-10 machine at MIT, called AI, that was running ITS, provided an early meeting point of the hacker community.^{[citation needed]} This and other developments such as the rise of the free software movement drew together a critically large population and encouraged the spread of a conscious, common, and systematic ethos.^{[citation needed]} Symptomatic of this evolution were an increasing adoption of common slang and a shared view of history, similar to the way in which other occupational groups have professionalized themselves but without the formal credentialing process characteristic of most professional groups.^{[citation needed]}

Over time, the academic hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive, and better organized.^{[citation needed]} The most important consciousness-raising moments have included the composition of the first Jargon File in 1973, the promulgation of the GNU Manifesto in 1985, and the publication of The Cathedral and the Bazaar in 1997.^{[citation needed]} Correlated with this has been the gradual election of a set of shared culture heroes: Bill Joy, Donald Knuth, Dennis Ritchie, Alan Kay, Ken Thompson, Richard M. Stallman, Linus Torvalds, Larry Wall, and Guido Van Rossum, among others.^{[citation needed]}

The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly been driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology, and has in turn accelerated that process.^{[citation needed]} In 1975, hackerdom was scattered across several different families of operating systems and disparate networks;^{[citation needed]} today it is largely a Unix and TCP/IP phenomenon, and is concentrated around various operating systems based on free software and open-source software development.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Ethics and principles

Many of the values and tenets of the free and open source software movement stem from the hacker ethics that originated at MIT^{[citation needed]} and at the Homebrew Computer Club.^{[citation needed]} The so-called Hacker Ethics were chronicled by Steven Levy in Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution^[3] and in other texts.^{[citation needed]}

Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration,^{[citation needed]} and engaging in the Hands-On Imperative.^[3]

[edit] Artifacts and customs

The academic hacker subculture is defined by shared work and play focused around central artifacts.^{[citation needed]} Some of these artifacts are very large; the Internet, the World Wide Web, the GNU Project, and the Linux kernel are all hacker creations,^{[citation needed]} works of which the subculture considers itself primary custodian.^{[citation needed]}

The academic hacker subculture has developed a rich^{[citation needed]} range of symbols that serve as recognition symbols and reinforce its group identity.^{[citation needed]} GNU's Gnu; the BSD Daemon; Tux, the Linux penguin; and the Perl Camel stand out as examples. The use of the glider structure from Conway's Game of Life as a general Hacker Emblem has been proposed by Eric S. Raymond.^{[citation needed]}

The academic hacker subculture has an annual ceremonial day—April Fool's.^{[citation needed]} There is a long tradition of perpetrating elaborate jokes, hoaxes, pranks and fake websites on this date,^{[citation needed]} which includes the publication of the annual joke RFC.

[edit] Documents

The Jargon File has had a special role in acculturating hackers since its origins in the early 1970s. Many textbooks and some literary works shaped the academic hacker subculture;^{[citation needed]} among the most influential^{[citation needed]} are:

• Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, by Steven Levy
• Gödel, Escher, Bach, by Douglas Hofstadter
• The Art of Computer Programming (TAOCP), by Donald Knuth
• The Mythical Man-Month, by Brooks
• Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools ("the Dragon Book"), by Aho, Sethi, and Ullman
• Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs (SICP), by Abelson and Sussman
• The C Programming Language (K&R), by Kernighan and Ritchie
• The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, by Douglas Adams
• The Tao of Programming, by Geoffrey James
• The Illuminatus! Trilogy, by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson
• Principia Discordia, by Greg Hill and Kerry Thornley
• The Soul of a New Machine, by Tracy Kidder
• The Cuckoo's Egg, by Cliff Stoll
• The Unix System, by Stephen R. Bourne
• Hackers & Painters, by Paul Graham
• The Cathedral and the Bazaar, by Eric S. Raymond
• The essays of Richard M. Stallman (many published in Free Software, Free Society: Select Essays of Richard M. Stallman)

[edit] Use outside of computing

While the word hacker to refer to someone who enjoys playful cleverness is most often applied to computer programmers, it is sometimes used for people who apply the same attitude to other fields.^[4] For example, Richard Stallman describes the silent composition 4′33″ by John Cage and the 14th century palindromic three-part piece "Ma Fin Est Mon Commencement" by Guillaume de Machaut as hacks.^[5] According to the Jargon File,^[1] the word hacker was used in a similar sense among radio amateurs in the 1950s, even predating the software hacking community. More recent examples of this usage are:

• reality hacker, a person who explores the underlying reality of existence using any tools available;
• wetware hacker, someone who experiments with biological materials to advance knowledge;
• media hacker, someone who uses media in innovative ways.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• A Brief History of Hackerdom