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==Implications of the current political status== |
==Implications of the current political status== |
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{{Main|Implications of Puerto Rico's current political status}} |
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The current political status of Puerto Rico has ramifications into many spheres of Puerto Rican life, and there are limits to the level of autonomy the Puerto Rican government has. For example, the Island's government is not fully autonomous, and the level of federal presence in the Island is common place, including a branch of teh United States Federal District Court. There are also implications relative to the American citizenship carried by people born in Puerto Rico. Specifically, although people borm in the Commonwelath of Puerto Rico are natural born US citizens, they are not Article 14 citizens. As such, the American citizneship of any person born on the Island can be, individually or collectively, taken away by the U.S. Congress unilaterally. Puerto Ricans are also covered by a group of "fundamental civil rights" but, since Puerto Rico is not a state, Puerto Ricans are not covered by the full American [[Bill of Rights]]. As for taxation and representation, Puerto Rican pay all U.S. federal taxes, including federal income taxes. However, for a variety of reasons -- such as median income level of the average resident -- most Puerto Ricans do not pay federal income taxes. Representation-wise, PuertoR icans have no voting representative in the U.S. Congress, but do have a [[Resident Commissioner]] who has a voice in Congress (but no vote except for committee-level voting). Puerto Ricans must also serve in the United States military with the same duties as a US citizen residing in the other 50 states. |
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===Level of autonomy=== |
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Under the [[Constitution of Puerto Rico]], Puerto Rico designates itself with the term Commonwealth and Puerto Ricans have a degree of [[autonomous entity|administrative autonomy]] similar to citizens of a [[U.S. state]] and like the States, it has a republican form of government, organized pursuant to a constitution adopted by its people, and a bill of rights. The constitution, approved by the U.S. congress, went into effect in 1952. In addition, like the States, Puerto Rico lacks "the full sovereignty of an independent nation," for example, the power to manage its "external relations with other nations," which was retained by the Federal Government. |
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Constitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the Congress' plenary powers under the [[territorial clause]] of Article IV, sec. 3, of the U.S. Constitution.<ref>U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3, cl. 2 ("The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States ...").</ref> U.S. federal law applies to Puerto Rico, even though Puerto Rico is not a [[U.S. State|state]] of the American Union and their residents have no voting representation in the U.S. Congress. Because of the establishment of the Federal Relations Act of 1950, all federal laws that are "not locally inapplicable" are automatically the law of the land in Puerto Rico.<ref name="CRS RL32933">{{cite web |url =http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf |title = Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress |accessdate =December 3, 2009 |date=April 23, 2010 |author=Keith Bea |author2=R. Sam Garrett |work=Congressional Research Service CRS RL32933 |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |format=PDF}}<!-- previous (better?) cite went dead: {{cite web |url = http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS:_Political_Status_of_Puerto_Rico:_Options_for_Congress%2C_May_29%2C_2008 |title = Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress |accessdate =December 3, 2009 |date = May 17, 2000 |work=Congressional Research Service CRS RL32933 |publisher=United States Congressional Research Service |format=PDF}}--></ref></blockquote><ref>39 Stat. 954, 48 USCA 734 {{USC|48|734}}. "The statutory laws of the United States not locally inapplicable, except as hereinbefore or hereinafter otherwise provided, shall have the same force and effect in Porto Rico as in the United States ...".</ref></blockquote> Following the 1950 and 1952 legislation, only two district court decisions have held that a particular federal law, which does not specifically exclude or treat Puerto Rico differently, is inapplicable to Puerto Rico.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} The more recent decision was vacated on appeal.<ref>See United States v. Rios, 140 F. Supp. 376 (D.P.R. 1956) (refusing to apply the Federal Firearms Act to transactions solely within Puerto Rico); United States. v. Acosta Martínez, 106 F. Supp 2d 311 (D.P.R. 2000) (refusing to apply federal death penalty to Puerto Rico), rev’d 252 F. 3d 13 (1st Cir. 2001); cert. denied 535 U.S. 906 (2002).</ref> Efrén Rivera Ramos, Dean and Professor of Law at the University of Puerto Rico School of Law,<ref>{{cite web |title=Efrén Rivera-Ramos, |publisher=[http://www.law.yale.edu/ Yale Law School].}}</ref> clarified the meaning of ''plenary powers'', explaining, "The government of a state derives its powers from the people of the state, whereas the government of a territory owes its existence wholly to the United States. The Court thus seems to equate plenary power to exclusive power. The U.S. government could exert over the territory power that it could not exercise over the states." Ramos quotes Justice Harlan, writing in ''Grafton v. United States'', {{ussc|206|333|1907}}, "The jurisdiction and authority of the United States over that territory [referring to the Philippines] and its inhabitants, for all legitimate purposes of government is paramount,". Ramos then goes on to argue "This power, however, is not absolute, for it is restrained by some then-undefined [[fundamental rights]] possessed by anyone subject to the authority of the U.S. government."<ref>{{cite book|author=Ramos |
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|last=Ramos |
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|first=Efrén Rivera |
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|chapter=Puerto Rico's Political Status: The Long-Term Effects of American Expansionist Discourse |
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|chapter-url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ayINMX_RtkEC&pg=PA165 |
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|editor1-last=Levinson |
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|editor1-first=Sanford |
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|editor2-last= Sparrow |
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|editor2-first=Bartholomew H. |
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|title=The Louisiana Purchase and American expansion, 1803–1898 |
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|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ayINMX_RtkEC |
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|year=2005 |
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|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |
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|isbn=978-0-7425-4984-5 |
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|pages=[http://books.google.com/books?id=ayINMX_RtkEC&pg=PA168 168]}}</ref> |
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===Citizenship=== |
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Since 1917, people born in Puerto Rico have been given [[U.S. citizens]]hip. United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico, whether born there or not, are not residents of a state or the District of Columbia and, therefore, do not qualify to vote, personally or through an absentee ballot, in federal elections. ''See also:'' "[[Voting rights in Puerto Rico]]". |
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Puerto Ricans "were collectively made [[U.S. citizenship#Birthright citizenship|U.S. citizens]]" in 1917 as a result of the [[Jones-Shafroth Act]].<ref>[The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803–1898. By Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2005. Page 166, 178.]"U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act, chap. 190, 39 Stat. 951 (1971)(codified at 48 U.S.C. § 731 (1987)")</ref> The act was signed into law by President [[Woodrow Wilson]] on {{Nowrap|March 2}} 1917. |
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Clarification of federal law codified on U.S. Code Title 8 as {{USC|8|1402}}, approved by President [[Harry S. Truman]] on {{Nowrap|June 27}} 1952, declared all persons born in Puerto Rico on or after {{Nowrap|January 13}} 1941 to be U.S. citizens at birth and all persons born in Puerto Rico between {{Nowrap|April 11}} 1899 and {{Nowrap|January 12}} 1941, and meeting certain other technical requirements, and not citizens of the United States under any other Act, are declared to be citizens of the U.S. as of {{Nowrap|January 13}} 1941.<ref name="Constitutional Topic: Citizenship">{{Cite document |url=http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_citi.html |title=Constitutional Topic: Citizenship |publisher=U.S. Constitution Online |accessdate=June 6, 2009 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> |
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In addition, an April 2000 [[Congressional Research Service Report|report]] by the [[Congressional Research Service]], asserts that citizens born in Puerto Rico are legally defined as [[natural born citizen]]s and are therefore eligible to be elected President, provided they meet qualifications of age and 14 years residence within the United States. According to this report, residence in Puerto Rico and U.S. territories and possessions does not qualify as residence within the United States for these purposes.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30527.pdf |title = Presidential elections in the United States: a primer |accessdate =December 3, 2009|date =April 17, 2000|work=Congressional Research Service |publisher=United States Congressional Research Service |format=PDF}}</ref></blockquote> |
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===Rights of residents=== |
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Since Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory (see above) and not a U.S. state, the [[United States Constitution]] does not fully [[enfranchise]] [[US citizen]]s residing in Puerto Rico.<ref name="Constitutional Topic: Citizenship"/><ref name="U.S. Department of State">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/86756.pdf |title=U.S. Department of State. Foreign Affairs Manual: Volume 7 – Consular Affairs (7 FAM 1120) ',Acquisition of U.S. Nationality in U.S. Territories and Possessions.', Pages 1–3. |format=PDF |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> |
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Only the "[[fundamental right]]s" under the federal constitution apply to Puerto Rico, including the [[Privileges and Immunities Clause]] ([[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]], Article IV, Section 2, Clause 1, also known as the Comity Clause) that prevents a state from treating citizens of other states in a discriminatory manner, with regard to basic civil rights. The clause also embraces a right to travel, so that a citizen of one state can have privileges and immunities in any other state; this constitutional clause regarding the rights, privileges, and immunities of citizens of the United States was expressly extended to Puerto Rico by the [[U.S. Congress]] through the federal law codified on the Title 48 of the United States Code as {{USC|48|737}} and signed by President Truman in 1947.<ref name="U.S. Department of State"/><ref>{{Cite document |url=http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=105_house_hearings&docid=f:40445.pdf |title=Puerto Rico Status Hearing before the Committee on Resources House of Representative One Hundred Fifth Congress |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |accessdate=June 7, 2009 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref><ref name="Torres v. Puerto Rico">''[[Torres v. Puerto Rico]]''.</ref> The Supreme Court has indicated that once the Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the Courts), its coverage is irrevocable. 'To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is." '.<ref>[[Downes v. Bidwell]], 182 U.S. 244, 261 (1901), commenting on an earlier Supreme Court decision, ''Loughborough v. Blake'', 18 U.S. (5 Wheat.) 317 (1820); ''Rasmussen v. United States'', 197 U.S. 516, 529–530, 536 (1905) (concurring opinions of Justices Harlan and Brown), that once the Constitution has been extended to an area, its coverage is irrevocable; ''[[Boumediene v. Bush]]''—That where the Constitution has been once formally extended by Congress to territories, neither Congress nor the territorial legislature can enact laws inconsistent therewith. The Constitution grants Congress and the President the power to acquire, dispose of, and govern territory, not the power to decide when and where its terms apply.</ref> |
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Other fundamental rights such as the [[Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eleventh Amendment]] and the [[Dormant Commerce Clause]] were expressly extended by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit]], and the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]], [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]], [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]], the [[due process]] clause and the [[equal protection]] guarantee of the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] were expressly extended to Puerto Rico by the [[U.S. Supreme court]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=478&invol=328 |title=Posadas de Puerto Rico Assoc. v. Tourism Co., 478 U.S. 328 (1986) |publisher=FindLaw |accessdate=January 10, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{ussc|478|328|1986}}</ref><ref>[[Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Company of Puerto Rico]]</ref><ref>[[Examining Board v. Flores de Otero]]</ref><ref>[[Puerto Rico v. Branstad]] – [[Extradition Clause]] was expressly extended by the U.S. Supreme Court to Puerto Rico.</ref> |
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In a brief concurrence in the judgment of ''[[Torres v. Puerto Rico]]'',<ref>{{ussc|442|465|1979}}</ref> Supreme Court Justice [[William J. Brennan Jr.|Brennan]] argued that any implicit limits from the Insular Cases on the basic rights granted by the Constitution (including especially the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]]) were anachronistic in the 1970s.<ref name=Rullan/><ref>[[Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution]]</ref><ref>[[Dormant Commerce Clause]]</ref> |
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===Judiciary=== |
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[[Article Three of the United States Constitution]] establishes the [[judicial branch]] of the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]]. This article was expressly extended to the [[United States District Court]] for [[United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico|the District of Puerto Rico]] by the U.S. Congress through Federal Law 89-571, 80 Stat. 764, signed by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in 1966. After that date, judges appointed to the Puerto Rico federal district court have been Article III judges appointed under the Constitution of the United States. In addition, in 1984 one of the judges of the federal district court, Chief Judge [[Juan R. Torruella]], a native of the island, was appointed to serve in the [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit]] with jurisdiction over Puerto Rico, [[Massachusetts]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Maine]], and [[New Hampshire]].<ref name=Rullan/> |
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===Federal presence=== |
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Federal executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico, just as in any state, such as the [[U.S. Attorney]], [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]], [[Drug Enforcement Administration]], [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]], [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]], [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]], [[Homeland Security]], [[U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement]], [[Internal Revenue Service]], [[U.S. Marshals Service]], [[National Labor Relations Board]], [[U.S. Postal Service]], [[Social Security Administration]], and [[Transportation Security Administration]]. The island's economic, commercial, and banking systems are integrated to those of the United States.<ref name=Rullan>''[http://puertoricoadvancement.org/Documents/Consejo%20De%20Salud%20Playa%20De%20Ponce%20V.%20Johnny%20Rullan%20-%20Secretary%20of%20Health%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf Consejo de Salud Playa de Ponce v. Rullan]'', 586 F.Supp.2d 22 (D.P.R. 2008)</ref> |
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===Taxation=== |
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The U.S. Government classifies Puerto Rico as an independent taxation authority by Federal Law codified on the Title 48 of the United States Code as {{USC|48|734}}. Puerto Rico residents are required to pay U.S. federal taxes, import/export taxes,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stanford.wellsphere.com/healthcare-industry-policy-article/puerto-rico/267827 |title=Puerto Ricans pay import/export taxes |publisher=Stanford.wellsphere.com |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> federal commodity taxes,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stanford.wellsphere.com/healthcare-industry-policy-article/puerto-rico/267827 |title=Puerto Ricans pay federal commodity taxes |publisher=Stanford.wellsphere.com |date= |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> social security taxes etc. Individuals working with the Federal Government pay [[Income tax in the United States|federal income taxes]] while the rest of the residents are required to pay federal [[payroll tax]]es ([[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irs.gov/taxtopics/tc903.html |title=Internal Revenue Service. ',Topic 903 – Federal Employment Tax in Puerto Rico', |publisher=Irs.gov |date=December 18, 2009 |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> and [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]),<ref name=reuters2009-09-24>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSTRE58N5X320090924 |title=Reuters. ',Puerto Rico hopes to gain from U.S. healthcare reform.', 24 September 2009 |agency=Reuters |date= September 24, 2009|accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> as well as Commonwealth of Puerto Rico income taxes. All federal employees,<ref>{{cite web|last=Schaefer |first=Brett |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2009/03/dc-voting-rights-no-representation-no-taxation |title=The Heritage Foundation, 11 March 2009. ',D.C. Voting Rights: No Representation? No Taxation!', By Robert A. Book, PhD |publisher=Heritage.org |accessdate=October 16, 2010}}</ref> plus those who do business with the federal government,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcvpr.com/CM/CurrentEvents/CEOsummitarticle.pdf |title=Puerto Rico Manufacturers Association, CEO Summit. ',Federal and Local Incentives: Where we are, Where We Want to be. By Amaya Iraolagoitia, Partner, Tax Dept. |format=PDF |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> in addition to Puerto Rico-based corporations that intend to send funds to the U.S.,<ref name=jct>{{cite web|url=http://www.jct.gov/x-24-06.pdf |title=Joint Committee on Taxation. ''An Overview of the Special Tax Rules Related to Puerto Rico and an Analysis of the Tax and Economic Policy Implications of Recent Legislative Options'' |format=PDF |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> and some others{{#Tag:Ref|Members of the military must pay federal income tax<ref name=reuters2009-09-24 /> as well as those who are residents of Puerto Rico but with income sourced in the US mainland.<ref name=jct />}} also pay [[Income tax in the United States|federal income taxes]]. In 2009, Puerto Rico paid {{Nowrap|$3.742 billion}} into the [[US Treasury]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-soi/09db05co.xls |title=Table 5. Internal Revenue Gross Collections, by Type of Tax and State, Fiscal year 2009 |publisher=[http://www.irs.gov/ irs.gov] |format=XLS}}</ref> |
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Because residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, they are eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement, but are excluded from the [[Supplemental Security Income]] (SSI), and the island actually receives less than 15% of the [[Medicaid]] funding it would normally receive if it were a U.S. state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.magiccarpetautotransport.com/auto-transport/puerto-rico-auto-transport.php |title=Puerto Rico receives less than 15% of the Medicaid funding that similar states of the Union currently receive |publisher=Magiccarpetautotransport.com |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> Yet Medicare providers receive less-than-full state-like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prfaa.com/news/?p=252 |title=News & Media |publisher=PRFAA |date=July 6, 2009 |accessdate=October 30, 2011}}</ref> |
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===Political participation=== |
