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This article is about the tower in Seattle. For other uses, see Space Needle (disambiguation).

Space Needle
Space Needle 2011-07-04.jpg
The Space Needle flying the U.S. flag on Independence Day in 2011
Record height
Tallest in Seattle and Washington state from 1962 to 1969[I]
Preceded bySmith Tower
Surpassed bySafeco Plaza
General information
StatusCompleted
TypeObservation tower
Location400 Broad Street
Seattle, Washington, U.S.
Coordinates47°37′13″N 122°20′57″W / 47.6204°N 122.3491°W / 47.6204; -122.3491 (Space Needle)Coordinates: 47°37′13″N 122°20′57″W / 47.6204°N 122.3491°W / 47.6204; -122.3491 (Space Needle)
Construction startedApril 17, 1961
CompletedDecember 8, 1961
OpeningApril 21, 1962
OwnerSpace Needle Corporation
Height
Antenna spire605.00 ft (184.404 m)
Top floor518 ft (158 m)
Technical details
Floor count6
Lifts/elevators3
Design and construction
ArchitectJohn Graham & Company
Structural engineerJohn K. Minasian
Victor Steinbrueck
Main contractorHoward S. Wright Construction Co
Website
www.spaceneedle.com
DesignatedApril 19, 1999[1]
References
[2][3][4][5][6]

The Space Needle is an observation tower in Seattle, Washington, United States. Considered to be an icon of the city, it has been designated a Seattle landmark. Located in the Lower Queen Anne neighborhood, it was built in the Seattle Center for the 1962 World's Fair, which drew over 2.3 million visitors.

The Space Needle was once the tallest structure west of the Mississippi River, standing at 605 ft (184 m). The tower is 138 ft (42 m) wide, weighs 9,550 short tons (8,660 metric tons), and is built to withstand winds of up to 200 mph (320 km/h) and earthquakes of up to 9.0 magnitude, as strong as the 1700 Cascadia earthquake.

The Space Needle features an observation deck 520 ft (160 m) above ground, providing views of the downtown Seattle skyline, the Olympic and Cascade Mountains, Mount Rainier, Mount Baker, Elliott Bay, and various islands in Puget Sound. Visitors can reach the top of the Space Needle by elevators. It takes 41 seconds to reach the top in the elevators. On April 19, 1999, the city's Landmarks Preservation Board designated the tower a historic landmark.

Architecture[edit]

Left to right: CN Tower (Toronto), Willis Tower (Chicago), Stratosphere (Las Vegas), Space Needle

The architecture of the Space Needle is the result of a compromise between the designs of two people, Edward E. Carlson and John Graham, Jr. The two leading ideas for the World Fair involved businessman Edward E. Carlson's sketch (on a napkin)[7] of a giant balloon tethered to the ground (the gently sloping base) and architect John Graham's concept of a flying saucer (the halo that houses the restaurant and observation deck). Victor Steinbrueck introduced the hourglass profile of the tower.[8] The Space Needle was built to withstand wind speeds of 200 mph (320 km/h), double the requirements in the building code of 1962. The 6.8 Mw  Nisqually earthquake jolted the Needle enough in 2001 for water to slosh out of the toilets in the restrooms. The Space Needle will not sustain serious structural damage during earthquakes of magnitudes below 9.1. Also made to withstand Category 5 hurricane-force winds, the Space Needle sways only 1 in (25 mm) per 10 mph (16 km/h) of wind speed.

For decades, the hovering disk of the Space Needle was home to two restaurants 500 ft (150 m) above the ground: the Space Needle Restaurant, which was originally named Eye of the Needle, and Emerald Suite. These were closed in 2000 to make way for SkyCity, a larger restaurant that features Pacific Northwest cuisine. In 1993, the elevators were replaced with new computerized versions. The new elevators descend at a rate of 10 mph (16 km/h).

