Racism in Asia exists for similar reasons that racism elsewhere exists. In general, racism exists in these countries due to historical events that occurred either recently or thousands of years ago.
Racist sentiments exist between citizens of Pakistan towards the citizens of Bangladesh. This conflict goes back to when India was first partitioned into West Pakistan and East Pakistan when citizens of today's Pakistan dominated the original Pakistani government. Due to political, economic, linguistic and ethnic discrimination by the Pakistani state before independence in 1971, and the atrocities against the Bengalis committed by the Pakistan Army during the Bangladesh Liberation War, some people in Bangladesh abhor everything from Pakistan. 3 Million Bangladeshis were killed by the Pakistani army during the 9 month long war of independence in 1971. The Government of Bangladesh demands a formal apology for those atrocities from the Pakistani head of state, as well as putting on trial former military and political leaders who had played a role in the army action in then East Pakistan. Pakistan has continued to ignore this demand.
In Cambodia, one of the biggest genocides in history occurred, with the Khmer Rouge led by Pol Pot persecuting ethnic Chinese and other foreigners living in Cambodia. This conflict stems from Chinese involvement in Cambodia before the Vietnam War. In Israel, racism exists between Jewish Israelis and Palestinians, both Muslim and Christian. Racism in Israel stems from the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict created with the founding of Israel.
Overall, racism exists in Asia because of ethnic conflicts that existed in the region for thousands of years.
Contents
Bangladesh[edit]
Disputes between East and West Pakistan soon after the partition of India were beginning to give rise to racist ideas and sentiments towards West Pakistani social groups, West Pakistanis being seen as 'Mleccha' or inferior, uncivilized tribals compared to the educated Bengalis. After the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War, non-Bengalis, specifically Biharis and other Muslim refugees from India suffered from active ethnic discrimination.[1] They are not considered full-fledged citizens of Bangladesh and until recently were not allowed to vote.[citation needed] The Bangladesh government now allows Biharis born after 1971 to vote in elections to the legislature.[2][dubious ]
In 2015, ruling Awami League Member of Parliament, Ilias Mollah, a man with little education,[3] commented on his recent trip to Congo: "Our army has gone there (Africa) to civilise those black people. I am sure they will accomplish the task." He constantly referred to the Congolese as "uncivilized black people" and aded “People there are yet to become civilised. They take bath every 15 days. After applying soaps before bath, they do not even use water in a bid to retain the aroma.”[4]
Bhutan[edit]
In 1991-92, Bhutan is said to have deported between 10,000 to 100,000 ethnic Nepalis (Lhotshampa). The actual number of refugees that were initially deported are debated by both sides. In March 2008, this population began a multiyear resettlement to third countries including the U.S., Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands and Australia.[5] At present, the United States is working towards resettling more than 60,000 of these refugees in the US as third country settlement programme.[6]
Brunei[edit]
Brunei law provides positive discrimination in favor of ethnic Malay.[7]
Myanmar[edit]
Ne Win's rise to power in 1962 and his persecution of "resident aliens" (immigrant groups not recognised as citizens of the Union of Burma) led to an exodus of some 300,000 Burmese Indians from discriminatory policies, particularly after wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.[8][9] Some Muslim refugees entered Bangladesh, but continued to suffer there as the Bangladeshi government provided no support as of 2007.[10]
Cambodia[edit]
The Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia disproportionately targeted ethnic minority groups. These included ethnic Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai. In the late 1960s, an estimated 425,000 ethnic Chinese lived in Cambodia, but by 1984, as a result of Khmer Rouge genocide and emigration, only about 61,400 Chinese remained in the country. The Cham, a Muslim minority who are the descendants of migrants from the old state of Champa, were forced to adopt the Khmer language and customs. A Khmer Rouge order stated that henceforth "The Cham nation no longer exists on Kampuchean soil belonging to the Khmers" (U.N. Doc. A.34/569 at 9). Only about half of the Cham survived.[11][12][13]
China[edit]
Several clashes between African and Chinese students have occurred since the arrival of Africans to Chinese universities in the 1960s. Many African students come to China on a scholarship through the government to study at a university. The African students were often perceived as threatening and not punctual.[14] A well-documented incident in 1988 featured Chinese students rioting against African students studying in Nanjing.[15] In 2007, police anti-drug crackdowns in Beijing's Sanlitun district were reported to target people from Africa as suspected criminals, though police officials denied targeting any group.[16] Similar sentiment has emerged in Guangzhou, where a very large group of Africans have settled.