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Since 1961, several Puerto Ricans have been appointed by the President, upon the advice and consent of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] to serve as [[Ambassadors of the United States|United States Ambassadors]] to [[Venezuela]], Spain, [[Costa Rica]], [[Chile]], the [[Dominican Republic]], and the Republics of [[Mauritius]] and [[Seychelles]]. A Puerto Rican was also appointed by President [[Barack Obama|Obama]] as ambassador to [[El Salvador]]. Pending the advice and consent of the United States Senate, the President issued a recess appointment so that the Ambassador could assume her post.<ref>[http://www.miamiherald.com/2010/08/20/1784514/obama-names-aponte-el-salvador.html]{{Dead link|date=October 2010|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2010/08/20/1784514/obama-names-aponte-el-salvador.html}}</ref> As embassies fall within the [[US Department of State|Department of State]], ambassadors answer to the [[US Secretary of State|Secretary of State]].<ref name="puertoricoadvancement.org">{{Cite document |url=http://puertoricoadvancement.org/Documents/Consejo%20De%20Salud%20Playa%20De%20Ponce%20V.%20Johnny%20Rullan%20-%20Secretary%20of%20Health%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf |title= Consejo de Salud Playa de Ponce v Johnny Rullan, Secretary of Health of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico |publisher=The United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico |accessdate=December 31, 2009 |postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> |
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Puerto Rico also participates in the [[primary election|primary process]] of the [[Democratic Party of the United States|Democratic]] and [[Republican Party of the United States|Republican]] parties of the United States, is accorded a proportional representation in both parties, and local delegates vote during each party's [[United States presidential nominating convention|national convention]]. |
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===Military service=== |
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Puerto Ricans may enlist in the U.S. military. Since 1917, Puerto Ricans have been included in the compulsory draft whenever it has been in effect and more than 400,000 Puerto Ricans have served in the United States Armed Forces. Puerto Ricans have participated in all U.S. wars since 1898, most notably [[Puerto Ricans in World War I|World War I]], [[Puerto Ricans in World War II|World War II]], the [[65th Infantry Regiment (United States)|Korean]] and [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] wars, as well as the current [[Middle Eastern conflicts]]. Several Puerto Ricans became notable commanders, five have been awarded the [[Medal of Honor]], the highest military decoration in the United States, and several Puerto Ricans have attained the rank of [[General (United States)|General]] or [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]], which requires a Presidential nomination and Senate confirmation, as is the case of judges and ambassadors.<ref name=Rullan/> In World War II,<ref name="PRS">[http://www.prsoldier.com/17-aug2005.pdf Who was Agustín Ramos Calero?], ''The Puerto Rican Soldier'', {{Nowrap|August 17}} 2005. PDF format. Retrieved {{Nowrap|November 19}} 2006. {{Dead link|date=October 2010|url=http://www.prsoldier.com/17-aug2005.pdf}}</ref> the Korean War<ref name="MC">{{cite web |author=Mr. Asencio |url=http://www.valerosos.com/CCFSpringOffensive.pdf |title=Grave and Ever Present Danger: The CCF Spring Offensives, Part I – April 1951 |page=10 |publisher=[http://www.valerosos.com/ valerosos.com] |accessdate=October 16, 2010}}</ref> and the Vietnam War<ref Name="COL">{{cite web|url=http://www.cityoflorain.org/calendar/?e=36222 |title=City of Lorain |publisher=City of Lorain |accessdate=August 14, 2010}}</ref> Puerto Ricans were the most decorated Hispanic soldiers and in some cases were the first to die in combat.<ref>{{cite news |first=Nadine |last=Brozan |title=Chronicle |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE4D6103EF932A2575BC0A964958260 |work=New York Times |date=August 11, 1992|accessdate=January 2, 2008}}</ref><ref name=Nieves>Nieves, ''New York Times'', 1993</ref> |
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==Status questions== |
==Status questions== |
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===Plebiscites=== |
===Plebiscites=== |
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{{main|Puerto Rico political status plebiscites}} |
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In general, three main alternatives are presented to Puerto Rican voters in status plebiscites: |
In general, three main alternatives are presented to Puerto Rican voters in status plebiscites: |
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* Full independence |
* Full independence |
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| <!--See talk page--> 66%<ref>[http://wikileaks.org/leak/crs/RL32933.pdf ''Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress.'' Report RL32933. By Keith Bea and R. Sam Garrett, Government and Finance Division. Congressional Research Service. Updated May 29, 2008. Page 32. Appendix B: Puerto Rico Status Votes in Plebiscites and Referenda, 1967–1998. (A ''WikiLeaks Document Release.'' At: http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS-RL32933. Dated February 2, 2009.] Retrieved December 5, 2009. {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref>[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf ''Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress.'' Report RL32933. By Keith Bea and R. Sam Garrett, Congressional Research Service. Dated June 19, 2009. Page 29. Table B-1: Puerto Rico Status Votes in Plebiscites and Referenda, 1967–1998. Page 29.] Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref> || 74% || 71% || colspan="2"| 79% |
| <!--See talk page--> 66%<ref>[http://wikileaks.org/leak/crs/RL32933.pdf ''Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress.'' Report RL32933. By Keith Bea and R. Sam Garrett, Government and Finance Division. Congressional Research Service. Updated May 29, 2008. Page 32. Appendix B: Puerto Rico Status Votes in Plebiscites and Referenda, 1967–1998. (A ''WikiLeaks Document Release.'' At: http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS-RL32933. Dated February 2, 2009.] Retrieved December 5, 2009. {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref>[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf ''Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress.'' Report RL32933. By Keith Bea and R. Sam Garrett, Congressional Research Service. Dated June 19, 2009. Page 29. Table B-1: Puerto Rico Status Votes in Plebiscites and Referenda, 1967–1998. Page 29.] Retrieved December 5, 2009.</ref> || 74% || 71% || colspan="2"| 79% |
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The exact significance of referendum results is debated by local observers. The 1967 results showed strong support for maintaining the commonwealth, but this victory was followed by the first loss in twenty years of governorship by the [[Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico|Popular Democratic Party]], the main supporter of the commonwealth association. This occurred in part because of bickering leadership. The 1993 results appear to protest the ideas or forum used to change status as imposed by the then-ruling [[Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico|Popular Democratic Party]]; the demands were controversial because there was no assurance, and great doubt, that they would be accepted by Congress. The 1998 results, where "none of the above", which was the PPD sponsored choice was the winner, protested criteria set forth by the then ruling [[New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico]]. |
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====The 1967 plebiscite==== |
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{{main|Puerto Rican status referendum, 1967}} |
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In 1967, the Legislative Assembly tested the political interests of the Puerto Rican people by passing a local [[Plebiscite]] Act that allowed a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice on three status options. At 60.4% percent of the vote, the commonwealth option won the majority vote. Following this plebiscite, efforts in the 1970s to enact legislation to address the status issue died in congressional committees. |
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====The 1991 Constitutional Amendment Referendum==== |
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{{main|Puerto Rican constitutional referendum, 1991}} |
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The 1991 Referendum on the proposed "Claim to Democratic Rights" asked the voters to approve the addition of an amendment to the Puerto Rican constitution. The wording of this amendment would guarantee: |
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* The inalienable right to freely and democratically determine Puerto Rico's political status. |
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* The right to choose a dignified, non-colonial, non-territorial status not subordinate to plenary powers of Congress. |
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* The right to vote for three alternatives. |
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* The right that only results with a majority will be considered triumphant in a plebiscite. |
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* The right that any status would protect Puerto Rico's culture, language and identity, and continued independent participation in international sports events. |
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* The right that any status guarantees the individual's right to American citizenship. |
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Passage of this referendum would have constituted a claim for the government of Puerto Rico to establish these rights in the [[Commonwealth of Puerto Rico]] constitution and petition the President and Congress for these rights, but it was rejected by the people of Puerto Rico on a vote of 660,264 (53%) against to 559,259 (44.9%) in favor.<ref>[http://electionspuertorico.org/archivo/1991.html ''El Archivo de las Elecciones en Puerto Rico: Escrutinio del Referéndum del 8 de diciembre de 1991. Reclamación de Derechos Democráticos.'' (In Spanish) '''Elecciones en Puerto Rico.''' By Manuel Álvarez Rivera.] Claim to Democratic Rights. Retrieved December 21, 2009.</ref> |
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As per the Congressional Research Service report, despite PDP and PIP support, a majority (53%) voted against the proposal. Some contended that the decision to schedule the referendum represented an indirect step to block statehood. Others perceived the rejection to reflect dissatisfaction with the governor. Another explanation offered for the vote was that some cast their ballots out of fear that a “yes” vote would result in a further degradation of federal benefits and the loss of U.S. citizenship.<ref name="fas.org">[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf '''Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress.''' page 18.]</ref> |
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====The 1993 plebiscite==== |
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{{main|Puerto Rican status referendum, 1993}} |
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A subsequent plebiscite was organized by the Puerto Rican government in 1993 (in which the Congress played a more substantial role) where, at 48.6%, the commonwealth status managed to win a plurality, though not a majority vote. The current political status (''status quo'') failed to receive the majority support it sought.<ref>[http://electionspuertorico.org/1993/summary.html Elections in Puerto Rico: 1993 Status Plebiscite Results].</ref><ref>[http://electionspuertorico.org/1998/summary.html Elections in Puerto Rico: 1998 Status Plebiscite Results].</ref> |
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U.S. Congress played a more substantial role in the 1993 plebiscite than it did in the 1967 plebiscite. In the 1992 election campaign, the PNP candidate for governor urged, and the legislature agreed, that a plebiscite on status be held “after the U.S. Congress failed to approve” status legislation. Since definitions on the ballot were formulated by the political parties themselves, neither Congress nor executive branch officials intervened to ensure that the alternatives presented to the voters would pass constitutional muster. The disconnect between the ballot option and |
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constitutional requirements was summarized in the House report accompanying legislation introduced three years after the plebiscite, as follows: |
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The 1993 definition of “Commonwealth” failed to present the voters with status options consistent with full self-government, and it was misleading to propose to the voters an option which was unconstitutional and unacceptable to the Congress in almost every respect. |
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No option on the ballot in 1993 received a majority of votes. Some contend that statehood may have suffered the greatest loss, considering the governor and the legislature were members of the PNP and the plebiscite itself was a major campaign promise for the governor. Others may argue |
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that PDP advocates did not achieve a final victory in the 1993 vote because Congress rejected the commonwealth option presented on ballots. In the end, Commonwealth status was again upheld in the 1993 plebiscite.<ref name="fas.org"/><ref>For complete statistics of these plebiscites, see [http://electionspuertorico.org/cgi-bin/events.cgi Elections in Puerto Rico:Results].</ref> |
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====The 1998 plebiscite==== |
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{{main|Puerto Rican status referendum, 1998}} |
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In the last locally organized plebiscite held in Puerto Rico, which took place on December 13, 1998, the current ''status quo'' (Commonwealth status) received less than one tenth of one percent (0.06%) of the total vote.<ref>[http://eleccionespuertorico.org/cgi-bin/eventos.cgi?evento=1998 Puerto Rico State Electoral Commission: Official Results for the 1998 Political-Status Plebiscite]</ref> The majority vote went to a "none of the above" option which received 50.3%. This was followed by the statehood option which received 46.7%. The option of independence received 2.5% of the vote. |
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====2012 plebiscite==== |
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{{main|Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012|Proposed political status for Puerto Rico}} |
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On November 6, 2012, a fourth status plebicite took place. This one consisted of two questions. The first question asked voters whether they wanted to maintain the existing commonwealth status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution or whether they preferred a nonterritorial option. The second question asked voters which would be the preferred alternative if a non-territorial option was wanted and gave voters to choose between three non-territorial alternatives: statehood, independence, or free association.<ref>[http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=62931&ct_id=1 ''Fortuño calls for status vote next August.''] John Marino. Caribbean Business. Released on October 4, 2011. Retrieved December 8, 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.oslpr.org/2009-2012/leyes/pdf/ley-283-28-Dic-2011.pdf ''Ley Numero 283 del 28 de diciembre de 2011.''] Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico. December 28, 2011. Retrieved January 10, 2012.</ref> |
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Ten days after the 2012 plebiscite, on November 16, 2012, the Electoral Commission reported that 54 percent voted "no" on preserving Puerto Rico's territorial status, the first part of the referendum.<ref>[http://207.150.251.12/REYDI_NocheDelEvento/index.html#es/default/CONDICION_POLITICA_TERRITORIAL_ACTUAL_ISLA.xml ''CONDICIÓN POLÍTICA TERRITORIAL ACTUAL (English:Actual Territorial Political Condition).''] Government of Puerto Rico. State Electoral Commission. Nov 16 2012 9:59PM. Retrieved 16 December 2012.</ref> On the second part, where voters were asked to choose between statehood, independence and free association, 61.2 percent chose statehood, while 33.3 preferred free association and 5.5 percent voted for independence.<ref name="div1.ceepur.org"/><ref>[http://207.150.251.12/REYDI_NocheDelEvento/index.html#es/default/OPCIONES_NO_TERRITORIALES_ISLA.xml ''OPCIONES NO TERRITORIALES. (English: Non-Territorial Options).''] Government of Puerto Rico. State Electoral Commission. Nov 16 2012 9:59PM. Retrieved 16 December 2012.</ref> On December 11, 2012, the pro-statehoood [[16th Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico]] passed a concurrent resolution "[t]o request the President and the Congress of the United States to ... begin the process to admit Puerto Rico to the Union as a State."<ref>[http://www.puertoricoreport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/2012-concurrent-resolution.pdf ''The Senate and the House of Representative of Puerto Rico: Concurrent Resolution.''] Retrieved 16 December 2012.</ref> |
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President Obama pledged to respect the will of the people of Puerto Rico "if there was a clear majority."<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/49714785]["Puerto Rico votes on US ties and chooses governor", Associated Press via MSNBC News.] Accessed 7 November 2012.</ref> A December 2012 statement clarifying the Obama administration’s position on the status plebiscite results stated, "the people of Puerto Rico want the issue of status resolved, and a majority chose statehood." A previous White House statement had said, "Now is the time for Congress to act and the administration will work with them [with Congress] on that effort so that the people of Puerto Rico can determine their own future."<ref>[http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/white-house-clarifies-status-stance-79102.html ''White House clarifies status stance.'']. Caribbean Business. December 4, 2012. Retrieved 13 December 2012.</ref>On April 10, 2013, President Obama moved on his promise to respect the will of the people of Puerto Rico in his Fiscal Year 2014 Budget proposal to Congress, asking for "$2.5 million for the Puerto Rico Elections Commission to be used for voter education and the plebiscite."<ref>[http://www.puertoricoreport.org/president-proposes-plebiscite-to-affirm-puerto-ricos-status-choice/ "President Proposes Plebiscite to Affirm Puerto Rico’s Status Choice," Puerto Rico Report.] 10 April 2013. Retrieved 12 April 2013.</ref> |
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On May 14, 2013, the heavily pro-Commonwealth [[17th Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico]] approved a concurrent resolution that stated, in part, "On November 6, 2012, a plesbicite took place in Puerto Rico concurrent with the general elections whose results were inconclusive since none of the options garnished a majority of votes."<ref>Puerto Rico Senate. Concurrent Senate Resolution Number 24. May 8, 2013.</ref> On the next day, May 15, 2013, the pro-statehood Representative Pedro Pierluisi introduced the Puerto Rico Status Resolution Act to the House of Representatives asking Congress to admit Puerto Rico as the 51st State.<ref>[http://www.puertoricoreport.org/pierluisi-introduces-historic-legislation/ "Pierluisi Introduces Historic Legislation," Puerto Rico Report.] 15 May 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013.</ref> |
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====Congressionally mandated plebiscites==== |
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No congressionally mandated plebiscite has ever been held, and average voter turnout in the locally enacted status votes has been about 10% lower than in general elections.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> {{Citation broken|date=February 2010}}<ref>For the complete statistics regarding these plebiscites please refer to [http://electionspuertorico.org/cgi-bin/events.cgi Elections in Puerto Rico:Results].</ref> However, various bills have been introduced in Congress to effect a plebiscite backed by Congress and to which Congress would be committed. |
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===Presidential Executive Orders=== |
===Presidential Executive Orders=== |
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{{Main|Presidential executive orders on the political status of Puerto Rico}} |
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Various U.S. presidents have signed executive orders to help define, study, and generate activity regarding the political stutus of Puerto Rico. Three major orders were the 2005, 2007, and 2011 executive orders to establish the [[President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status]]. |
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====2005 Presidential Task Force Report==== |
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In December 2005, a Report<ref>[http://charma.uprm.edu/~angel/Puerto_Rico/reporte_status.pdf PuertoRico Booklet 1<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> by the [[President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status]]<ref name=status2007>{{cite web|url=http://www.primerahora.com/XStatic/primerahora/docs/espanol/whitehousestatusreport.pdf|title= Report by the President's task force on Puerto Rico's Status|month=December|year=2007|accessdate=December 24, 2007|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name=status>{{cite web|url=http://charma.uprm.edu/~angel/Puerto_Rico/reporte_status.pdf|title= Report by the President's task force on Puerto Rico's Status|month=December|year=2005|accessdate=October 1, 2007|format=PDF}}</ref> asserted that the Constitution of the United States does not allow for a mechanism "to bind future Congresses to any particular arrangement for Puerto Rico as a Commonwealth" without an amendment to the Constitution of the United States.<ref name=status /> The report also stated that Puerto Rico's current status "does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self government."<ref name=status /> The Report made its determinations based on articles in the [[U.S. Constitution]] regarding territories. |