On December 31, 1999, a powerful beam of light was unveiled for the first time. Called the Legacy Light or Skybeam, it is powered by lamps that total 85 million candela shining skyward from the top of the Space Needle to honor national holidays and special occasions in Seattle. The concept of this beam was derived from the official 1962 World's Fair poster, which depicted such a light source although none was incorporated into the original design. It is somewhat controversial because of the light pollution it creates.[9] Originally planned to be turned on 75 nights per year, it has generally been used fewer than a dozen times per year. It did remain lit for eleven days in a row from September 11, 2001, to September 22, 2001, in response to the September 11, 2001, attacks.[10][unreliable source?]

A 1962 Seattle World's Fair poster[11] showed a grand spiral entryway leading to the elevator that was ultimately omitted from final building plans.[12] The main stairwell has 848 steps from the basement to the top of the observation deck.[13] At approximately 605 ft (184 m), the Space Needle was the tallest building west of the Mississippi River at the time it was built by Howard S. Wright Construction Co., but is now dwarfed by other structures along the Seattle skyline, among them the Columbia Center, at 967 ft (295 m).[14] Unlike many other similar structures, such as the CN Tower in Toronto, the Space Needle is not used for broadcasting purposes.

History[edit]

Construction[edit]

Space Needle and various buildings for the Seattle World's Fair under construction, 1961

Edward E. Carlson, chairman of the 1962 World's Fair in Seattle, had an idea for erecting a tower with a restaurant at the World's Fair. Carlson was president of a hotel company and was not recognized in art or design, but he was inspired by a recent visit to the Stuttgart Tower of Germany.[15] Local architect John Graham soon became involved as a result of his success in designing Northgate Mall. Graham's first move was to alter the restaurant's original design to a revolving restaurant, similar to his previous design of the La Ronde tower restaurant at the Ala Moana Shopping Center in Hawaii.

The proposed Space Needle had no pre-selected site. Since it was not financed by the city, land had to be purchased within the fairgrounds. The investors had been unable to find suitable land and the search for a site was nearly dead when, in 1961, they discovered a lot, 120 by 120 ft (37 by 37 m), containing switching equipment for the fire and police alarm systems. The land sold for $75,000. At this point, only one year remained before the World's Fair would begin. The Needle was privately financed and built by the Pentagram Corporation, consisting of Bagley Wright, contractor Howard S. Wright, architect John Graham, Ned Skinner, and Norton Clapp. In 1977 Bagley, Skinner and Clapp sold their interest to Howard Wright who now controls it under the name of Space Needle Corporation.[16]

The earthquake stability of the Space Needle was ensured when a hole was dug 30 ft (9.1 m) deep and 120 ft (37 m) across, and 467 concrete trucks took one full day to fill it. The foundation weighs 5,850 short tons (5,310 metric tons) (including 250 short tons or 230 metric tons of reinforcing steel), the same as the above-ground structure. The structure is bolted to the foundation with 72 bolts, each one 30 ft (9.1 m) long.

With time an issue, the construction team worked around the clock. The domed top, housing the top five levels (including the restaurants and observation deck), was perfectly balanced so that the restaurant could rotate with the help of one tiny electric motor, originally 0.8 kilowatts (1.1 hp), later replaced with a 1.1 kilowatts (1.5 hp) motor. With paint colors named Orbital Olive for the body, Astronaut White for the legs, Re-entry Red for the saucer, and Galaxy Gold for the roof, the Space Needle was finished in less than one year. It was completed in April 1962 at a cost of $4.5 million. The last elevator car was installed the day before the Fair opened on April 21. During the course of the Fair nearly 20,000 people a day rode the elevators to the Observation Deck. Upon completion, the Space Needle was the tallest building in the western United States, replacing the Smith Tower in downtown Seattle as the tallest building west of the Mississippi since 1914.

Completed Space Needle after the opening of the World's Fair - April 1962

The revolving restaurant was operated by Western International Hotels, of which Carlson was President,[17] under a 20-year contract from April 1, 1962, to April 1, 1982.[citation needed]

Carillon[edit]

An imitation carillon (using recordings of bells, rather than live bells) was installed in the Space Needle, and played several times a day during the World's Fair.[citation needed] The instrument, built by the Schulmerich Bells Company of Hatfield, Pennsylvania[18][19] under the name "Carillon Americana," recreated the sounds of 538 bells and was the largest in the world, until eclipsed by a 732 bell instrument at the 1964 New York World's Fair. The operator's console was located in the base of the Space Needle, completely enclosed in glass to allow observation of the musician playing the instrument. It was also capable of being played from a roll, like a player piano. The forty-four stentors (speakers) of the carillon were located underneath the Needle's disc at the 200-foot (61 m) level, and were audible over the entire fairgrounds and up to ten miles (16 km) away.[20] The carillon was disassembled after the fair's close.