Anti-Japanese sentiment in China is an issue with old roots. Japan started off like other Western powers by annexing land from China towards the end of the Qing Dynasty. Dissatisfaction with the settlement and the Twenty-One Demands by the Japanese government led to a severe boycott of Japanese products in China. Bitterness in China persists over the atrocities of the Second Sino-Japanese War, such as the Nanjing Massacre and Japan's post-war actions. Today, textbook revisionism and censorship remain contentious issues.
Hong Kong[edit]
In a population of almost 7 million[17] Hong Kong has gained a reputation as international city, while remaining predominantly Chinese. This multi-culturalism has raised issues of racial and sex discrimination, particularly among the 350,000 ethnic minorities such as Nepalese, Indians, Indonesians, Pakistanis and Filipinos, who have long established minority communities since the founding days of the former colony or have come to Hong Kong recently to work as domestic workers. For example, Filipino females are sometimes addressed by the degratory term "Bun Mui" and Filipino males "Bun Jai" (literally Filipino sister and Filipino son, respectively).[citation needed] In 2003, the number of complaints filed with the body handling discrimination issues, the Equal Opportunities Commission[18] increased by 31 percent.
Discrimination against Mainland Chinese people runs rife in Hong Kong. Mainlanders were traditionally looked down upon as "bumpkins", or people of lower social standing, due to Hong Kong citizens typically being wealthier. However, in recent years, Mainland Chinese people have been able to catch up. In Hong Kong, Mainlanders are often referred to as "locusts"[19] as they are seen as invaders who swarm the city and drain its resources, and are heavily discriminated against. As of February 2012, there have been stickers placed around the streets, in newspapers and on the Internet depicting Mainland "locusts" invading the city.[20]
A race discrimination bill has been demanded by human rights groups for the last 10 years, and the government has been accused of putting the issue on the back burner.
Last December 3, 2006 was the first time a drafted bill was released onto the Legislative Council, and is expected to be passed before the end of 2008. However, the bill is criticized for being "too conservative".[21] The exclusion of mainland Chinese migrants has also been a source of controversy, with the government claiming that they are not considered to be of a different race. Another issue of the bill has been of language instruction in schools.[citation needed]
India[edit]
The earliest rejection of discrimination was made as far back as the Hindu sacred text of Bhagavada Gita, which says that no person, no matter what, is barred from enlightenment. Even early Hindu texts such as the Rig Veda discourage the abuse of outcastes. The text reads, "Indra, you lifted up the outcast who was oppressed, you glorified the blind and the lame." (Rg-Veda 2:13:12).[22]
The varna system was equivalent to division of labour and a Shudra's son (the lowest varna) could become a Brahmin. But later this system became hereditary and a Shudra's son would remain a Shudra, and became to known as caste system. During the British Raj, racist views against Indians based on the systemic scientific racism practiced in Europe at the time were popularized. Views include dividing linguistic groups into ethnic "classes" (see Historical definitions of races in India).[23] The first Prime minister of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, wrote
“ | "We in India have known racialism in all its forms ever since the commencement of British rule. The idea of a master race is inherent in imperialism ... India as a nation and Indians as individuals were subjected to insult, humiliation and contemptuous treatment. The English were an imperial race, we were told, with the God-given right to govern us and keep us in subjection; if we protested we were reminded of the 'tiger qualities of an imperial race'. | ” |
"[24]
Indonesia[edit]
A number of discriminatory laws against Chinese Indonesians were enacted by the government of Indonesia. In 1959, President Sukarno approved PP 10/1959 that forced Chinese Indonesians to close their businesses in rural areas and relocate into urban areas. Moreover, political pressures in the 1970s and 1980s restricted the role of the Chinese Indonesian in politics, academics, and the military. As a result, they were thereafter constrained professionally to becoming entrepreneurs and professional managers in trade, manufacturing, and banking. In the 1960s, following the failed alleged Communist coup attempt in 1965, there was a strong sentiment against the Chinese Indonesians who were accused of being Communist collaborators. In 1998, Indonesia riots over higher food prices and rumors of hoarding by merchants and shopkeepers often degenerated into anti-Chinese attacks. There were also racism against religion & believe wide across the country, especially between Muslims and Christians.[25]
Amnesty International has estimated more than 100,000 Papuans, one-sixth of the population, have died as a result of violence against West Papuans,[26][27] while others had previously specified much higher death tolls.[28] The 1990s saw Indonesia accelerate its Transmigration program, under which hundreds of thousands of Javanese and Sumatran migrants were resettled to Papua over a ten-year period, The Indonesian government saw this as the economical improvement and also population density improvement for Indonesia. Critics suspect that the Transmigration program's purpose is to tip the balance of the province's population from the heavily Melanesian Papuans toward western Indonesians, thus further consolidating Indonesian control.[29]
Iran[edit]
As late as August 2010, UN's anti-racism panel found The Islamic republic of Iran discriminating and practicing wide racism against Arabs, Kurds, Baluch, other ethnic minorities. The United Nations panel said "Arabs, Kurds and other minorities in Iran face discrimination because of their ethnicity."[30] The U.N. urged Iran to tackle racism on Arab, Azeri, Balochi, Kurdish communities and some communities of non-citizens.[31]
Israel[edit]
Organizations such as Amnesty International, the Association for Civil Rights in Israel, and the United States Department of State[32] have published reports documenting racial discrimination in Israel.
The Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI) published reports documenting racism in Israel, and the 2007 report suggested that racism in the country was increasing.[33] One analysis of the report summarized it: "Over two-thirds Israeli teen believe Arabs to be less intelligent, uncultured and violent. Over a third of Israeli teens fear Arabs all together....The report becomes even grimmer, citing the ACRI's racism poll, taken in March 2007, in which 50% of Israelis taking part said they would not live in the same building as Arabs, will not befriend, or let their children befriend Arabs and would not let Arabs into their homes."[34] The 2008 report from ACRI says the trend of increasing racism is continuing.[35]
Japan[edit]
In 2005, a United Nations report expressed concerns about racism in Japan and that government recognition of the depth of the problem was not total.[36][37] The author of the report, Doudou Diène (Special Rapporteur of the UN Commission on Human Rights), concluded after a nine-day investigation that racial discrimination and xenophobia in Japan primarily affects three groups: national minorities, Latin Americans of Japanese descent, mainly Japanese Brazilians, and foreigners from poor countries.[38]
Japan accepted just 16 refugees in 1999, while the United States took in 85,010 for resettlement, according to the UNHCR. New Zealand, which is 30 times smaller than Japan, accepted 1,140 refugees in 1999. Just 305 persons were recognized as refugees by Japan from 1981, when Japan ratified the U.N. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, to 2002.[39][40] Former Prime Minister Taro Aso called Japan a "one race" nation.[41]
Ainu people are an ethnic group indigenous to Hokkaidō, northern Honshū, the Kuril Islands, much of Sakhalin, and the southernmost third of the Kamchatka peninsula. As Japanese settlement expanded, the Ainu were pushed northward, until by the Meiji period they were confined by the government to a small area in Hokkaidō, in a manner similar to the placing of American Indians on reservations.[42]
Jordan[edit]
Korea[edit]
Koreans tend to equate nationality or citizenship with membership in a single, homogeneous ethnic group or "race" (minjok, in Korean). Discrimination and ostracism of biracial children is ubiquitous in Korean society.[citation needed] A common language and culture also are viewed as important elements in Korean identity. Both North Korea and South Korea are among the world's most ethnically homogeneous nations.[citation needed] South Korean schools have been criticized for hiring only white teachers who apply to teach English, because Koreans regard fair skin color as representative of "American" or "English"-ness.[43]
South Korea has only granted refugee status to 60 people in its entire history. In comparison, South Africa has accepted over 35,000 refugees.[44]
Malaysia[edit]
Malaysia is a multi–ethnic country, with Malays making up the majority—close to 52% of the 28 million population. About 30% of the population are Chinese Malaysians (Malaysians of Chinese descent) and Indian Malaysians (Malaysians of Indian descent) comprise about 10% of the population.Government policies of positive discrimination often favour the Malay majority and the Bumiputera status, particularly in areas such as housing, finance and education.Such policies has been cited in Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia UMNO also promotes ketuanan Melayu, which is the idea that the ethnic Malays or Bumiputeras should get special privileges in Malaysia. Basically it was written in The Federation of Malaya Agreement signed on 21 January 1948 at King House by the Malay rulers, and by Sir Edward Gent as the representative of the British government to let Malay as the leader among three races. The Malays dominate in politics at both national and state levels, the civil service, military and security forces. The Chinese have traditionally dominated in the economy and live in large numbers in urban areas of Malaysia.