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Prominent leaders in Puerto Rico's [[Puerto Rican Independence Movement|pro-independence political movements]] agreed with this assessment. Leaders in the pro-statehood political movements also agreed with the assessment. The Legislative Branch, then controlled by the pro-statehood New Progressive Party (PNP), supported the White House report's conclusions and has supported bills introduced by Congressmen [[José Enrique Serrano|José Serrano]] (D-NY) and [[Luis Fortuño]] (R-PR) and Senators [[Ken Salazar]] (D-CO) and [[Mel Martinez]] (R-FL) to provide for a democratic referendum process among Puerto Rico voters. |
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The Popular Democratic Party (PPD), on the other hand, announced a commitment to challenge the Task Force report and validate the current status in all international forums including the United Nations. It also rejected any "colonial or territorial status" as a status option, and vowed to keep working for the enhanced Commonwealth status that was approved by the PPD in 1998, which included sovereignty, an association based on "respect and dignity between both nations", and common citizenship.<ref>[http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/vol2n11/indep-hearing-v2n11.html Independence Hearing] by the ''Puerto Rico Herald''.</ref> The task force recommendations were rejected by the former governor of Puerto Rico [[Anibal Acevedo Vilá]] on a letter on January 24, 2006, who condemned the report and rejected "any efforts to turn the task force's recommendations into Congressional legislation." The former governor, among others, argued that the "Commonwealth" or, in some cases, "Enhanced Commonwealth" constructs are legitimate non-territorial options under U. S. constitutional and statutory law."<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS:_Political_Status_of_Puerto_Rico:_Options_for_Congress%2C_May_29%2C_2008 |
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| title = Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress |
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| accessdate =December 3, 2009 |
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| date = May 17, 2000 |
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| work = Congressional Research Service |
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| publisher = United States Congressional Research Service |
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|format=PDF}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> |
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In a letter sent by then-governor Acevedo-Vilá to the former U.S. Secretary of State, [[Condoleezza Rice]] and the Bush Administration Co-Chairs of the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status, the former governor stated<ref name="autogenerated2">[http://web.archive.org/web/20080405164645/http://www.plenglish.com/article.asp?ID={0BBF386D-F7D6-4870-9CF0-EC85014C0EC6}%29&language=EN Prensa Latina, Nestor Rosa-Marbrell, November 20, 2007] (archived from [http://www.plenglish.com/article.asp?ID=%7B0BBF386D-F7D6-4870-9CF0-EC85014C0EC6%7D)&language=EN the original] on April 5, 2008)</ref><ref name="autogenerated3">[http://web.archive.org/web/20080110063744/http://espanol.news.yahoo.com/s/19112007/54/eeuu-gobernador-pide-rice-enmiende-informe-estatus-pol-tico-p.html ''El Gobernador pide a Rice que enmiende el informe sobre el estatus político de P.Rico''; Yahoo News; November 19, 2007] (archived from [http://espanol.news.yahoo.com/s/19112007/54/eeuu-gobernador-pide-rice-enmiende-informe-estatus-pol-tico-p.html the original] on January 10, 2008)</ref> that "if the Task Force and the Bush Administration stand by their 2005 conclusions, then for over 50 years the U.S Government has perpetuated a 'monumental hoax' on the people of Puerto Rico, on the people of the United States and on the international community. If the 2005 report articulates the new official position of the United States, the time has come now for the State Department to formally notify the United Nations of this new position and assume the international legal consequences. You cannot have a legal and constitutional interpretation for local, political purposes and a different one for the international community."<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080216013058/http://www.fortaleza.gobierno.pr/admin_fortaleza/sistema/noticias/1160.doc Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá's letter] to U.S. President George W. Bush's President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status (formally addressed to the Co-Chairs of the Bush Administration's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status); October 23, 2007; retrieved December 26, 2007. (archived from [http://www.fortaleza.gobierno.pr/admin_fortaleza/sistema/noticias/1160.doc the original] on February 16, 2008)</ref> On January 4, 2006, then-governor Vilá and the [[Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico|Popular Democratic Party]] challenged the task force report with a resolution that denounced the task force as a political fraud and threat to democracy, and called the report's conclusion a violation of the basic agreements held between the people of Puerto Rico and the United States since 1952.<ref>[http://www.endi.com/2006/01/05/politica/345167.asp Current News about Puerto Rico's political status].{{Dead link|date=August 2009|url=http://www.endi.com/2006/01/05/politica/345167.asp}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=March 2009}}<ref>{{es icon}} [http://www.ppdpr.net/media/RENU06-02.pdf PPD Party Resolution #2006-02].{{dead link|date=November 2010|url=http://www.ppdpr.net/media/RENU06-02.pdf}}</ref><ref>[http://www.archive.org/stream/uspuertoricopoli00unit/uspuertoricopoli00unit_djvu.txt A Monumental Fraud]</ref> |
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A bill supporting the PPD's position was introduced in the United States Senate on February 16, 2006, by two senators who have traditionally been identified with Puerto Rico, Senators [[Edward M. Kennedy]] (D-MA) and [[Bob Menendez]] (D-NJ) and two senators whose interest in matters related to Puerto Rico was up to then unknown, Senators [[Richard Mauze Burr]] (R-NC) and [[Chester Trent Lott]].<ref>[http://www.thomas.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:SN02304:@@@P S.2304, A bill to recognize the right of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico to call a constitutional convention through which the people of Puerto Rico would exercise their right to self-determination, and to establish a mechanism for congressional consideration of such decision. Sponsored by Senators Edward M. Kennedy (D-MA), Bob Menendez (D-NJ), Richard Mauze Burr (R-NC), and Chester Trent Lott, Sr. (R-MS). February 16, 2006.] Retrieved December 6, 2009.</ref> Since its introduction, however, the bill did not attract any other co-sponsors. A bipartisan Senate bill supporting the implementation of the White House report recommendations was filed by Senators [[Mel Martinez]] (R-FL) and [[Ken Salazar]] (D-CO) and co-sponsored by 14 other Democratic and Republican senators, including [[Daniel Akaka]] [D-HI], [[Evan Bayh]] [D-IN], [[Samuel Brownback]] [R-KS], [[Thomas Carper]] [D-DE], [[Norm Coleman]] [R-MN], [[Larry Craig]] [R-ID], [[Charles Hagel]] [R-NE], [[Daniel Inouye]] [D-HI], [[John Kerry]] [D-MA], [[Mary Landrieu]] [D-LA], [[John McCain]] [R-AZ], [[Ben Nelson]] [D-NE], [[Bill Nelson]] [D-FL] and [[Ted Stevens]] [R-AK].<ref>[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=s109-2661 S. 2661], [http://www.govtrack.us govtrack.us].</ref> |
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* [http://charma.uprm.edu/~angel/Puerto_Rico/reporte_status.pdf ''Report By the President's Task Force On Puerto Rico's Status (December 2005) - President George W. Bush.''] |
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====2007 Presidential Task Force Report==== |
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On December 21, 2007, the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Political Status issued a second [http://www.usdoj.gov/opa/documents/2007-report-by-the-president-task-force-on-puerto-rico-status.pdf Report]. This 2007 Report stated that the United States, in its written submission to the UN in 1953, never represented that the U.S. Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory's consent.<ref name=autogenerated5>{{cite web|url=http://www.primerahora.com/XStatic/primerahora/docs/espanol/whitehousestatusreport.pdf|format=PDF|title= Report by the President's task force on Puerto Rico's Status|month=December|year=2007|accessdate=December 24, 2007}}</ref> It stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the Territorial Clause<ref>Art. IV, Sec. 3, clause 2, U.S. Constitution</ref> of the U.S. Constitution.<ref name=status2007 /> In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the "[[United States House Committee on Natural Resources|U.S. House Committee on Resources]] stated that Puerto Rico's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self-government". It concluded that Puerto Rico is still an unincorporated territory of the U.S. under the territorial clause, that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of Puerto Rico residents of Puerto Rico at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose.<ref>{{cite web |
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|url=http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/resources/hii43194.000/hii43194_0.HTM|title=Puerto Rico Status Field Hearing |
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|publisher=Committee on Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, 105th Congress|date=April 19, 1997|accessdate=October 1, 2007}}</ref> The application of the American Constitution to Puerto Rico is limited by the [[Insular Cases]]. In essence, the December 2007 report reiterated and confirmed the U.S. position that had been expressed in the report of 2005:<ref name="status2007"/><ref name="status"/> that Puerto Rico continued to be a territory of the U.S. under the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress.<ref name=autogenerated6>[http://www.eldiariony.com/noticias/detail.aspx?section=20&desc=Nuestros%20Países&id=1778876 U.S. hardens position on Puerto Rico ("EE.UU. endurece posición sobre Puerto Rico"); Jesús Dávila – El Diario La Prensa; December 22, 2007]</ref> {{Citation broken|date=February 2010}}<ref name="autogenerated4">[http://www.usdoj.gov/opa/documents/2007-report-by-the-president-task-force-on-puerto-rico-status.pdf''Report By the President's Task Force On Puerto Rico's Status (December 2007)'']</ref> This position continues to be shared by the other two major political parties in Puerto Rico: [[New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico|New Progressive Party]] and the [[Puerto Rican Independence Party]].<ref name="autogenerated1" /> {{Citation broken|date=February 2010}} |
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* [http://www.usdoj.gov/opa/documents/2007-report-by-the-president-task-force-on-puerto-rico-status.pdf ''Report By the President's Task Force On Puerto Rico's Status (December 2007) - President George W. Bush.''] |
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====2011 Presidential Task Force Report==== |
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On March 16, 2011, the President's Task Force on Political Status issued a third report<ref>http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/uploads/Puerto_Rico_Task_Force_Report.pdf</ref> which once again concludes that "(u)nder the Commonwealth option, Puerto Rico would remain, as it is today, subject to the Territory Clause of the U.S. Constitution (p. 26) and that "consistent with the legal conclusions reached by prior Task Force reports, one aspect of some proposals for enhanced Commonwealth remains constitutionally problematic—proposals that would establish a relationship between Puerto Rico and the Federal Government that could not be altered except by mutual consent...such provisions would not be enforceable because a future Congress could choose to alter that relationship unilaterally." (p. 26). |
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The Task Force also stated that "the long-term economic well-being of Puerto Rico would be dramatically improved by an early decision on the status question." (p. 33), before embarking on economic analysis and recommendations that constitute over two-thirds of the report. |
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* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/uploads/Puerto_Rico_Task_Force_Report.pdf ''Report By the President's Task Force On Puerto Rico's Status (March 2011) - President Barack Obama.''] |
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===Bills in U.S. Congress=== |
===Bills in U.S. Congress=== |
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{{Main|Bills in U.S. Congress regarding the political status of Puerto Rico}} |
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{{See also|The United States-Puerto Rico Political Status Act|Puerto Rico Democracy Act}} |
{{See also|The United States-Puerto Rico Political Status Act|Puerto Rico Democracy Act}} |
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The Territories Clause of the United States Constitution ([[Article Four of the United States Constitution#Clause 2: Federal property and the Territorial Clause|Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 2]]) allows for Congress to "dispose of" Puerto Rico and allow it to become independent of the U.S. (in the same way as the [[Philippines]] did in 1945) or, under the authority of the Admissions Clause (Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 1) for it to be admitted as a state of the United States (with a vote of Congress in the same way that [[Alaska]] |
The Territories Clause of the United States Constitution ([[Article Four of the United States Constitution#Clause 2: Federal property and the Territorial Clause|Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 2]]) allows for Congress to "dispose of" Puerto Rico and allow it to become independent of the U.S. (in the same way as the [[Philippines]] did in 1945) or, under the authority of the Admissions Clause (Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 1) for it to be admitted as a state of the United States (with a vote of Congress in the same way that [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]] were admiited in 1958 and 1959 respectively). |
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Since Congress must approve of any political status change for Puerto Rico, some argue that "congressional agreement to the options [on a ballot], ''prior'' to a plebiscite would save the people of Puerto Rico the grief of an emotionally draining and politically divisive vote that might result in a status not acceptable to Congress."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=lgXaZnpwDwoC&pg=PA21 '''Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion, and the Constitution.''' By Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. Duke University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8223-2698-1. Page 21.]</ref> Former Resident Commissioner and Former Governor [[Carlos Romero Barceló]] echoed this sentiment when he recalled, at a 1997 congressional hearing, that both "[Representatives] [[Don Young|Young]] and [[George Miller (California politician)|Miller]] were clear in stating [in their March 3, 1997, letter to the presidents of the three political parties in Puerto Rico] that there was no purpose in presenting the people of Puerto Rico a status definition which does not represent an option that the Congress will be willing to ratify should it be approved in a plebiscite."<ref>[http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/resources/hii43194.000/hii43194_0.HTM 1997 Statement from Romero Barcelo Before Congress]</ref> |
Since Congress must approve of any political status change for Puerto Rico, some argue that "congressional agreement to the options [on a ballot], ''prior'' to a plebiscite would save the people of Puerto Rico the grief of an emotionally draining and politically divisive vote that might result in a status not acceptable to Congress."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=lgXaZnpwDwoC&pg=PA21 '''Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion, and the Constitution.''' By Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. Duke University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8223-2698-1. Page 21.]</ref> Former Resident Commissioner and Former Governor [[Carlos Romero Barceló]] echoed this sentiment when he recalled, at a 1997 congressional hearing, that both "[Representatives] [[Don Young|Young]] and [[George Miller (California politician)|Miller]] were clear in stating [in their March 3, 1997, letter to the presidents of the three political parties in Puerto Rico] that there was no purpose in presenting the people of Puerto Rico a status definition which does not represent an option that the Congress will be willing to ratify should it be approved in a plebiscite."<ref>[http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/resources/hii43194.000/hii43194_0.HTM 1997 Statement from Romero Barcelo Before Congress]</ref> |
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A catalyst for the legislative activity taking place in Congress was the release in December 2005 of the presidential task force's report.<ref>[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress, Page 6.]</ref> Per ''United States v. Sanchez'', 992 F.2d 1143, 1152–53 (11th Cir. 1993), "Congress continues to be the ultimate source of power [over Puerto Rico] pursuant to the Territory Clause of the Constitution." (quoting ''United States v. Andino'', 831 F.2d 1164, 1176 (1st Cir. 1987) (Torruella, J., concurring), cert. denied, 486 U.S. 1034 (1988)), cert. denied, 510 U.S. 11 10 (1994).9<ref>[http://www.usdoj.gov/opa/documents/2007-report-by-the-president-task-force-on-puerto-rico-status.pdf Appendix E, page 6]</ref> An Act of Congress, thus, is ultimately required to modify the current political status of Puerto Rico. |
A catalyst for the legislative activity taking place in Congress was the release in December 2005 of the presidential task force's report.<ref>[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress, Page 6.]</ref> Per ''United States v. Sanchez'', 992 F.2d 1143, 1152–53 (11th Cir. 1993), "Congress continues to be the ultimate source of power [over Puerto Rico] pursuant to the Territory Clause of the Constitution." (quoting ''United States v. Andino'', 831 F.2d 1164, 1176 (1st Cir. 1987) (Torruella, J., concurring), cert. denied, 486 U.S. 1034 (1988)), cert. denied, 510 U.S. 11 10 (1994).9<ref>[http://www.usdoj.gov/opa/documents/2007-report-by-the-president-task-force-on-puerto-rico-status.pdf Appendix E, page 6]</ref> An Act of Congress, thus, is ultimately required to modify the current political status of Puerto Rico. |
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Three major bills regarding the political status of Puerto Rico have come before Congress, H.R. 856, H.R. 900, H.R. 2499, and H.R. 2000. |
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====The United States-Puerto Rico Political Status Act (H.R. 856)==== |
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In 1997, [[The United States-Puerto Rico Political Status Act]] ([[H.R. 856]]) was introduced in Congress, passing in the House in 1998, but not in the Senate. The bill was legislative initiative by [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] to help refine the political status of the [[Commonwealth of Puerto Rico]]. This bill, unlike any other bill in U.S. Congress regarding the Puerto Rico political status issue, made its way to both chambers of Congress. The House considered four versions of the bill. The version approved on March 4, 1998, which would have authorized referenda at least once every ten years, through which the people of Puerto Rico could indicate their preference among three status options: (1) “Puerto Rico should retain Commonwealth”; (2) ”The people of Puerto Rico should become fully self-governing through separate sovereignty in the form of independence or free association”; or (3) “Puerto Rico should become fully self-governing through Statehood.” The Senate, however, did not take formal action on the measure. On September 17, 1998, the Senate approved a resolution expressing the sense of the Senate that “(1) the Senate supports and recognizes the right of United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico to express democratically their views regarding their future |
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political status through a referendum or other public forum, and to communicate those views to the President and Congress; and (2) the Federal Government should review any such communication.” The version forwarded to the Senate offered Puerto Ricans these options for their political future: [[Puerto Rican statehood|Statehood]], [[Puerto Rican Independence|Independence]], Associated Republic, or the current [[Puerto Rico#Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] status. The bill proposed to carry out a referendum in Puerto Rico in which the people of Puerto Rico could choose the option they preferred.<ref>[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d105:h.r.00856: Status of H.R. 856], Thomas – The Library of Congress;<br /> |
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^ [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c105:H.R.856:: Text of H.R. 856], Thomas – The Library of Congress;<br /> |
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^ [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d105:HE00376: Status of H.R.376], Thomas – The Library of Congress.</ref> |
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The proposal, however, was controversial in [[Politics of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican politics]] for two reasons: 1) the legislation was encouraged by two avid statehood supporters, and seemed to favor unchangeable status choices over Commonwealth; and 2) the Commonwealth option in the bill defined Puerto Rico as a "territory subject to the supreme powers of the U.S Congress". The [[Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico|Popular Democratic Party]] (PPD) disagreed with this definition that appeared to emphasize the island was a [[colony]] of the United States, and not a true commonwealth. The PPD thus fiercely opposed the H. R. 856, because it diminished their sense of Commonwealth (Estado Libre Asociado) as agreement between two peoples. |
