A revised six-kingdom system of life is presented, down to the level of infraphylum. As in my
1983 system Bacteria are treated as a single kingdom, and eukaryotes are divided into only …

We present a consensus classification of life to embrace the more than 1.6 million species
already provided by more than 3,000 taxonomists’ expert opinions in a unified and coherent, …

The demarcation of protist kingdoms is reviewed, a complete revised classification down to
the level of subclass is provided for the kingdoms Protozoa, Archezoa, and Chromista, and …

Eukaryotes and archaebacteria form the clade neomura and are sisters, as shown decisively
by genes fragmented only in archaebacteria and by many sequence trees. This sisterhood …

Discoveries of numerous new taxa and advances in ultrastructure and sequence phylogeny
(including here the first site-heterogeneous 18S rDNA trees) require major improvements to …

The 40000-f0ld variation in eukaryote haploid DNA content is unrelated to organismic complexity
or to the numbers of protein-coding genes. In eukaryote microorganisms, as well as in …

The biggest unsolved problems in chloroplast evolution are the origins of dinoflagellate and
euglenoid chloroplasts, which have envelopes of three membranes not two like plants and …

There are many more phyla of microbes than of macro–organisms, but microbial biodiversity
is poorly understood because most microbes are uncultured. Phylogenetic analysis of rDNA …

Prokaryotes constitute a single kingdom, Bacteria, here divided into two new subkingdoms:
Negibacteria, with a cell envelope of two distinct genetic membranes, and Unibacteria, …

Membrane heredity was central to the unique symbiogenetic origin from cyanobacteria of
chloroplasts in the ancestor of Plantae (green plants, red algae, glaucophytes) and to …