The Malay-controlled government ensures that all Bumiputras of Malay origin are given preferential treatment when it comes to the number of student places in Government universities, they are also given 7% discounts for new houses purchased by them, special Malay status reserve land in most housing settlements.Burial plots in most urban areas for the deceased Bumiputeras while the rest have to be cremated at such locations, that all key government positions to be held by Malays including most sporting associations, a minimum of a 30% Malay Bumiputera equity to be held in Listed Companies, full funding for mosques and Islamic places of worship(Islam as an official religious in Malaysia), special high earning interest trust funds for Bumiputera Malays, special share allocation for new share applications for Bumiputera Malays, making the Malay language a compulsory examination paper to pass with such high emphasis given to it.[45] Even school text books have been criticised as racist especially from Chinese and Indian type school who adopted learing methods from their main land country. "Interlok" is a 1971 Malay language novel written by Malaysian national laureate Abdullah Hussain, with Chinese groups today condemning its depiction of Chinese characters as greedy, opium-smoking lechers keen to exploit Malays for profit. Some folks was said that Chinese trying to conquer Malaysia as they did to Singapore. Indian community earlier complained over the novel’s use of the word "pariah". Chinese associations said the book was not only offensive to Indians but Chinese as well, as it depicted the character Kim Lock as a "miserly opium addict and callous adulterer" and his son, Cing Huat, as "cunning, greedy, unscrupulous and someone who would sell his daughters". "‘Interlok’ written based on the ideology of ketuanan Melayu. The groups also condemned the "major thread" in the book, which depicts the Chinese "cheating and oppressing" Malays or as "nasty and immoral" communist guerrillas.
For Ramadan 2011, television station 8TV had some advertisements featuring a Chinese woman at a Ramadan bazaar. The condescending advertisements were pulled for being racist and the station was expected to apologise. Instead they claimed Ramadan advertisements were an "intentionally mistake" and went on to claim that the viewers misunderstood the clips. The Ramadan advertisements – released as public service announcements (PSA) – appeared to be stereotyping Chinese people, depicting a socially-inept Chinese woman embarrassing others at a Ramadan bazaar. The clips were withdrawn following an online uproar. Some part of community claims to be an "Islamicphobia" especially among Chinese in Malaysia. Quoting Austrian philosopher Karl Popper, the station said in its Facebook note: "It is impossible to speak in such a way that you cannot be misunderstood. The act clearly shows disrespectful behavioural to Malaysian Muslims community and the religious itself. The PSAs highlighted the clueless behaviour of a Chinese woman played by an actor in scenes to demonstrate what might embarrass Muslim Malay hawkers and bazaar patrons alike. In one instance, the Chinese woman dressed in a sleeveless singlet, proudly showed her armpits, censored by pixels, to passersby while touching a bunch of bananas. Each PSA was soon followed by a moral lesson, advising viewers on good public behaviour. Some of these messages included: "Do not be greedy and eat in public".
Pakistan[edit]
A strong anti-Bengali Pakistani regime during the Bangladesh Liberation War were strongly motivated by anti-Bengali racism within the establishment, especially against the Bengali Hindu minority.[46] Discrimination in Pakistan now is mainly based on religion,[47] social status[48] and gender.[49]
Philippines[edit]
In the Philippines, preferential treatment were given to Spaniards and Spanish Mestizos during the Spanish colonization of the country. After 1898, control of the islands passed on to the new American overlords, who, together with a new generation of Amerasians, form one of the country's social elite. Up to the present-day, descendants of White colonizers of the country still obtain a positive treatment, while in the entertainment industry, actors/actresses are mostly of part-White descent.
Similarly, the status of Filipinos of Chinese descent varied throughout the colonial powers. It is accepted generally, though, that repressive treatment toward the Chinese were practised by both Filipinos and Spaniards and/or Japanese immigrants and Americans during the colonial period. After independence on 1946, the Chinese quickly assumed some of the top posts in finance and business. There were several setbacks against the Chinese, however, such as immigration policies deemed unfair toward migrants from China during President Ramon Magsaysay's term, as well as the limiting of hours for studying Chinese subjects in Chinese schools throughout the country, as promulgated by President Ferdinand Marcos. In addition, as recent as 1992 and 1998, there were several anti-Chinese protests led by Armando Ducat, a Filipino businessman, who claimed that the Chinese rose to the top economic ladder through bribery and extortion. This has not been proven, however. To this day, there are still anti-Chinese sentiments among a small minority of the Philippine population, as manifested in online forums and occasional public demonstrations.