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This reaction was consistent with the contents of the bill, since H. R. 856, as officially ordered to be printed by its sponsor, Alaska Congressman Don Young, stated in its findings that Puerto Rico "does not have the status of 'free association' with the United States as that status is defined under United States law or international practice."<ref>[http://rs9.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/T?&report=hr131p1&dbname=105& H.R. 856 (The United States-Puerto Rico Political Status Act)]</ref> |
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The travails of H.R. 856 in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] exemplify the hurdles from conservative and liberal members of Congress that any status choices by Puerto Rico will likely face in Congress.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20070930082657/http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/WPOST4.htm Washington Post – House Passes Puerto Rico Bill] (archived from [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/WPOST4.htm the original] on September 30, 2007)</ref> The bill was introduced by representative [[Gerald Solomon]] (R-NY). |
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A number of amendments were debated, seeking, for example, to make English the official language,<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080604015316/http://www.englishfirst.org/puerto/puerto.htm Resources on the Puerto Rico Statehood Question] (archived from [http://www.englishfirst.org/puerto/puerto.htm the original] on June 4, 2008)</ref> getting Congress to recognize that Puerto Rico is sociologically and culturally a Caribbean and Latin American nation with a distinctive culture, and recognizing the separate and distinct nature of [[Puerto Rican citizenship]] in relation to U.S. citizenship. Ultimately the bill died in the Senate. |
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In 2005, the U.S. [[United States House Committee on Natural Resources|House Committee on Resources]] concluded that Puerto Rico is still an unincorporated territory of the United States under the Territorial Clause, that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by U.S. Congress, and Congress can withdraw, at any time, the American citizenship now enjoyed by the residents of Puerto Rico as long as it achieves a legitimate Federal purpose, in a manner reasonably related to that purpose.<ref>{{cite web |
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|url=http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/resources/hii43194.000/hii43194_0.HTM|title=Puerto Rico Status Field Hearing |
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|publisher=Committee on Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, 105th Congress|date=April 19, 1997|accessdate=October 11, 2009}}</ref> |
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In 2006, Resident Commissioner [[Luis Fortuño]] (R-PR) and Rep. [[Jose E. Serrano]] (D-NY) introduced a bipartisan House [[Bill (proposed law)|bill]] to implement the recommendations, which was cosponsored by over 60 Republicans and over 40 Democrats, significantly more cosponsors than the [[H.R. 856]] bill which cleared the House in 1998. The House Committee on Resources called a hearing on the subject on April 27, 2006, signaling a greater degree of interest than previously anticipated. |
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====The Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2007 (H.R. 900)==== |
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At the beginning of the 110th Congress (2007–2008), Serrano and Fortuño introduced their bill again as [[Puerto Rico Democracy Act#Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2007|H.R. 900]]. It was titled the [[Puerto Rico Democracy Act#Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2007|Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2007]]. A first hearing was held by the Subcommittee on Insular Affairs in March 2007. A final hearing was held on April 25 to hear Governor [[Aníbal Acevedo Vilá]], Senate President [[Kenneth McClintock]], Speaker [[José Aponte]] and the White House Report's co-author Kevin Marshall before the bill was brought to a full committee vote by Resources Committee chair [[Nick Rahall]] (D-WV). |
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On October 23, 2007, that Resources Committee unanimously approved a substitute bill of [[Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2007|H.R. 900]], which establishes that before 2009, a first plebiscite will be held in which Puerto Ricans will be asked if they desire to maintain their territorial status, in a yes or no question. The bill states that should ''No'' be the favored choice, either another plebiscite asking between [[51st state|statehood]], [[independence]] or an associated [[republic]], or a [[constitutional assembly]] would follow thereafter, by choice of the [[United States Federal Court]] of [[Puerto Rico]]. The bill was never considered by the full [[United States House of Representatives]] and died with the end of the 110th Congress. The bill was introduced again in 2009, and passed the Resources Committee on July 28 of that year and the full House in 2010, but died in the Senate. |
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During 2007, the Senate came up with its own version of the bill, S.1936. This bill, also titled the Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2007, aimed to provide for a plebiscite on the future status of Puerto Rico.<ref>[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=s110-1936 S.1936, Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2007]</ref> However, it never made it out of Committee before that session of Congress was over. |
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====The Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2009 (H.R. 2499)==== |
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In May 2009, Resident Commissioner [[Pedro Pierluisi]] sponsored a new version of the Puerto Rico Democracy Act bill ([[Puerto Rico Democracy Act#Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2009|H.R. 2499]]) now titled [[Puerto Rico Democracy Act#Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2009|The Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2009]],<ref>[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h111-2499 H.R. 2499]</ref> aimed at providing for "a federally sanctioned self-determination process for the people of Puerto Rico." The bill, if enacted, would provide for referenda to be held in Puerto Rico to determine the Island's ultimate political status. |
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The bill would provide for a referendum giving Puerto Ricans the choice between the options of (1) retaining their present political status, or (2) choosing a new status.<ref>[http://www.hr2499.com HR 2499 Puerto Rico Democracy Act Website]</ref> If the latter option (2) were to win, then a separate referendum would be held where Puerto Ricans would be given the option of being admitted as a US State "on equal footing with the other states", or becoming a "sovereign nation, either fully independent from or in free association with the United States." If the first option garnished the most votes, a new referendum would be held again every 8 years. |
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The bill enjoyed bi-partisan support in the House of Representatives, with 182 co-sponsors.<ref>[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery HR 2499 Cosponsors]</ref> On June 24, 2009, the [[U.S. House Committee on Natural Resources]] held a hearing on the bill with the participation of the [[Governor of Puerto Rico]], and others like [[Jennifer Gonzalez]], [[Speaker (politics)|speaker]] of the [[Puerto Rico House of Representatives]], [[Thomas Rivera Schatz]], [[president]] of the [[Senate of Puerto Rico]].<ref>[http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/index.php?option=com_jcalpro&Itemid=27&extmode=view&extid=268 Resources Committee Schedule on HR 2499]</ref> The House Natural Resources Committee, approved the bill and referred it to the [[United States House of Representatives]] floor with a 30 in favor 8 against vote.<ref>[http://www.elnuevodia.com/comitecongresionalapruebaproyectodestatus-594914.html Committee approves status bill (Spanish) El Nuevo Dia]</ref> The bill was passed by the House on April 29, 2010.<ref>[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h111-2499 H.R. 2499 [111th]: Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2010 (GovTrack.us)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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The U.S. Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee Chair Senator Jeff Bingaman (D-NM) and Ranking Member Senator Lisa Murkowski (R-AK) formally requested the White House to share President's position regarding The Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2010 (H.R. 2499) and constitutionally viable status alternatives in a letter dated May 27 following a hearing on the legislation. The Senators requested the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status clarify the White House position on the issue. According to the Senate Energy & Natural Resources Committee leadership, the four options are the continuation of the current commonwealth status, subject to the territorial clause (under Article IV of the Constitution), statehood, independence, and free association. “Efforts to address Puerto Rico’s political status have been hampered by a failure of the federal government to clearly define these status options and that failure has undermined Puerto Rico’s efforts to accurately assess the views of the voters,” the letter stated. “In recent years, however, a consistent administration and congressional view has emerged that only four status options are available for Puerto Rico’s future relations with the United States.” Bingaman and Murkowski wrote that “this analysis of the status options favored by the principal political parties in Puerto Rico concludes that a fifth option, ‘New Commonwealth,’ is incompatible with the Constitution and basic laws of the United States in several respects,” according to the analysis and conclusion of the U.S. Department of Justice under the administrations of Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush.<ref>[http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=51401&ct_id=1 Fortuño hails US senators’ status letter to Obama]</ref><ref>[http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=51348&ct_id=1&ct_name=1 US senators to Obama: Only 4 PR status options]</ref><ref>[http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=43994&ct_id=1 Senate committee co-chairs seek White House view on P.R. status]</ref> Absent a White House response to the Senate’s request, the Senate did not act on H.R. 2499. |
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====The Puerto Rico Status Resolution Act of 2013 (H.R. 2000)==== |
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On May 15, 2013, non-voting Resident Commissioner Pedro Perluisi sponsored H.R. 2000 "to set forth the process for Puerto Rico to be admitted as a state of the Union."<ref>[http://www.puertoricoreport.org/pierluisi-introduces-historic-legislation/ "Pierluisi Introduces Historic Legislation"], ''Puerto Rico Report'', 15 May 2013. Retrieved on 15 May 2013.</ref> |
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==United Nations classification== |
==United Nations classification== |
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==Position of US political parties== |
==Position of US political parties== |
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{{main|United States politics and the political status of Puerto Rico}} |
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Both major United States political parties ([[Democratic Party of the United States|Democratic]] and [[Republican Party of the United States|Republican]]) have expressed their support for the U.S. citizens in Puerto Rico to exercise their right to [[self-determination]], with the Republican Party platform explicitly mentioning support for statehood. Puerto Rico has been under U.S. sovereignty for over a century and Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens since 1917, but the island's ultimate status still has not been determined and its 3.9 million residents still do not have voting representation in their national government. The following are the appropriate section from the respective 2012, 2008, 2004, and 2000 party platforms: |
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Both major United States political parties ([[Democratic Party of the United States|Democratic]] and [[Republican Party of the United States|Republican]]) have expressed their support for the U.S. citizens in Puerto Rico to exercise their right to [[self-determination]], with the Republican Party platform explicitly mentioning support for statehood. Puerto Rico has been under U.S. sovereignty for over a century and Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens since 1917, but the island's ultimate status still has not been determined and its 3.9 million residents still do not have voting representation in their federal government. |
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===2012 Platforms=== |
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====Democratic Party 2012 Platform==== |
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{{quote|We commit to moving resolution of the status issue forward with the goal of resolving it expeditiously. If local efforts in Puerto Rico to resolve the status issue do not provide a clear result in the short term, the President should support, and Congress should enact, self-executing legislation that specifies in advance for the people of Puerto Rico a set of clear status options, such as those recommended in the White House Task Force Report on Puerto Rico, which the United States is politically committed to fulfilling.<ref name=Democratic2012>[http://www.democrats.org/democratic-national-platform?source=DNC_TW 2012 Democratic National Platform]</ref>}} |
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====Republican Party 2012 Platform==== |
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{{quote|We support the right of the United States citizens of Puerto Rico to be admitted to the Union as a fully sovereign state after they freely so determine. We recognize that Congress has the final authority to define the constitutionally valid options for Puerto Rico to achieve a permanent non-territorial status with government by consent and full enfranchisement. As long as Puerto Rico is not a state, however, the will of its people regarding their political status should be ascertained by means of a general right of referendum or specific referenda sponsored by the U.S. government.<ref>[http://www.gop.com/2008Platform/GovernmentReform.htm 2008 republican Platform : Government Reform], gop.com</ref><ref name=Republican2012>[http://whitehouse12.com/republican-party-platform 2012 Republican Party Platform]</ref>}} |
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===2008 Platforms=== |
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====Democratic Party 2008 Platform==== |
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<blockquote>We believe that the people of Puerto Rico have the right to the political status of their choice, obtained through a fair, neutral, and democratic process of self-determination. The White House and Congress will work with all groups in Puerto Rico to enable the question of Puerto Rico's status to be resolved during the next four years. We also believe that economic conditions in Puerto Rico call for effective and equitable programs to maximize job creation and financial investment. Furthermore, in order to provide fair assistance to those in greatest need, the U.S. citizens in Puerto Rico should receive treatment under federal programs that is comparable to that of citizens in the States. We will phase-out the cap on Medicaid funding and phase-in equal participation in other federal health care assistance programs. Moreover, we will provide equitable treatment to the U.S. citizens in Puerto Rico on programs providing refundable tax credits to working families.<ref>[http://www.pamshouseblend.com/upload/documents/2008DemocraticPlatformbyCmte_08-13-08.pdf RENEWING AMERICA’S PROMISE], 2008 Democratic National Convention Platform Committee.</ref></blockquote> |
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====Republican Party 2008 Platform==== |
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<blockquote>We support the right of the United States citizens of Puerto Rico to be admitted to the Union as a fully sovereign state after they freely so determine. We recognize that Congress has the final authority to define the constitutionally valid options for Puerto Rico to achieve a permanent non-territorial status with government by consent and full enfranchisement. As long as Puerto Rico is not a state, however, the will of its people regarding their political status should be ascertained by means of a general right of referendum or specific referenda sponsored by the U.S. government.<ref>[http://platform.gop.com/2008Platform.pdf 2008 Republican Platform]</ref></blockquote> |
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===2004 Platforms=== |
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====Democratic Party 2004 Platform==== |
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<blockquote> |
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We believe that four million disenfranchised American citizens residing in Puerto Rico have the |
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right to the permanent and fully democratic status of their choice. The White House and Congress |
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will clarify the realistic status options for Puerto Rico and enable Puerto Ricans to choose among them.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080802030452/http://www.lib.umich.edu/govdocs/pdf/dempla04.pdf 2004 Democratic Platform] (archived from [http://www.lib.umich.edu/govdocs/pdf/dempla04.pdf the original] on August 2, 2008)</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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====Republican Party 2004 Platform==== |
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<blockquote> |
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We support the right of the United States citizens of Puerto Rico to be admitted to |
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the Union as a fully sovereign state after they freely so determine. We recognize that |
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Congress has the final authority to define the Constitutionally valid options for Puerto |
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Rico to achieve a permanent non-territorial status with government by consent and full |
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enfranchisement. As long as Puerto Rico is not a state, however, the will of its people |
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regarding their political status should be ascertained by means of a general right of |
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referendum or specific referenda sponsored by the United States government.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080822221858/http://www.gop.com/media/2004platform.pdf 2004 Republican Party Platform: A Safer World and a More Hopeful America] (archived from [http://www.gop.com/media/2004platform.pdf the original] on August 22, 2008)</ref> |
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</blockquote> |
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===2000 Platforms=== |
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====Democratic Party 2000 Platform==== |
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<blockquote> |
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Puerto Rico has been under U.S. sovereignty for over a century and Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens since 1917, but the island's ultimate status still has not been determined and its 3.9 million residents still do not have voting representation in their national government. These disenfranchised citizens – who have contributed greatly to our country in war and peace – are entitled to the permanent and fully democratic status of their choice. Democrats will continue to work in the White House and Congress to clarify the options and enable them to choose and to obtain such a status from among all realistic options.<ref>[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29612&st=Democratic+Party+Platform+of+2000&st1=#axzz1Uwp7rzr1 Democratic Platform of 2000]</ref></blockquote> |
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====Republican Party 2000 Platform==== |
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<blockquote> |
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We support the right of the United States citizens of Puerto Rico to be admitted to the Union as a fully sovereign state after they freely so determine. We recognize that Congress has the final authority to define the constitutionally valid options for Puerto Rico to achieve a permanent status with the government by consent and full enfranchisement. As long as Puerto Rico is not a State, however, the will of its people regarding their political status should be ascertained by means of a general right of referendum or specific referenda sponsored by the United States government.<ref>[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=25849&st=Republican+Party+Platform+of+2000&st1=#axzz1UwlevNC9 Republican Platform of 2000]</ref></blockquote> |
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==Controversies== |
==Controversies== |
Revision as of 03:47, 12 June 2013
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The current political status of Puerto Rico is the result of various political activities within both the United States and Puerto Rican governments. Politically, Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory of the United States which according to the U.S. Supreme Court's Insular Cases is "a territory appurtenant and belonging to the United States, but not a part of the United States."[1][2] The basic question regarding this issue is whether Puerto Rico should remain a U.S. territory, become a U.S. state or become an independent country.