The Carillon Americana was featured on a 12-track LP record called "Bells On High-Fi" (catalog number AR-8, produced by Americana Records, of Sellersville, Pennsylvania). These studio recordings were performed by noted carilloneur John Klein (1915-1981).[21][22]

After the Fair[edit]

The Needle's observation level roof painted for the 50th anniversary in the original 1962 Galaxy Gold

A radio broadcast studio was built on the observation level of the Space Needle in 1963.[23] It was used for morning broadcasts by Radio KING and its sister TV station KING-TV from July 1963 to May 1966, and KIRO Radio from 1966 to 1974.[24] Disc jockey Bobby Wooten of country music station KAYO-AM lived in an apartment built adjacent to the Space Needle's broadcast studio for six months in 1974, which required a permit variance from the city government.[25][26]

On March 27, 1964, the restaurant atop the Space Needle stopped rotating as a result of the 9.2 earthquake in Alaska.[27]

In 1974, author Stephen Cosgrove's children's book Wheedle on the Needle imagined a furry creature called the Wheedle who lived on top of the Space Needle and caused its light to flash. Its closing quatrain is: There's a Wheedle on the Needle / I know just what you're thinking / But if you look up late at night / You'll see his red nose blinking. The Wheedle has since become a fixture of Seattle. It became the mascot of the Seattle SuperSonics National Basketball Association (NBA) franchise, who played in nearby KeyArena (originally known as the Seattle Center Coliseum, now known as Climate Pledge Arena). The SuperSonics moved to Oklahoma City on July 3, 2008.

In 1982, the SkyLine level was added at the height of 100 ft (30 m). While this level had been part of the original plans for the Space Needle, it was not built until this time. Today, the SkyLine Banquet Facility can accommodate groups of 20–360 people.

Renovations were completed in 2000 at a cost ($21 million) approximately the same in inflated dollars as the original construction price. Renovations between 1999 and 2000 included the SkyCity restaurant, SpaceBase retail store, Skybeam installation, Observation Deck overhaul, lighting additions and repainting.

Every year on New Year's Eve, the Space Needle celebrates with a fireworks show at midnight that is synchronized to music. Alberto Navarro, a fireworks artist from Bellevue, is the lead architect of the show, which is viewed by thousands from the Seattle Center grounds.[28] In 2000, public celebrations were canceled because of perceived terror threats against the structure after investigations into the foiled millennium bombing plots, but the fireworks show was still performed.[29][30] The 2020 fireworks display was canceled because of high winds, with a laser light show being used at midnight instead.[31] The show was cancelled in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and replaced by a broadcast-only augmented reality presentation on KING-TV. The fireworks show will still be held for 2022, but the Seattle Center grounds will be closed to the public as the state proof of vaccination mandate cannot be reasonably enforced in this environment; spectators will be directed to official viewing parties where proof of vaccination can be enforced, and to watch the official broadcast which will be enhanced with AR effects.[32]

In 2002, a real estate consultant in Bellevue proposed the construction of five smaller replicas of the Space Needle around the city to promote tourism, though official plans to build the proposed structures have not yet materialized.[33]

On May 19, 2007, the Space Needle welcomed its 45 millionth visitor, Greg Novoa from California, who received a free trip for two to Paris.[34]

In May 2008, the Space Needle received its first professional deep cleaning since the opening of the 1962 World's Fair. The monument was pressure washed by Kärcher[35] with water at a pressure of almost 2,611 psi (18,000 kPa) and a temperature of approximately 194 °F (90 °C). The cleaning was only done at night so that the Space Needle could stay open to the public. No detergents were used in consideration of the Seattle Center and the nearby Experience Music Project.[36]