The Philippines is considered a multi-ethnic country, although the majority of the population are of Austronesian origin, with small but economically important minorities of Chinese, White American, and Spanish descent. The country is also home to an increasing number of immigrants from South Korea, India, Indonesia, Australia, the United Kingdom, and other countries.
Russia[edit]
The term "pogrom" became commonly used in English after a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots swept through south-western Czarist Russia in 1881–1884. A much bloodier wave of pogroms broke out in 1903–1906, leaving an estimated 2,000 Jews dead. By the beginning of the 20th century, most European Jews lived in the so-called Pale of Settlement, the Western frontier of the Russian Empire consisting generally of the modern-day countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and neighboring regions. Many pogroms accompanied the Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War, an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire; the number of Jewish orphans exceeded 300,000.[50][51]
Racism inside Russia is quite a modern post-USSR phenomenon that has been steadily growing in the past decade. In the 2000s, neo-Nazi groups inside Russia have risen to include as many as tens of thousands of people.[52] Racism against both the Russian citizens (peoples of the Caucasus, indigenous peoples of Siberia and Russian Far East, etc.) and non-Russian citizens of Africans, Central Asians, East Asians (Vietnamese, Chinese, etc.) and Europeans (Ukrainians, etc.) is an ever-increasing problem.[53]
A Pew Global opinion poll showed that 25% of Russians had an unfavorable view of Jews.[54] Racism towards Central Asians is said to be widespread.[citation needed]
Singapore[edit]
Since independence, Singapore has declared itself to be a multi-cultural society, and it is successful in being so to a large extent. One common declaration of anti-racism and the embracing of all races and religions is seen in the Singapore National Pledge. Racial Harmony Day is celebrated in Singapore to mark the progress made since the 1964 race riots in Singapore. However, there were still some hints of racism in this usually racially-harmonious society. These issues relate to intermarriage of different ethnic groups and the social stigma attached to these practices.
A collective cultural tendency; that is a tendency to focus on group dynamics more at a societal and individual level, this in turn leads to an increased emphasis on being part of the 'in' group and not part of the 'other'. Many have on the identity document an ethnic classification of Other, although there have been recent reforms in 2011 that allows for double-barrel ethnic identification like "Indian Chinese" or "Chinese Indian" for individuals of mixed heritage.
It is still Chinese-Malay animosity that appears to pose the biggest threat in spite of general inter-racial tolerance. The potential dangers become stark under the threat of possible Jemaah Islamiah bombings in Singapore, which could result, it is feared, in some kind of a backlash against innocent Malay Muslims. The government has put in place plans involving religious and community leaders of all races to mitigate race violence in the wake of a potential terrorist attack. A Racial Harmony Day is held every year. Schools and Housing Development Board housing estates enforce ethnic quotas based on the race populations to prevent racial enclaves. The system ensures the majority Chinese live with a certain ratio of Malays and Indians and vice versa. As a result, children grow up with at least some racial mixing both at school and their residential blocks. For many years, community leaders have been organising cross-visits to celebrate each other's cultural and religious festivals.
Nonetheless, there were an insignificant number young bloggers and commentators who have been charged under the Sedition Act for making disparaging remarks about race and religion. One of the government's approaches to handle such 'hate speech' is to deal with expressions of extreme racism, e.g. on web sites, by way of the Sedition Act. This, however, curtails freedom of speech in Singapore.
Anti-foreigner sentiments have recently shot up in Singapore with house-owners and landlords refusing to rent properties to people from India and People's Republic of China.[55]
Taiwan[edit]
The Nationality Law of the Republic of China has been criticized[56] for its methods of determining which immigrants get citizenship.
Thailand[edit]
Vietnam[edit]
The Sino-Vietnamese War resulted in the discrimination and consequent migration of Vietnam's ethnic Chinese. Many of these people fled as "boat people". In 1978-79, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees (many officially encouraged and assisted) or were expelled across the land border with China.[57]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ [1]
- ^ Citizens of Nowhere: The Stateless Biharis of Bangladesh - Refugees International 2006 report
- ^ "Awami League MP Elias Mollah calls Africans ‘uncivilised’ after UN peacekeeping mission tour". The Daily Satr. The Daily Star. 4 August 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
- ^ Liton, Shakhawat (5 August 2015). "Opinion: Shouldn’t AL MP Elias apologise?". The Daily Star. The Daily Star. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
- ^ "IRIN Asia - NEPAL-BHUTAN: Bhutan questions identity of 107,000 refugees in Nepal - Nepal - Refugees/IDPs". IRINnews. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ Bhaumik, Subir (November 7, 2007). "Bhutan refugees are 'intimidated'". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-04-25.