American and Puerto Rican political activities regarding the status question have revolved around three sets of initiatives: presidential executive orders, bills in the U. S. Congress, and referenda held in Puerto Rico. U. S. Presidents have issued three executive orders on the subject, and Congress has considered some four major bills related to the Puerto Rico political status question. Puerto Rican status referenda have been held four times to determine the desired political status of Puerto Rico in relation to the United States of America. At the November 6, 2012, non-binding referendum on the status question, 54% of respondents voted to reject the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution,[3] while in a second question 61% favored statehood as the preferred alternative.[4]
In 2006, and again in 2009 and 2011, The United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico.[5][6][7] Internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity.[8][9]
Background
The United States acquired the islands of Puerto Rico in 1898 after the Spanish-American War. In 1950, Congress enacted legislation (P.L. 81-600) authorizing Puerto Rico to hold a constitutional convention and in 1952, the people of Puerto Rico ratified a constitution establishing a republican form of government for the island. After being approved by Congress and the President in July 1952 and thus given force under federal law (P.L. 82-447), the new constitution went into effect on July 25, 1952.
Puerto Rico has been under U.S. sovereignty for over a century and Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens since 1917.[10][11][12] Since the promulgation of the current Commonwealth constitution in 1952, further local attempts to change the island's political status took place in 1967, 1993, and 1998. An additional referendum held in 1991 sought to amend the relationship through an amendment to the Puerto Rican constitution. Each time, the results favored retaining the current status over the possible independence of Puerto Rico and statehood alternatives.
As a result of Puerto Rico's status as a U.S. territory, the citizens of Puerto Rico do not have any voting representation in the U.S. Federal government. Instead of outright representation through Senators and House Representatives, Puerto Rico has one non-voting Resident Commissioner in the House of Representatives. Furthermore, Puerto Rico is not represented in the Electoral College, and thus U.S. citizens resident there are unable to vote in United States presidential elections.
Although Puerto Rico presently has a certain amount of local autonomy, according to the U.S. Constitution ultimate governance of the island is retained by both the U.S. Congress and President.[13][14][15] Thus, results of plebiscites, whether or not authorized by Congress, while they reflect public sentiment, and thus bear some impact, can be ignored by Congress. Ultimately, the results of Puerto Rican plebiscites are opinions, although congressional resolutions have expressed support for following the will of the Puerto Rican people.[16] [full citation needed]
Terminology
The current English term, "commonwealth", used to describe Puerto Rico politically is the same terminology used elsewhere but with other entirely different meanings than what is meant for Puerto Rico:
- Commonwealth is what four states of the United States have named themselves, these being Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia.
- A number of independent states use "Commonwealth" in their style, such as the Commonwealth of Australia or the Commonwealth of The Bahamas; historically, the Icelandic Commonwealth and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth have also used the style in English. Here it relates to its original definition, as a translation of the Latin res publica.
- Commonwealth is part of the name of the Commonwealth of Nations, a group of independent nations, voluntarily joined by common bonds of various kinds and whose bonds are subject to unilateral revocation by any of the parties.
- Commonwealth is also used in the Commonwealth of Independent States, formerly parts of the Soviet Union, but now a group of independent nations, voluntarily joined by common bonds of various kinds.
But in the U.S., "commonwealth" is also a term, without a clear and stable legal definition, now and previously used by current and past possessions of the United States:
- Commonwealth was a term used by the Philippines before gaining its independence from the U.S. in 1947 and becoming a republic, prior to which the US Supreme Court had declared it was an unincorporated territory of the United States.[17]
- Commonwealth is the term used by the U.S. territory of the Northern Mariana Islands, a country that is still "unquestionably a colony in light of the decolonization criteria adopted by the United Nations, and [which] is openly treated as a territory by the government of the United States."[18]
- Commonwealth term definition as per current U.S. State Department policy (as codified in the department's Foreign Affairs Manual) reads: "The term "Commonwealth" does not describe or provide for any specific political status or relationship. It has, for example, been applied to both states and territories. When used in connection with areas under U.S. sovereignty that are not states, the term broadly describes an area that is self-governing under a constitution of its adoption and whose right of self-government will not be unilaterally withdrawn by Congress".[19]
Juan R. Torruella, a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit (the Federal Appeals Court with jurisdiction over the Federal Court for the District of Puerto Rico), claims that the use of the term commonwealth is a label that "can deceive and obscure the true nature of things". He contends that Puerto Rico is obviously not a state, and that "neither Puerto Rico's status nor its relationship with the U.S. supports any legitimate claim that a British type of "commonwealth" exists between Puerto Rico and the United States".[20]
Then U.S. Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. Chapman, under whose Department resided responsibility of Puerto Rican affairs, clarified the new commonwealth label by stating, "The bill (to permit Puerto Rico to write its own constitution) merely authorizes the people of Puerto Rico to adopt their own constitution and to organize a local government...The bill under consideration would not change Puerto Rico's political, social, and economic relationship to the United States."[21]
The Insular Cases
It has been said that "any inquiry into Puerto Rico's status must begin with the Constitution of the United States, as well as various Supreme Court and lower court decisions."[22]
Almost immediately after Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States, Puerto Rico's political status was defined by a series of landmark decisions made by the U.S. Supreme Court in what are collectively known as The Insular Cases. From 1901 – 1905, the U.S. Supreme Court in a series of opinions held that the Constitution extended ex propio vigore to the territories. However, the Court in these cases also established the doctrine of territorial incorporation. Under the same, the Constitution only applied fully in incorporated territories such as Alaska and Hawaii, whereas it only applied partially in the new unincorporated territories of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines. Although other cases followed, strictly speaking the Insular Cases are the original six opinions issued concerning acquired territories as a result of the Treaty of Paris (1898). The six cases were:[23]
- De Lima v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 1 (1901)
- A plaintiff challenged the imposition of duties for the import of sugar from Puerto Rico to the United States proper. The Court sided with the plaintiff holding that Puerto Rico was not a "foreign country" and hence the duties were invalid.[24]
- Goetze v. United States (Crossman v. United States), 182 U.S. 221 (1901)
- Dooley v. United States, 182 U.S. 222 (1901)
- Armstrong v. United States, 182 U.S. 243 (1901)
- Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244 (1901)
- Considered the leading Insular case, concluded that the U.S. could acquire territory and exercise unrestricted power in determining what rights to concede to its inhabitants. It included the "fateful phrase" that:[25]
- "While in an international sense Porto Rico (sic) was not a foreign country, since it was subject to the sovereignty of and was owned by the United States, it was foreign to the United States in a domestic sense, because the island has not been incorporated into the United States, but was merely appurtenant thereto as a possession."[26]
- The case created the constitutionally unprecedented category of "unincorporated territories".[27]
- Huus v. New York and Porto Rico Steamship Co., 182 U.S. 392 (1901)
Other authorities, such as José Trías Monge, state that the list also includes these additional two cases:[25]
- Dooley v. United States, 183 U.S. 151 (1901)
- Fourteen Diamond Rings v. United States, 183 U.S. 176 (1901)
The Supreme Court later made other rulings. For example, in Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298, 305 (1922), explained the distinction between an incorporated and a non-incorporated territory. Juan R. Torruella restated it this way, "an unincorporated territory is a territory as to which, when acquired by the United States, no clear intention was expressed that it would eventually be incorporated into the Union as a State."[28]
Since the Insular Cases had established that only those rights in the U.S. Bill of Rights that are determined to be "fundamental" are applicable in unincorporated territories, the implications of Balzac v. Porto Rico have been enormous. For example:
- The Court held that the right to trial by jury is not a fundamental right, and thus need not be given to criminal defendants in Puerto Rico.[20] (see Dorr v. United States.[29] See also Balzac v. Porto Rico[30][31]
- The Court relied on Downes and Balzac to justify the outright denial of Supplemental Security Income (SSI) to United States citizens who had relocated to Puerto Rico from the States. This ruling allowed Congress to deny Supplemental Security Income (SSI) payments to the aged and benefits to children and the poor who reside in Puerto Rico, even in the case of an insured who had worked all his life as a resident of the States proper but then moved to live in Puerto Rico.[32][33] (see Califano v. Torres, 435 U.S. 1 (1978) (per curiam))
In a brief concurrence in the United States Supreme Court judgment of Torres v. Puerto Rico, 442 U.S. 465 (1979), U.S. Supreme Court Justice Brennan, argued that any implicit limits from the Insular Cases on the basic rights granted by the Constitution (including especially the Bill of Rights) were anachronistic in the 1970s.[34]
Implications of the current political status
The current political status of Puerto Rico has ramifications into many spheres of Puerto Rican life, and there are limits to the level of autonomy the Puerto Rican government has. For example, the Island's government is not fully autonomous, and the level of federal presence in the Island is common place, including a branch of teh United States Federal District Court. There are also implications relative to the American citizenship carried by people born in Puerto Rico. Specifically, although people borm in the Commonwelath of Puerto Rico are natural born US citizens, they are not Article 14 citizens. As such, the American citizneship of any person born on the Island can be, individually or collectively, taken away by the U.S. Congress unilaterally. Puerto Ricans are also covered by a group of "fundamental civil rights" but, since Puerto Rico is not a state, Puerto Ricans are not covered by the full American Bill of Rights. As for taxation and representation, Puerto Rican pay all U.S. federal taxes, including federal income taxes. However, for a variety of reasons -- such as median income level of the average resident -- most Puerto Ricans do not pay federal income taxes. Representation-wise, PuertoR icans have no voting representative in the U.S. Congress, but do have a Resident Commissioner who has a voice in Congress (but no vote except for committee-level voting). Puerto Ricans must also serve in the United States military with the same duties as a US citizen residing in the other 50 states.
Status questions
Elections in Puerto Rico |
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Puerto Rico's main political issue is the territory's relationship with the United States. A United States territory since 1898, and known as "Estado Libre Asociado" (Free Associated State) or as commonwealth since 1952, Puerto Rico today is torn by profound ideological rifts, as represented by its political parties, which stand for three distinct future political scenarios: the status quo (commonwealth), statehood, and independence. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) seeks to maintain or improve the current status towards becoming a more sovereign territory of the U.S., the New Progressive Party (PNP) seeks to fully incorporate Puerto Rico as a U.S. state, and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP) seeks national independence.
When asked, in non-binding plebiscites, to choose between independence, statehood, or continuation of the present status with enhanced powers, as proposed by the Popular Democratic Party, Puerto Ricans have voted to remain a commonwealth. In the penultimate of these plebiscites, in 1998, Puerto Ricans, by a slight majority, voted for "none of the above", a choice that has been variously interpreted: "One might say, looking at the result of the 1998 plebiscite, that the people of Puerto Rico exercised their inalienable right to self-determination, and a majority of them—fully 50.3 percent, to be exact—chose to remain a colony. One might also say, however, the oldest strategy for governing recalcitrant subjects—divide and conquer—was subtly at work."[35][36] One thing is clear, however, dissatisfaction with the current status is evident. The issue is still being debated and is on the agenda of all the political parties and civil society groups. Several pro-commonwealth leaders within the PPD are proposing an Associated Republic or Free Association similar to that of the former U.S. territories of the Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands or Palau.
Plebiscites
In general, three main alternatives are presented to Puerto Rican voters in status plebiscites:
- Full independence
- Maintenance or enhancement of commonwealth status
- Full statehood
The exact expectations for each of these status formulas are a matter of debate by a given position's adherents and detractors. Puerto Ricans have proposed positions that modify the alternatives above, such as:
- Indemnified Independence with phased-out US subsidy
- Expanded political but not fiscal autonomy
- Statehood with a gradual phasing out of federal tax exemption (Contrary to common misconception, residents of Puerto Rico pay U.S. federal taxes: import/export taxes, federal commodity taxes, social security taxes, etc. Most residents do not pay federal income taxes, but all residents must pay federal payroll taxes (Social Security and Medicare) and all other federal taxes.[37])
The following table summarizes the results of Puerto Rico's plebiscites so far.