As part of the celebration of its 50th anniversary in April 2012, the Needle was painted "Galaxy Gold", which is more of an orangish color in practice. This is the same color used when the needle was originally constructed for the 1962 World's Fair.[37] This temporary makeover, intended to last through the summer, is not the Needle's first: it had the University of Washington (UW) Huskies football team logo painted after the team won the 1992 Rose Bowl. When the game show Wheel of Fortune taped episodes in Seattle in 1995, it was painted to resemble the titular wheel as part of an intro sequence with Vanna White,[38] It was painted crimson after Washington State won the Apple Cup,[39] was painted red, white, and blue for Memorial Day in 2003, and has been seen with the Seattle SuperSonics and Seattle Mariners colors and logos.[40]

Scaffold surrounding top section during 2017–2018 renovation

A renovation of the top of the Space Needle began in the summer of 2017, to add an all-glass floor to the restaurant, and replace the observation platform windows with floor-to-ceiling glass panels to more closely match the 1962 original concept sketches, as well as upgrades and updates to the internal systems. Called the Century Project, the work was scheduled to finish by June 2018, at a cost of $100 million in private funds provided by the Wright family, who own the Space Needle.[41] The designer is Olson Kundig Architects and the general contractor is Hoffman Construction Company. The rotating restaurant's motor was replaced, the elevator capacity was increased by adding elevators, or double-stacking them, and the energy efficiency of the building was improved with the aim of achieving LEED Gold Certification. The temporary scaffold's 28,000-pound (13,000 kg), 44,650-square-foot (4,148 m2) platform under the top structure was assembled on the ground, and then lifted by cables 500 ft (150 m) from the ground to the underside of the structure, controlled by 12 operators standing on the platform as it was raised. The platform was made by Safway Services, a company specializing in unique construction scaffolding. One-sixth of the observation deck was closed at a time, so that the Space Needle was never completely shut down to the public.[41][42][43][44][45][46]

The space reopened in August 2018 as the Loupe, an indoor observation deck with a revolving glass floor. It takes 45 minutes for the observation deck to do a full rotation. Two sets of stairs called the Oculus Stairs were added to connect the two new additional levels. They were named after the glass oculus at the base of the stairs where the Space Needle elevators can be seen ascending and descending. A café, wine bar, more restrooms, and an additional accessibility elevator to the top observation deck were also added.[47]

Jumping incidents[edit]

Six parachutists have leaped from the tower since its opening, in a sport known as BASE jumping. This activity is legal only with prior authorization. Four of them were part of an authorized promotion in 1996, and one of the jumpers got injured and broke a bone in her back while attempting the stunt.[48] The other two jumped illegally and were arrested.[49]

Paul D. Baker was the first person to jump from the Space Needle, committing suicide on March 4, 1974.[50] Mary Lucille Wolf also jumped from the tower that year, on May 25.[50] Following the two 1974 suicides, netting beneath and improved fencing around the observation deck were installed.[51] In spite of the barrier additions, however, another suicide by Dixie Reeder occurred on July 5, 1978.[52]

Appearances in TV and film[edit]

As a symbol of the Pacific Northwest, the Space Needle has made numerous appearances in films, TV shows, and other works of fiction. The Space Needle is often used in establishing shots as an economical means to tell the audience the setting is Seattle. Examples include the TV shows Frasier, Grey's Anatomy, Dark Angel, Bill Nye the Science Guy, and films It Happened at the World's Fair (1962) and The Parallax View (1974) where it was used as a filming location, and Sleepless in Seattle (1993), Chronicle (2012).[53] In the 1999 film Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me made an absurdist visual gag conflating another icon of Seattle, Starbucks, with the tower, showing the coffee chains's name written across the Space Needle's saucer placing the villain Doctor Evil's base of operations there after his henchman Number 2 shifted the organization's resources toward the coffee company.[54][55][56] As a visual symbol of Seattle, the Space Needle has been incorporated into the logos of NBA, WNBA, MLS, and NHL professional sports teams.[57][58]