- ^ Country profile: Brunei, BBC NEWS
- ^ Martin Smith (1991). Burma - Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London,New Jersey: Zed Books. pp. 43–44,98,56–57,176.
- ^ "Burma: Asians v. Asians". Time Magazine. 17 July 1964. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
- ^ Dummett, Mark (29 September 2007). "Burmese exiles in desperate conditions". BBC News. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
- ^ "GENOCIDE - CAMBODIA". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ The Cambodian Genocide and International Law
- ^ "Cambodia the Chinese". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ New York Times
- ^ New York Times article by Nicholas Kristof
- ^ Beijing Newspeak :: Sanlitun saga update: anti-drug operation uncovers no drugs
- ^ "Press Release (14 Aug 2006) :Mid-year Population for 2006 - Census and Statistics Department". 14 August 2006. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "Equal Opportunities Commission". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "Dogs and locusts". The Economist. 2012-02-04.
- ^ "Different versions of Hong Kong’s locust ads appear on Internet". Retrieved 16 July 2012.
- ^ "Asian Human Rights Commission". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "4.7. INDRA AND SHIVA". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "Aryans and British India". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ From Discovery of India by Jawaharlal Nehru, reproduced from "History : Modern India" (p108) by S.N. Sen, New Age Publishers, ISBN 81-224-1774-4.
- ^ International Herald Tribune: Q&A / Juwono Sudarsono, Defense Official : Racism in Indonesia Undercuts Unity
- ^ Sinar Harapan. "SHNEWS.CO:AHRC: Genosida di Papua Benar Terjadi". shnews.co. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "News". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ West Papua Support
- ^ "West Papua - Transmigration". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ UN anti-racism panel finds Iran discriminating against Arabs, Kurds, other minorities. The Afghan community in Iran also faces frequent racism by Iranian citizens and authorities. August 27, 2010. Associated Press, Fox [2]
- ^ The U.N. urged Iran to tackle racism | Reuters August 27, 2010. http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE67Q2K520100827
- ^ "Israel and the occupied territories". State.gov. 2005-02-28. Retrieved 2010-07-22.
- ^ "Israeli anti-Arab racism 'rises'", BBC, 10 Dec 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7136068.stm
- ^ Synopsis of the report, from "Racism in Israel on the rise", Aviram Zino, Ynet News, 12 Aug 2007, http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3480345,00.html
- ^ "Reflections on October 2000 - Eight years later, discrimination and racism against Israel's Arab citizens have only increased" - news release from ACRI, http://www.acri.org.il/eng/story.aspx?id=556
- ^ "Press Conference by Mr Doudou Diène, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights". Retrieved 2007-01-05.
- ^ "Japan racism 'deep and profound". BBC News (2005-07-11). Retrieved on 2007-01-05.
- ^ "'Overcoming "Marginalization" and "Invisibility"', International Movement against all forms of Discrimination and Racism" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-12-14. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
- ^ "Japan's refugee policy". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "Questioning Japan's 'Closed Country' Policy on Refugees". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ Aso says Japan is nation of 'one race'
- ^ "Japan - Ainu". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "Ethnic Bias Seen in South Korea Teacher Hiring". NPR.org. 9 July 2007. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "Korea needs to open its doors - Human Rights Watch". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "Untitled". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ O'Leary, Brendan; Thomas M. Callaghy; Ian S. Lustick (2004) [2001]. Right-Sizing the State: The Politics of Moving Borders P179 (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924490-1.
- ^ "Item 11: Civil and Political rights: Religious intolerance (Pakistan)". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "BBC NEWS - South Asia - Hypocrisy of Pakistan's ruling elite". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ Gender discrimination in Pakistan
- ^ "anti-Semitism". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ Hilary L Rubinstein, Daniel C Cohn-Sherbok, Abraham J Edelheit, William D Rubinstein, The Jews in the Modern World, Oxford University Press, 2002.
- ^ Badkhen, Anna (2005-08-14). The San Francisco Chronicle http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/08/14/MNGUSE7N2D1.DTL. Missing or empty
|title=
(help) - ^ "Racist Violence, Rhetoric Plague Russia". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?PageID=795
- ^ "No Indians Please: House Owners advertise in Singapore". IANS. news.biharprabha.com. Retrieved 2 May 2014.
- ^ "不准作台灣人 Not allowed to be Taiwanese". Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ Vietnamese, Kevin Griffin
|