1967[39] | 1993[40] | 1998[41][42] | 2012[43] | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Independence | 4,248 (0.6%) | 75,620 (4.4%) | 39,838 (2.54%) | NA | 5.5% |
Commonwealth | 425,132 (60.4%) | 826,326 (48.6%) | 993 (0.06%) | 46.0% | NA |
Free Association | NA | NA | 4536 (0.29%) | NA | 33.2% |
Statehood | 274,312 (39.0%) | 788,296 (46.3%) | 728,157 (46.49%) | NA | 61.3% |
None of the above | NA | NA | 787,900 (50.3%) | NA | |
Electoral turnout | 66%[44][45] | 74% | 71% | 79% |
Presidential Executive Orders
Various U.S. presidents have signed executive orders to help define, study, and generate activity regarding the political stutus of Puerto Rico. Three major orders were the 2005, 2007, and 2011 executive orders to establish the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status.
Bills in U.S. Congress
The Territories Clause of the United States Constitution (Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 2) allows for Congress to "dispose of" Puerto Rico and allow it to become independent of the U.S. (in the same way as the Philippines did in 1945) or, under the authority of the Admissions Clause (Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 1) for it to be admitted as a state of the United States (with a vote of Congress in the same way that Alaska and Hawaii were admiited in 1958 and 1959 respectively).
Since Congress must approve of any political status change for Puerto Rico, some argue that "congressional agreement to the options [on a ballot], prior to a plebiscite would save the people of Puerto Rico the grief of an emotionally draining and politically divisive vote that might result in a status not acceptable to Congress."[46] Former Resident Commissioner and Former Governor Carlos Romero Barceló echoed this sentiment when he recalled, at a 1997 congressional hearing, that both "[Representatives] Young and Miller were clear in stating [in their March 3, 1997, letter to the presidents of the three political parties in Puerto Rico] that there was no purpose in presenting the people of Puerto Rico a status definition which does not represent an option that the Congress will be willing to ratify should it be approved in a plebiscite."[47]
A catalyst for the legislative activity taking place in Congress was the release in December 2005 of the presidential task force's report.[48] Per United States v. Sanchez, 992 F.2d 1143, 1152–53 (11th Cir. 1993), "Congress continues to be the ultimate source of power [over Puerto Rico] pursuant to the Territory Clause of the Constitution." (quoting United States v. Andino, 831 F.2d 1164, 1176 (1st Cir. 1987) (Torruella, J., concurring), cert. denied, 486 U.S. 1034 (1988)), cert. denied, 510 U.S. 11 10 (1994).9[49] An Act of Congress, thus, is ultimately required to modify the current political status of Puerto Rico.
Three major bills regarding the political status of Puerto Rico have come before Congress, H.R. 856, H.R. 900, H.R. 2499, and H.R. 2000.
United Nations classification
The United Nations has intervened in the past to evaluate the legitimacy of Puerto Rico's political status, to ensure that the island's government structure complies with the standards of self-government that constitute the basic tenets of the United Nations Charter, its covenants, and its principles of international law. Some authorities, such as Trias Monge, sustain that "Puerto Rico clearly does not meet the decolonization standards set by the United Nations in 1960."[50]
Resolution 748
During its 8th session, the United Nations General Assembly recognized Puerto Rico's self-government on November 27, 1953, with Resolution 748 (VIII).[51] (UN Resolution "748 (VIII)", adopted on November 27, 1953, during its 459th Plenary Meeting.) This removed Puerto Rico's classification as a non-self-governing territory (under article 73(e) of the Charter of the United Nations). The resolution passed, garnering a favorable vote from some 40% of the General Assembly, with over 60% abstaining or voting against it (20 to 16, plus 18 abstentions). Today, however, "the United Nations still debates whether Puerto Rico is a colony."[52]
UN vote aftermath
However, Puerto Rico's political status is still debated in many international forums, possibly in part because of the circumstances surrounding the vote: "Under United States pressure, General Assembly Resolution 748 passed—though only narrowly and with many countries abstaining. The debate over Resolution 748 prompted the United Nations to agree on governing arrangements that would provide full self-government to non-self-governing territories: in United States terms, these arrangements were statehood, independence, and free association. Yet, under international law, a freely associated state is a sovereign nation in a joint governing arrangement with another nation that either nation can unilaterally end."[53] Though the subject continues to be debated in many forums it is clear that (1) the current territorial status has not satisfied Puerto Rican political leaders,[53] and (2) that despite the divergent views that Puerto Ricans have with respect to their preferred political status, 'all factions agree on the need to end the present undemocratic arrangement whereby Puerto Rico is subject to the laws of Congress but cannot vote in it.'[53]
Attempts to reintroduce a new UN vote
The list of factors for determining when a colony has achieved a full measure of self-government appears in Resolution 1541 (XV) of the General Assembly of the United Nations, 15 UN GAOR Supplement (No. 16) at 29, UN Document A/4684 (1960).[54][55]
The General Assembly did not apply its full list of criteria to Puerto Rico[55][56] for determining whether or not self-governing status had been achieved. The UN's Committee on Non-Self-Governing States recently unanimously agreed[57] to ask the General Assembly to take up the issue of Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Senate in June, 2007, approved a Concurrent Resolution urging the UN General Assembly to discuss Puerto Rico's case.
Starting in 1971, "Cuba introduced annual resolutions on the issue in the Decolonization Committee of the United Nations. The United States, however, has blocked General Assembly action and stopped cooperating with the Decolonization Committee. On August 23, 1973, the United States vigorously opposed that members of Puerto Rico's independence movement be allowed to speak at the United Nations.[58] The U.S. position has not been, as some assert, that Puerto Rico is not a territory. Rather, the U.S. position of record, based on General Assembly Resolution 748, is that the Decolonization Committee lacks jurisdiction, that the matter is one for the United States and Puerto Rico to resolve, and that Puerto Rico has not sought a new status."[53]
In 1972, the United Nations set a precedent when, after approving Puerto Rico's association with the United States in 1953[59] as sufficient evidence to remove PR from the list of Colonized Countries, the United Nations reopened the matter in 1972 and it is still under review.[60][61][62] "Failure [of the United States] to include independence as an option and harassment of [Puerto Rican] pro-independence organizations were reasons for the United Nations' recent reconsideration of the status of Puerto Rico".[62]
Since 1972, the U.N. Decolonization Committee has called for Puerto Rico's decolonization and for the United States to recognize the island's right to self-determination and independence. Most recently, the Decolonization Committee called for the United Nations General Assembly to review the political status of Puerto Rico, a power reserved by the 1953 resolution.[63] The United Nations still debates whether Puerto Rico is still a colony.[64]
In 1993, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice.[65] In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the U.S. House Committee on Resources stated, "Puerto Rico's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self-government under Resolution 1541" (the three established forms of full self-government being stated in the report as (1) national independence, (2) free association based on separate sovereignty, or (3) full integration with another nation on the basis of equality). The report concluded that Puerto Rico "... remains an unincorporated territory and does not have the status of 'free association' with the United States as that status is defined under United States law or international practice", that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of Puerto Rican residents of Puerto Rico at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose.[66][67] The application of the U.S. Constitution applies partially to Puerto Rico by the Insular Cases.
Distinct national group
Internationally
Though politically associated with the United States, Puerto Rico is considered by many other nations to have its own distinct national identity.[8] Internationally, it has been reported that "the Fourteenth Ministerial Conference of the Movement of Non-aligned Nations...reaffirms that Puerto Rican people constitute a Latin American and Caribbean nation."[9]
Amongst Puerto Ricans
Although Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory of the United States classified as a commonwealth, it is considered by many Puerto Ricans a country in and of itself.[68][69][70][71] In their classic work on American expansionism titled The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803–1898, Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow also determined that "Most Puerto Ricans consider themselves a distinct national group." (page 167).[72] They also observed that both Americans and Puerto Ricans see themselves as separate cultures "and even separate nationalities."[73]
At the local level, it has been observed that "Puerto Ricans consider themselves a territorially distinct national unit, a nation defined by its cultural distinctiveness."[74] In recent plebiscites Puerto Ricans have not expressed themselves in favor of a political status with the intention of becoming a sovereign state, but the idea that Puerto Rico is a separate social, political and cultural entity from the United States has been repeatedly expressed.
Position of US political parties
Both major United States political parties (Democratic and Republican) have expressed their support for the U.S. citizens in Puerto Rico to exercise their right to self-determination, with the Republican Party platform explicitly mentioning support for statehood. Puerto Rico has been under U.S. sovereignty for over a century and Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens since 1917, but the island's ultimate status still has not been determined and its 3.9 million residents still do not have voting representation in their federal government.
Controversies
Elements of the U.S.-Puerto Rico relationship have been, and continue to be, matters of debate. Some contend that the current political status of Puerto Rico, perhaps with enhancements, remains a viable option. Others argue that commonwealth status is or should be only a temporary fix to be resolved in favor of other solutions considered permanent, non-colonial, and non-territorial. Some contend that if independence is achieved, the close relationship with the United States could be continued through compact negotiations with the federal government. One element apparently shared by all discussants is that the people of Puerto Rico seek to attain full, democratic representation, notably through voting rights on national legislation to which they are subject.[75]
Decolonization by the UN and political empowerment
Controversy exists surrounding the "real" political status of the Island, with some calling it a colony and others disagreeing.[76] Some (especially independentistas and statehooders) claim Puerto Rico is still a colony despite the UN's removing Puerto Rico from its list of non self-governing countries in 1953. Others (notably those who vote for the current commonwealth status option) argue that Puerto Rico is not a colony because the UN has not revoked its resolution after 55 years.
Some authors have called Puerto Rico "the world's oldest colony" (2001)[77] and "one of the world's last colonies" (2004).[78] The former chief justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court, Jose Trias Monge, wrote a book on the political status of Puerto Rico whose title called Puerto Rico the oldest colony in the world, Puerto Rico: The Trials of the Oldest Colony in the World.[79] Those who argue that Puerto Rico is still a colony insist that despite the UN resolution, Puerto Rico remains what some call a "post-colonial colony".[80] Defenders of this point of view, argue that Puerto Rico has less self-determination now than it did before the U.S. invaded the Island: it no longer has its own Puerto Rican citizenship as it did before,[81] has no free maritime control as it did before,[82] and has no representation in Congress as it did in the Spanish Cortes before in periods before the U.S. invasion. Trias Monge argues that just prior to the U.S. invasion, the Island enjoyed greater freedom and rights in certain areas than it does now. He then goes on to list six such greater rights. The six are: the insular parliament could legislate in matters of monetary policy, banking, import/export duties, and public credit; Puerto Rico could negotiate its own commercial treaties; Puerto Ricans were Spanish citizens, equal in all respects to mainland Spanish citizens; the Spanish Constitution applied in Puerto Rico in the same manner as it applied in Spain proper; the Autonomic Charter of 1897, which governed Puerto Rico's relation with Spain, could not be changed except with Puerto Rico's consent.
Yet those who claim Puerto Rico is not a colony will say that in its 8th session, the United Nations General Assembly recognized Puerto Rico's self-government on November 27, 1953, with Resolution 748.[51] This side points out that such recognition removed Puerto Rico's classification as a non-self-governing territory (under article 73(e) of the Charter of the United Nations). They add that the Resolution has not been revoked by the United Nations even though Puerto Rico's political status is still debated in many international forums.[83]
Those who claim Puerto Rico is still a colony argue that Puerto Rico was vested with the commonwealth status by the US Congress to give the appearance of self-government but that genuine decolonization never occurred.[84] These supporters claim that the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1947 allowed the U.S. to continue its colonial policy of Puerto Rico in a post-colonial world.[85] They see the passing of the Federal Relations Act of 1950 (P.L. 600[86]) as a gimmick by the US to maintain the colonial status of PR "The US Congress, however, carefully preserved its exclusive right to [unilaterally] alter the political status of Puerto Rico. Some saw the commonwealth as at best as temporary arrangement or at worst as a relic of the old colonial past."[87] They also point to the fact that no change in the political status of Puerto Rico is possible unless authorized by the US Congress.[87] as proof of the real current status. "The deepest question", Rivera Ramos sustains, "pertains to the source of rights and the source of authority to govern...In the case of [unincorporated] territories, the rights deemed to apply to their people, as well as those denied them, have their source in a constitution they have not approved nor have the power to amend."[88]
Those who support the view that Puerto Rico is no longer a colony but has changed into a different status, the commonwealth, argue that since the 1952 Constitution Congress has indicated that they will respect the wishes of the people of Puerto Rico, indicating that this is evidence of the validity of the current status as a non-colony.
Those claiming it is still a colony point to Congress legislating for Puerto Rico, and to bills where text such as those authorizing plebiscites in the Island (example "to conduct a second plebiscite between the options of (1) independence, (2) national sovereignty in association with the United States, and (3) U.S. statehood. The three options in the plebiscite also correspond to the options that the United Nations has identified as the options for decolonizing a territory." (HR 2499, section 2(c) ) clearly include content to satisfy the United Nations demand for decolonizing a territory. In addition to judicial decisions like the 1993 United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit decision, this decision stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice.[65]
Granting of U.S. citizenship and cultural identity
Some claim that granting of US citizenship on Puerto Ricans on March 2, 1917 was devised by the US in order to further reiterate its hold of Puerto Rico as a possession while others claim that it was a serious attempt to pave the way for statehood.
Former chief of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court Jose Trias Monge insists that statehood was never intended for the island and that, unlike Alaska and Hawaii which Congress deemed incorporated territories and slated for annexation to the Union from the start, Puerto Rico was kept "unincorporated" specifically to avoid offering it statehood.[89] And Myriam Marquez has stated that "Puerto Ricans fear that statehood would strip the people of their national identity, of their distinct culture and language."[90] Ayala and Bernabe add that "the purpose of the inclusion of U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans in the Jones Act of 1917 was an attempt by Congress to block independence and perpetuate Puerto Rico in its colonial status[91] For the proponents of the citizenship clause in the Jones Act, "the extension of citizenship did not constitute a promise of statehood but rather an attempt to exclude any consideration of independence."[92]
The preamble of the Commonwealth constitution approved by the people of Puerto Rico in 1952 in part reads: ...We consider as determining factors in our life our citizenship of the United States of America and our aspiration continually to enrich our democratic heritage in the individual and collective enjoyment of its rights and privileges;
For the island's pro-statehood movement, the concession of U.S. citizenship has been seen, ever since, as the key that would eventually guarantee statehood for the island, as soon as the people of Puerto Rico demanded equality in citizenship.