The Space Needle has been involved in practical jokes, especially those on April Fools' Day. In 1989, KING-TV's Almost Live! reported that the Space Needle had collapsed, causing panicked people to call emergency services and forcing the station to apologize afterwards;[59] the incident was compared to the 1938 radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds, which caused nationwide panic.[60][61] In 2015, public radio station KPLU 88.5 FM reported in the news story "Proposed Development To 'Assimilate' Seattle's Landmark Space Needle?" that a permit application (Notice of Proposed Land Use Action) had been submitted "to construct a 666 unit cube to assimilate" the landmark.[62]

Other TV appearances include The History Channel's Life After People, in which the tower collapses after 200 years because of corrosion.[63] The tower was also destroyed in the TV miniseries 10.5 when a 7.9 earthquake hits Seattle.[64] The miniseries mistakenly portrays the Needle as crumbling concrete, though the structure is actually made of steel and designed to withstand up to a 9.0 earthquake.[citation needed]


Gallery[edit]

  • Observation and restaurant floors in 2007

  • View from the base of the Needle

  • Lower level gift shop

  • Nighttime illumination

  • Location relative to downtown Seattle

  • View of downtown from the observation deck

  • Space Needle seen from Wenatchee Ferry on Puget Sound

  • Movie at the Mural underneath the Space Needle

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Landmarks and Designation". City of Seattle. Retrieved March 5, 2013.
  2. ^ "Space Needle". CTBUH Skyscraper Center.
  3. ^ Space Needle at Emporis
  4. ^ Space Needle at Glass Steel and Stone (archived)
  5. ^ "Space Needle". SkyscraperPage.
  6. ^ Space Needle at Structurae
  7. ^ "Carlson, Edward "Eddie" E. (1911-1990)". HistoryLink. Retrieved November 11, 2021.
  8. ^ Speidel, Bill (1989). Through the Eye of the Needle. Seattle: Nettle Creek. pp. 6–7. ISBN 0914890042. The final design... was either John Graham's... or Victor Steinbrueck's, who took the trouble of calling me from his deathbed to make sure I didn't credit Graham.
  9. ^ "Groundbreaking for the Space Needle is held in Seattle on April 17, 1961". HistoryLink. Retrieved November 2, 2021.
  10. ^ "Seattle Space Needle". Emerald City Journal. June 4, 2013. Retrieved November 2, 2021.
  11. ^ "'Seattle World's Fair' poster".
  12. ^ Northwest, Durango (July 16, 2010). "Durango Washington: Seattle Space Needle".
  13. ^ "Space Needle".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  14. ^ Emporis GmbH. "Columbia Center".
  15. ^ "Groundbreaking for the Space Needle is held in Seattle on April 17, 1961". www.historylink.org. Retrieved November 2, 2021.
  16. ^ "Mysteries revealed". Space Needle. Archived from the original on April 26, 2011. Retrieved April 6, 2011.
  17. ^ "Space Needle History". Space Needle.
  18. ^ "Schulmerich Bells". Schulmerich Bells, LLC.
  19. ^ "Bells on high" at the 1962 Seattle World's Fair: the Schulmerich "Carillon Americana" bells : heard from the Space Needle 538 bells the world's largest carillon. 1962. OCLC 837450790.
  20. ^ "Century 21 World". HistoryLink. Retrieved November 11, 2021.
  21. ^ "Century 21 Exposition (1962): Theme Songs and Souvenir Records". HistoryLink.
  22. ^ rixarcade (August 15, 2013). "The Space Needle Carillon – Malaguena". Archived from the original on November 17, 2021 – via YouTube.
  23. ^ "Fowler Nests in Needle's Studio for Morning Show". The Seattle Times. July 14, 1963. p. TV4.
  24. ^ Banel, Feliks (April 17, 2019). "Frosty Fowler: Late local DJ stayed cool while Space Needle shook". MyNorthwest.com. Retrieved December 18, 2019.
  25. ^ "High living atop Space Needle OK". The Seattle Times. August 29, 1974. p. E15.
  26. ^ Stredicke, Victor (October 27, 1974). "High living for KAYO disk jockey". The Seattle Times. p. TV26.
  27. ^ Lew Freedman, Bad Friday, p.124.
  28. ^ Cook, John (July 3, 2003). "A moment with ... Alberto Navarro, fireworks designer". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