As former Puerto Rico House of Representatives Speaker Miguel Angel García- Méndez would subsequently declare, "For an American citizen, there cannot be another political goal other than equality with his or her fellow American citizens. To seek other solutions – to repudiate equality – is to repudiate the natural destiny of American citizenship."[93]
However, as early as 1912, President Taft had already said that there was no connection between the extension of citizenship to Puerto Ricans and the prospect of admission of Puerto Rico into the American Union. "I believe the demand for citizenship is just, and amply earned by the sustained loyalty on the part of the inhabitants of the island. But it should be remembered that the demand must be entirely dissociated from any thought of statehood."[94] President Taft's views in 1912 became the opinion of the United States Supreme Court when, in 1922 and as Chief Justice, Taft wrote the opinion on Balzac, the last of the so-called Insular Cases.[95][96][97]
Thus, in the end, U.S. citizenship has had multiple meanings for Puerto Ricans. For some it is a welcome link to the United States, regardless of the political status of the territory. For others, it has been nothing more than an imposed identity by an imperial power. Still others regard it as a useful asset that provides access to certain rights and tangible benefits and opportunities. And there are those that cherish it as a constituent element of their self-image and identity.[98]
Economic survival and self-support
Some contend that Puerto Rico cannot become a fully independent republic because there will be economic chaos and its citizens will die of hunger given that the land has no natural resources to sustain its population.[99][100] But others point to the example of countries that became independent, such as Ireland and Singapore and, though some containing less land and natural resources than Puerto Rico, today have economies far better than the Island.[101]
According to educational scientists Francesco Cordasco and Eugene Bucchioni, in their 1973 work The Puerto Rican Experience: a Sociological Sourcebook, the belief that Puerto Rico cannot survive on its own results from teachings since grade school. "Puerto Ricans here and in Puerto Rico are taught three things: Puerto Rico is small and the US is big, Puerto Rico is poor and the US is rich, Puerto Rico is weak and the US is strong."[102] This theory of non-sustainability is not new; it has been held by various groups at least since the 1930s.[103]
Commonwealth partisans argue that Puerto Rico cannot afford statehood, that post-war economic growth in Puerto Rico was the result of special treatment via exemption from Federal corporate taxes. Statehooders respond that such tax exemptions primarily benefit the large industrialists and not the population as a whole since low income Puerto Ricans would not pay taxes.[104]
An example given by those who claim the Island will be able to support itself is Singapore, an island nation 14 times smaller than Puerto Rico with a drastically higher level of population density and fewer natural resources, which has surpassed the per capita income of larger nations, including the United States.[105]
"In Puerto Rico, ever since you are a child, you are told that you live on a tiny island that has no natural resources, nothing. This is what they teach you in school, on TV, the media, and it's always negative. This perception is a byproduct of the island's political dependence on the U.S. Politicians here will name it 20,000 different ways, but in any dictionary Puerto Rico is a colony. And there is this colonized mentality that everything from abroad is better."[106]
Juan Mari Brás stated, "Only through a great unified movement looking beyond political and ideological differences, can the prevalent fears of hunger and persecution be overcome for the eventual liberation of Puerto Rico, breaking through domination by the greatest imperialist power of our age."[107]
English as an official language
Traditionally, the de facto and only official language in Puerto Rico had been Spanish. After the invasion by the United States in 1898, the Americans also made English the official language.[108][109][110] In 1991 under the pro-Commonwealth PPD administration of Rafael Hernández Colón Spanish was declared the only official language in the Island. Then, in 1993, under the pro-statehood PNP administration of Pedro Rosselló, the law was reversed, and English was again reinstated as an official language alongside Spanish.[111] In a 1993 survey by the Ateneo Puertorriqueño, a leading cultural institution in Puerto Rico, 93 percent of respondents indicated that they would not relinquish Spanish as their language if Puerto Rico ever became a state of the American Union, even if the United States required English as the only official language of the Island.[112][113]
Suffrage and representation in the U.S. Congress
In a First Circuit Court of Appeals case Igartúa v. United States, two of three members of the three-judge panel that dismissed the appeal on procedural grounds suggested in separate opinions that, in an en banc reconsideration, the United States could be required, under the current status, to extend full voting representation to the United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico if (1) the en banc Court determines that, contrary to current Circuit precedent, the Constitution does not prohibit extending such rights "under another source of law", (2) that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which , at Article 25, states that "[e]very citizen shall have the right and the opportunity...[t]o vote and to be elected at genuine and periodic elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage", is self-executing.[114][115]
Stateside Puerto Ricans and status
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c5/PR-Reps.jpg/200px-PR-Reps.jpg)
More Puerto Ricans live stateside in the U.S. than in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. A 2009 report by the Pew Hispanic Center indicates that, as of 2007, 4.1 million Puerto Ricans lived in the mainland versus 3.9 million living in the Island.[116] Since the 1967 referendum, there have been demands that stateside Puerto Ricans be allowed to vote in these plebiscites on the political status of Puerto Rico. Since the 1990s, the role of stateside Puerto Ricans in advocating for Puerto Rico in Washington, D.C., on issues such as the Navy's removal from Vieques and others has increased, especially given that there are three full voting members of the U.S. Congress who are stateside Puerto Ricans (two from New York City and one from Chicago), in contrast to Puerto Rico's single Resident Commissioner in the U.S. Congress with no vote.
Between February 24 and March 6 in 2006, the National Institute for Latino Policy conducted an opinion survey over the Internet of a broad cross-section of stateside Puerto Rican community leaders and activists across the United States. The survey had a total of 574 respondents, including 88 non-Puerto Rican members of the Institute's national network of community leaders.
The views of the 484 Puerto Ricans in the survey found broad support among them for the holding of a plebiscite on the future political status of Puerto Rico. While 73% were in favor of such a vote, they were split on the options to be voted upon. Those supporting the 2005 proposal made by the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico’s Status that the vote be ultimately limited to the options of statehood versus independence made up 31% of the total respondents. A larger group (43%) supported including the commonwealth option in the proposed plebiscite.[117][failed verification]
U.S. public opinion on the status of Puerto Rico
A March 13, 1998, Gallup Poll[118] asked Americans: "Do you personally think Puerto Rico: Should become a completely independent nation; should remain a territory of the United States, or, should be admitted to the United States as the fifty-first state?"
The response was:
- Become independent 28%
- Remain a US territory 26%
- Be admitted as the fifty-first state 30%
- None/Other 5%
- No opinion 11%
In a 1991 Gallup poll more than 60 percent of Americans had said they would support independence or statehood for Puerto Rico if a majority of Puerto Ricans voted for either one.
See also
- Puerto Rico (proposed state)
- Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2007 (H.R. 900 & S. 1936)
- Puerto Rican citizenship
- Voting rights in Puerto Rico
- Politics of Puerto Rico
- 51st state
- Special Committee on Decolonization
- United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories
- Privileges and Immunities Clause
- Territories of the United States
- United States territorial court
- Federal tribunals in the United States
Additional reading
- "The Singularly Strange Story of the English Language in Puerto Rico" by A Pousada.
- "Puerto Rico’s Political Status and the 2012 Plebiscite: Background and Key Questions."
References
- ^ Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 244, 287 (1901); Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298 (1922).
- ^ In November 2008 a district court judge ruled that a sequence of prior Congressional actions had had the cumulative effect of changing Puerto Rico's status to incorporated.Consejo de Salud Playa Ponce v. Johnny Rullan, p.28: "The Congressional incorporation of Puerto Rico throughout the past century has extended the entire Constitution to the island ...." However, as of April 2011 the issue had not yet made its way through the courts: Hon. Gustavo A. Gelpi, "The Insular Cases: A Comparative Historical Study of Puerto Rico, Hawai'i, and the Philippines", The Federal Lawyer, March/April 2011. http://www.aspira.org/files/legal_opinion_on_pr_insular_cases.pdf p. 25: "In light of the [Supreme Court] ruling in Boumediene, in the future the Supreme Court will be called upon to reexamine the Insular Cases doctrine as applied to Puerto Rico and other US territories." As of January 2013 the U.S. government still referred to Puerto Rico as unincorporated: accessed 26 January 2013: "Puerto Rico is a self-governing, unincorporated territory of the United States located in the Caribbean".
- ^ CONDICIÓN POLÍTICA TERRITORIAL ACTUAL (English:Actual Territorial Political Condition). Government of Puerto Rico. State Electoral Commission. Nov 16 2012 9:59PM. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ OPCIONES NO TERRITORIALES. (English: Non-Territorial Options). Government of Puerto Rico. State Electoral Commission. Nov 16 2012 9:59PM. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ 2011-06-20. Special Committee on Decolonization Calls on United States, in Consensus Text, to Speed up Process Allowing Puerto Rico to Exercise Self-Determination: Nearly 25 Petitioners Underscore Gravity of Situation on Island, Buckling Under Economic Strain; Vigorous Opposition to Death Penalty Also Expressed. June 20, 2011. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
- ^ 2009-06-15. Special Committee on Decolonization Approves Text Calling on United States to Expedite Self-determination Process for Puerto Rico: Members Hear Petitioners Speak up for Independence, Statehood, Free Association. June 15, 2009. Retrieved Sept 3, 2010.
- ^ 2006-06-13. Special Committee on Decolonization Approves Text Calling on United States to Expedite Puerto Rican Self-determination Process: Draft Resolution Urges Probe of Pro-Independence Leader’s Killing, Human Rights Abuses; Calls for Clean-up, Decontamination of Vieques. June 13, 2006. Retrieved Dec 3, 2009.
- ^ a b XIV Ministerial Conference of the Movement of Non-Aligned Nations. Durban, South Africa, 2004. See pages 14–15.
- ^ a b United Nations. General Assembly. Special Committee on the Situation With Regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (1971). Report of the Special Committee on the Situation with Regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. Vol. 23. United Nations Publications. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-92-1-810211-9.
- ^ One Hundred Years of Solitude: Puerto Rico's American Century. by Juan R. Torruella. In Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 248.
- ^ Jones-Shafroth Act
- ^ 8 U.S.C. § 1402
- ^ RHC admite congreso puede hacer lo que quiera con el ELA. El Sur a la Vista. Ponce, Puerto Rico. December 14, 2011. Retrieved December 15, 2011.
- ^ Bea, Keith (May 25, 2005). "Political Status of Puerto Rico: Background, Options, and Issues in the 109th Congress" (Document). Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress. pp. 5–6.
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- ^ Let Puerto Rico Decide: An Introduction to Puerto Rico's Status Debate
- ^ Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298, 305 (1922).
- ^ Injustice According to Law: The Insular Cases and Other Oddities. by José Trías Monge. In, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 231.
- ^ "7 FAM 1120 ACQUISITION OF U.S. NATIONALITY IN U.S. TERRITORIES AND POSSESSIONS" (PDF). U.S. Department of State Foreign Affairs Manual Volume 7- Consular Affairs. U.S. Department of State. 06-01-05. Retrieved January 24, 2010.
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(help) - ^ a b One Hundred Years of Solitude: Puerto Rico's American Century. by Juan R. Torruella. In, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 243.
- ^ Let Puerto Rico Decide How to end its Colony Status: True Nationhood Stands on the Pillar of Independence. Rosalinda de Jesus. The Allentown Morning Call. Republished by The Puerto Rico Herald. July 21, 2002. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Retrieved 21 June 2012.
- ^ One Hundred Years of Solitude: Puerto Rico's American Century. by Juan R. Torruella. In, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 242.
- ^ One Hundred Years of Solitude: Puerto Rico's American Century. by Juan R. Torruella. In, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 248.
- ^ Between the Foreign and the Domestic: The Doctrine of Territorial Incorporation, Invented and Reinvented. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. In, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 13.
- ^ a b Injustice According to Law: The Insular Cases and Other Oddities. by José Trías Monge. In, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 239.
- ^ Downes, 182 U.S. at 341–342 (White, J. concurring)
- ^ Sanford Levinson, and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. The Louisiana Purchase and the American Expansion. page 12.
- ^ One Hundred Years of Solitude: Puerto Rico's American Century. by Juan R. Torruella. In, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 243. In Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298, 305 (1922) at 304–12.
- ^ 195 U.S. 138, 149.
- ^ 258 U.S. 298, 312.
- ^ The right of trial by jury has been incorporated against the states through the Due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. See Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 U.S. 145 (1968). However, the size of the jury, as well as the requirement that it unanimously reach its verdict, vary between federal and state courts. Even so, the Supreme Court has ruled that a jury in a criminal case may have as few as six members. If there are twelve, only nine jurors need agree on a verdict. See, Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
- ^ U.S. Citizens or "qualified aliens" resident of one of the 50 States, the District of Columbia, or the Northern Mariana Islands are eligible for SSI. Supplemental Security Income (SSI)
- ^ One Hundred Years of Solitude: Puerto Rico's American Century. by Juan R. Torruella. In, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 244.
- ^ "Torres v. Puerto Rico". FindLaw.com Supreme Court Case Law. Retrieved September 9, 2009.
- '^ Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page xii. Retrieved May 1, 2010.
- ^ Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page xii.
- ^ Contrary to common misconception, residents of Puerto Rico do pay U.S. federal taxes: customs taxes (which are subsequently returned to the Puerto Rico Treasury) (See http://www.doi.gov/oia/Islandpages/prpage.htm Dept of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs.), import/export taxes (See http://stanford.wellsphere.com/healthcare-industry-policy-article/puerto-rico/267827), federal commodity taxes (See http://stanford.wellsphere.com/healthcare-industry-policy-article/puerto-rico/267827), social security taxes (See http://www.irs.gov/taxtopics/tc903.html), etc. Residents pay federal payroll taxes, such as Social Security (See http://www.irs.gov/taxtopics/tc903.html) and Medicare (See http://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSTRE58N5X320090924), as well as Commonwealth of Puerto Rico income taxes (See http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/2003/vol7n19/USNotInnocent-en.html and http://www.htrcpa.com/businessinpr1.html). All federal employees (See http://www.heritage.org/research/taxes/wm2338.cfm), those who do business with the federal government (See http://www.mcvpr.com/CM/CurrentEvents/CEOsummitarticle.pdf), Puerto Rico-based corporations that intend to send funds to the U.S. (See http://www.jct.gov/x-24-06.pdf Page 9, line 1.), and some others (For example, Puerto Rican residents that are members of the U.S. military, See http://www.heritage.org/research/taxes/wm2338.cfm; and Puerto Rico residents who earned income from sources outside Puerto Rico, See http://www.jct.gov/x-24-06.pdf, pp 14–15.) also pay federal income taxes. In addition, because the cutoff point for income taxation is lower than that of the U.S. IRS code, and because the per-capita income in Puerto Rico is much lower than the average per-capita income on the mainland, more Puerto Rico residents pay income taxes to the local taxation authority than if the IRS code were applied to the island. This occurs because "the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico government has a wider set of responsibilities than do U.S. State and local governments" (See http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-06-541). As residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, Puerto Ricans are eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement, but are excluded from the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico residents, unlike residents of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands and residents of the 50 States, do not receive the SSI. See http://www.socialsecurity.gov/OP_Home/handbook/handbook.21/handbook-2114.html), and the island actually receives less than 15% of the Medicaid funding it would normally receive if it were a U.S. state (See http://www.magiccarpetautotransport.com/auto-transport/puerto-rico-auto-transport.php). However, Medicare providers receive less-than-full state-like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system (See http://www.prfaa.com/news/?p=252). It has also been estimated (See http://www.eagleforum.org/column/2007/mar07/07-03-28.html) that, because the population of the Island is greater than that of 50% of the States, if it were a state, Puerto Rico would have six to eight seats in the House, in addition to the two seats in the Senate.(See http://www.eagleforum.org/column/2007/mar07/07-03-28.html, http://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-17-4-c.html# and http://www.thomas.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/?&sid=cp1109rs5H&refer=&r_n=hr597.110 [Note that for the later, the official US Congress database website, you will need to resubmit a query. The document in question is called "House Report 110-597 – PUERTO RICO DEMOCRACY ACT OF 2007." These are the steps to follow: http://www.thomas.gov > Committee Reports > 110 > drop down "Word/Phrase" and pick "Report Number" > type "597" next to Report Number. This will provide the document "House Report 110-597 – PUERTO RICO DEMOCRACY ACT OF 2007", then from the Table of Contents choose "BACKGROUND AND NEED FOR LEGISLATION".]). Another misconception is that the import/export taxes collected by the U.S. on products manufactured in Puerto Rico are all returned to the Puerto Rico Treasury. This is not the case. Such import/export taxes are returned only for rum products, and even then the US Treasury keeps a portion of those taxes (See the "House Report 110-597 – PUERTO RICO DEMOCRACY ACT OF 2007" mentioned above.)
- ^ 2005 President's Task Force. Page 4.
- ^ Puerto Rico State Electoral Commission: Official Results for the 1967 Political-Status Plebiscite. Retrieved May 1, 2010.
- ^ Puerto Rico State Electoral Commission: Official Results for the 1993 Political-Status Plebiscite. Retrieved May 1, 2010.
- ^ 2005 President's Task Force. Page 4. Retrieved May 1, 2010.
- ^ Puerto Rico State Electoral Commission: Official Results for the 1998 Political-Status Plebiscite. Retrieved May 1, 2010.
- ^ "Resultados Elecciones Generales 2012 - Noche del Evento". Comision Estatal de Elecciones de Puerto Rico. Retrieved November 11, 2012.
- ^ Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress. Report RL32933. By Keith Bea and R. Sam Garrett, Government and Finance Division. Congressional Research Service. Updated May 29, 2008. Page 32. Appendix B: Puerto Rico Status Votes in Plebiscites and Referenda, 1967–1998. (A WikiLeaks Document Release. At: http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS-RL32933. Dated February 2, 2009. Retrieved December 5, 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress. Report RL32933. By Keith Bea and R. Sam Garrett, Congressional Research Service. Dated June 19, 2009. Page 29. Table B-1: Puerto Rico Status Votes in Plebiscites and Referenda, 1967–1998. Page 29. Retrieved December 5, 2009.
- ^ Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion, and the Constitution. By Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. Duke University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8223-2698-1. Page 21.
- ^ 1997 Statement from Romero Barcelo Before Congress
- ^ Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress, Page 6.
- ^ Appendix E, page 6
- ^ Injustice According to Law: The Insular Cases and Other Oddities. by José Trías Monge. In, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 233.
- ^ a b Resolution 748 (VIII). [Note: To access the text of the UN document, scroll down the list that appears until Resolution "748 (VIII)", dated "November 27, 1953", is found. Click on the link "748 (VIII)" to view the text of the Resolution. Important: This is a UN document database query server; documents are served on-the-fly. Saving the link that appears when the document opens will not provide access in the future.]Retrieved July 18, 2010.
- ^ Puerto Rico: Commonwealth, Statehood, or Independence? Constitutional Rights Foundation
- ^ a b c d U.S House of Representatives. 110th Congress. Second Session. Report #597. Washington, D.C.
- ^ Injustice According to Law: The Insular Cases and Other Oddities. by Jose Trias Monge. In, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 239.
- ^ a b UN Resolution 1514 (XV) of December 15, 1960. Listing of the full set of criteria that determines if a country or territory is a colony. Retrieved December 8, 2009.
- ^ US Congress (Thomas Online Query Database), House Report 110-597 – PUERTO RICO DEMOCRACY ACT OF 2007. Background and Need for Legislation section
- ^ SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON DECOLONIZATION CALLS ON UNITED STATES TO EXPEDITE PUERTO RICO’S SELF-DETERMINATION PROCESS – General Assembly GA/COL/3160 – Department of Public Information – June 14, 2007
- ^ Terroristic Activity: The Cuban Connection in Puerto Rico. Hearings Before the U.S. Senate, Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws of the Committee of the Judiciary. 94th CONGRESS. FIRST SESSION, PART 6. July 30, 1975. (Washington, D.C.) Retrieved December 11, 2009.
- ^ General Assembly Resolution 748 (VIII), November 27, 1953.
- ^ "Puerto Ricans Must Approve Future Status-Decolonization Committee", U.N. Chronicle 15(9):35 (October 1978)
- ^ "Committee Calls for Fact Finding Mission to Visit Puerto Rico", U.N. Chronicle 16(6):25 (July–October 1979).
- ^ a b "The International Legal Status of Native Alaska" by Russel Lawrence Barsh, published in Alaska Native News (July 1984), 4. 2, p. 35.
- ^ Special Committee on Decolonization Calls on United States to Expedite Puerto Rico's Self-Determination Process – General Assembly GA/COL/3160 – Department of Public Information – June 14, 2007
- ^ Constitutional Rights Foundation. Retrieved October 21, 2009.
- ^ a b United States v. Sanchez, 992 F.2d 1143 (11 Cir. 1993). (Paragraphs 44 – 46)
- ^ "Puerto Rico Status Field Hearing". Committee on Resources, U.S. House of Representatives, 105th Congress. April 19, 1997. Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- ^ "1541 (XV). Principles which should guide Members in determining whether or not an obligation exists to transmit the information called for under Article 73 e of the Charter". United Nations General Assembly. December 15, 1960.
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at position 45 (help) - ^ U.S. Congressman Luis Gutierrez, D-Illinois. House Session: United States-Puerto Rico Political Status Act. March 4, 1998. C-SPAN Video Library. In the words of the Congressman, The fact is that Puerto Rico is a nation... Retrieved September 7, 2010.
- ^ U.S. Congressman Luis Gutierrez, D-Illinois. House Session: United States-Puerto Rico Political Status Act. March 4, 1998. Congressional Record. March 4, 1998. 105th Congress, Second Session. Volume 144, Issue No. 20. Page H821. 1900 Hours. In the words of the Congressman, The people of Puerto Rico consider themselves a nation... Retrieved September 7, 2010.
- ^ Dr. Lynn Darrell Bender. Puertorriqueños and americanos in Puerto Rico: Ethnic Conflict? in "The Perplexing Hemisphere." Revista/Review Interamericana. Vol. XXX, No. 1-4 (2002), pp. 1–4. Interamerican University of Puerto Rico. San German, Puerto Rico. The [Puerto Rican] cultural elites and intellectuals...view Puerto Rico as a "nation," in the sense of a distinct cultural-linguistic unit... Retrieved September 7, 2010.
- ^ Countries and Their Cultures: Culture of Puerto Rico. "Orientation: Identification." Page 1. Puerto Ricans are a Caribbean people who regard themselves as citizens of a distinctive island nation... Retrieved September 7, 2010.
- ^ The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803–1898. By Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2005. ISBN 978-0-7425-4984-5. Page 167.
- ^ The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803–1898. by Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2005. ISBN 978-0-7425-4984-5. Page 243.]
- ^ Sponsored Identities: Cultural Politics in Puerto Rico. in Making and Marketing National Identities. By Arlene M. Dávila. Temple University Press. 1997. ISBN 978-1-56639-549-6. Pages 1–3.
- ^ Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress. Summary page.
- ^ UNITED STATES-PUERTO RICO RELATIONS IN THE EARLY COLD WAR YEARS (1945–1953): Abstract. CARLOS RAMON ZAPATA-OLIVERAS. January 1, 1986. Retrieved December 16, 2011.
- ^ Constitutional Rights Foundation.
- ^ Navarro, Sharon Ann, and Mejia, Armando Xavier, Latino Americans and Political Participation Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2004. ISBN 1-85109-523-3. page 106.
- ^ Puerto Rico:The Trials of the Oldest Colony in the World. By Jose Trias Monge. Yale University Press. 1997.
- ^ Archaeology and the Postcolonial Critique. By Matthew Liebmann, and Uzma Z. Rizvi. Page 54.
- ^ Puerto Rico Herald
- ^ Requirement to use US-flagged ships only
- ^ La Prensa San Diego. By Marjorie Cohn. The Incarceration of Carlos Alberto Torres: After 30 Years in Prison, the Puerto Rican Political Prisoner Will Be Freed.. Vol. XXXIII. July 30, 2010."Every year for 29 years the United Nations Decolonization Committee has passed a resolution calling for independence."
- ^ Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America By Juan Gonzalez. page 262, 272
- ^ Archaeology and the Postcolonial Critique. By Matthew Liebmann, Uzma Z. Rizvi. Page 54.
- ^ cited as "Act of July 3, 1950, U.S. Statutes at Large 64 (1950):319", in One Hundred Years of Solitude: Puerto Rico's American Century. by Juan R. Torruella. In, Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, The American Expansion, and the Constitution. Ed. by Christina Duffy Burnett and Burke Marshall. 2001. Duke University Press. Page 248.
- ^ a b The Politics of Direct Democracy: Referendums in Global Perspective. By Lawrence By LeDuc. Page 117
- ^ The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803–1898. by Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. 2005. Page 175.
- ^ Harvest of Empire. By Juan Gonzalez. Page 265.
- ^ True Nationhood Stands On The Pillar Of Independence. Myriam Marquez. Orlando Sentinel. 21 July 2002. Reprinted by "Puerto Rico Herald." Retrieved 22 June 2012.
- ^ Puerto Rico in the American Century: A History Since 1898. By César J. Ayala and Rafael Bernabe. Page 82.
- ^ Ayala and Bernabe, Page 82.
- ^ About Puerto Rico
- ^ Harvest of Empire. By Juan Gonzalez. Page 265
- ^ Insular Cases – The Decisions, Influence of the Cases, De Lima v. Bidwell, Goetze v. United States—United, Court, Territories, Rico, Puerto, and Congress
- ^ Juan R. Torruella (1985). The Supreme Court and Puerto Rico: the doctrine of separate and unequal. La Editorial, UPR. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-8477-3019-3Template:Inconsistent citations
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ "The Insular Cases: The Establishment of a Regime of Political Apartheid" (2007) Juan R. Torruella Pages 318–319" (PDF). Retrieved February 7, 2010Template:Inconsistent citations
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: postscript (link). - ^ The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803–1898. by Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. 2005. Page 174.
- ^ Francesco Cordasco and Eugene Bucchioni. The Puerto Rican Experience: a Sociological Sourcebook. Littlefield, Adams, & Co. 1973. ISBN:0-87471-162-2. page=317.
- ^ Have A Puerto Rican question? Ask El Boricuazo. Retrieved 12 May 2013.
- ^ Angel Collado Schwarz. Soberanias Exitosas: Seis modelos para el desarrollo economico de Puerto Rico. Fundacion Voz del Centro. Guaynabo, Puerto Rico. (Spanish) 2009. ISBN:1-933545-13-5. pp. 17–18.
- ^ Francesco Cordasco and Eugene Bucchioni (1973). The Puerto Rican Experience: a Sociological Sourcebook. Littlefield, Adams, & Co. p. 317. ISBN 0-87471-162-2.
- ^ Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos. Accessed January 16, 2011.
- ^ Defining Status: A Comprehensive Analysis of United States Territorial Relations. By Arnold H. Leibowitz. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 1989. Page 128.
- ^ Angel Collado Schwarz (2009). "Singapur". Soberanias Exitosas: Seis modelos para el desarrollo economico de Puerto Rico (in Spanish). Guaynabo, Puerto Rico: Fundacion Voz del Centro. pp. 17–18. ISBN 1-933545-13-5.
- ^ Have A Puerto Rican question? Ask El Boricuazo
- ^ Voices for Independence: In the Spirit of Valor and Sacrifice. Portraits of Notable Individuals in the Struggle for Puerto Rican Independence. By Jean Zwickel. White Star Press (Pittsburg, California, U.S.) ISBN 0-9620448-0-6. March 1998. Copyrighted
- ^ Our Projects: What ProEnglish Does. History of Puerto Rico, its status, and its official languageS."1902: The Official Languages Act (under the Foraker Act) was instituted which declared that in all insular governmental departments, courts, and public offices, English was to be regarded as co-official with Spanish...On March 2, [1917] President Woodrow Wilson signed the Jones Act...This law...made English the official language." (archived from the original on May 28, 2008)
- ^ The University of Puerto Rico: Colonialism and the Language of Teaching and Learning, 1903 – 1952. By Pablo Navarro-Rivera, School of Undergraduate Studies, Lesley College, Cambridge, MA. In, Journal for Pedagogy, Pluralism & Practice."With the military invasion of Puerto Rico in 1898 the United States (U.S.) initiated a colonization effort that made English the official language of the island." Retrieved March 12, 2010
- ^ Language Situations. (A Review of The Movement Against Teaching English in Schools in Puerto Rico. (1987) By Edith Algren de Guitierrez. University Press of America.) JSTOR. Vol 19. No. 3. (Sept, 1990) By Ana Cecilia Zentella. Cambridge University Press."Ever since the United States occupied the Island in 1898 and declared English the only official language..." Retrieved March 12, 2010
- ^ Caribbean Business. Historical Highlights of Puerto Rico Retrieved March 12, 1020.
- ^ Hispania Research Corporation: Memorando analitico sobre el estudio del idioma en Puerto Rico – Sometido a: Ateneo Puertorriqueño. Page 60. (1993).
- ^ Rivera Ramos, Efren (2005). "Puerto Rico's Political Status". In Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow (ed.). The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803–1898. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 179–180.
- ^ Igartúa v. United States, 626 F.3d 592 (1st Cir 2010). Retrieved January 10, 2012.
- ^ http://www.vocero.com/noticias-es/nuevamente-‘no’-al-foto-federal
- ^ Hispanics of Puerto Rican Origin in the United States, 2007 Retrieved November 3, 2009.
- ^ White House Task Force on Puerto Rico’s Status (archived from the original on June 24, 2008)
- ^ Gallup Poll, 3/6-9/1998, CNN/USA Today/Gallup Poll, ref # GO 121850: The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1998, by George Horace Gallup, pp. 40–41.
External links
U.N. Resolutions
- 2011-06-20. Special Committee on Decolonization Calls on United States, in Consensus Text, to Speed up Process Allowing Puerto Rico to Exercise Self-Determination: Nearly 25 Petitioners Underscore Gravity of Situation on Island, Buckling Under Economic Strain; Vigorous Opposition to Death Penalty Also Expressed.(June 20, 2011) Retrieved April 22, 2012.
- 2010-06-21. Special Committee on Decolonization Passes Text Urging General Assembly to Consider Formally Situation Concerning Puerto Rico: Draft Resolution Calls on United States to Expedite Island’s Self-Determination. (June 21, 2010) Retrieved July 11, 2010.
- 2009-06-15. Special Committee on Decolonization Approves Text Calling on United States to Expedite Self-determination Process for Puerto Rico. Members Hear Petitioners Speak up for Independence, Statehood, Free Association. (June 15, 2009) Retrieved Sept 3, 2010.
- 2006-06-13. Special Committee on Decolonization Approves Text Calling on United States to Expedite Puerto Rican Self-determination Process. Draft Resolution Urges Probe of Pro-Independence Leader’s Killing, Human Rights Abuses; Calls for Clean-up, Decontamination of Vieques. (June 13, 2006) Retrieved Dec 3, 2009.
Bills before Congress
- 1996-03-23. HR-3024, U.S.-Puerto Rico Political Status Act. San Juan, PR. (March 23, 1996) Retrieved December 3, 2009.
- 1997-03-19. 1997 Puerto Rico Status Hearing before the Committee on Resources, House of Representatives. 105th Congress. First Session on H.R. 856, "A Bill to Provide a Process Leading to Full Self-government for Puerto Rico". (March 19, 1997) — Washington, D.C. (Serial No. 105–16)
- 2007-02-07. Text of H.R. 900: Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2007. Union Calendar No. 370. 110th CONGRESS, 2d Session. H.R. 900. Report No. 110-597. To provide for a federally sanctioned self-determination process for the people of Puerto Rico. In the House of Representatives. (February 7, 2007)
Others
- Portal de la Comisión Estatal de Elecciones de Puerto Rico (In Spanish)
- Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration
- An Introduction to Puerto Rico's Status Debate (archived from the original on 2007-08-07)
- Again with the 51st State ... by Eric Lurio, The Huffington Post, August 1, 2009
- House Vote On Puerto Rico’s Status Divides Hispanic Lawmakers – video report by Democracy Now!
- 1993-07-13. Puerto Rico Self-Determination Part I. Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Insular Affairs of the Committee on Natural Resources, House of Representatives. 103rd Congress, First Sesion. On H. Con. Res. 94: Expressing the Sense of the Congress Regarding the Expression of Self-determination by the People of Puerto Rico. Washington, D.C. (July 13, 1993) Retrieved Dec 3, 2009.
- Text of Law #283 of 2011, ordering the 2012 Political Status plebiscite, and which provides a fairly complete picture of the events related to Puerto Rico's political status that have taken place since the 1898 U.S. annexation of the island. Retrieved January 10, 2012.