  29. ^ Egan, Timothy (December 29, 1999). "Citing Security, Seattle Cancels a New Year's Eve Party". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved November 11, 2021.
  30. ^ Tizon, Alex (January 1, 2000). "Caution takes air out of Seattle celebration". The Seattle Times. p. A1.
  31. ^ "No Space Needle fireworks on New Year's Eve, or next night: Blame the wind". The Seattle Times. January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
  32. ^ Kirschman, Lindsey (December 15, 2021). "Space Needle fireworks return, but no crowds permitted". seattlepi.com. Retrieved December 19, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  33. ^ Lindblom, Mike (April 11, 2002). "Needle envy? Bellevue eyes five towers". The Seattle Times. Retrieved December 31, 2019.
  34. ^ P-I Staff and News Services (May 19, 2007). "Californian is Needle's 45 millionth visitor". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved May 30, 2007.
  35. ^ "Space Needle - Seattle, USA". Kärcher.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  36. ^ "Spit and polish for a Seattle icon". KOMO News. May 15, 2008. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
  37. ^ Trujillo, Joshua (April 17, 2012). "Space Needle returns to its original color". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
  38. ^ Taylor, Chuck (September 20, 1995). "'Wheel Of Fortune' has Seattle in a spin". The Seattle Times. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  39. ^ "Space Needle painted crimson and gray". Washington State University. November 15, 2005. Retrieved August 19, 2015.
  40. ^ "Space Needle Fact Sheet" (PDF). Space Needle.
  41. ^ a b Greenstone, Scott (June 12, 2017). "Space Needle to get its biggest renovation ever: glass floor, opened views, more elevators". The Seattle Times.
  42. ^ Young, Bob (September 16, 2017). "Circular scaffolding goes up on Space Needle in preparation for makeover". The Seattle Times.
  43. ^ "Space Needle - About the Renovation". spaceneedle.com.
  44. ^ Schlosser, Kurt (September 19, 2017). "Drone video shows 28,000-pound scaffold being lifted 400 feet for Space Needle renovation". Geekwire.
  45. ^ "Photos: Revamping Space Needle is like 'building a ship inside a glass bottle'". The Seattle Times. November 7, 2017. Retrieved November 12, 2017.
  46. ^ Treviño, Julissa (May 24, 2018). "Seattle's Iconic Space Needle Unveils New Look After $100 Million Renovation". smithsonianmag.com.
  47. ^ "Space Needle - New Experiences Fact Sheet" (PDF).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  48. ^ "Parachutist's jump from Space Needle goes awry". CNN. November 21, 1996.
  49. ^ "This week in history: People BASE jumped off the Space Needle".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  50. ^ a b "Woman falls to death from Space Needle". The Sunday Oregonian. Portland, Oregon. Associated Press. May 26, 1974. p. 49.
  51. ^ "Seattle Space Needle was site of premature birth". The Oregonian. Portland, Oregon. Associated Press. June 12, 1974. p. 92.
  52. ^ "3rd Person Kills Self at Needle". Albany Democrat-Herald. Albany, Oregon. July 6, 1978. p. 12. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
  53. ^
  54. ^ Jeremy Packer (2009). Secret Agents: Popular Icons Beyond James Bond. Peter Lang. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-8204-8669-7.
  55. ^ Steve Zimmerman (2012). Food in the Movies, 2d ed. McFarland. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-7864-5569-0.
  56. ^ Kim Fellner (2008). Wrestling with Starbucks: Conscience, Capital, Cappuccino. Rutgers University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8135-4506-6.
  57. ^ "NBA.com: Going Retro: Seattle SuperSonics". archive.nba.com. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
  58. ^ "Seattle Storm change colors". January 10, 2016. Archived from the original on January 10, 2016. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
  59. ^ "KING-TV on Space Needle hoax: Sorry, folks". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. April 3, 1989. p. A8.
  60. ^ Dougherty, Phil (September 26, 2017). "KING-TV reports Space Needle collapse on April 1, 1989". HistoryLink. Retrieved April 1, 2019.
  61. ^ Clutter, Stephen (April 2, 1989). "Too deep a needling?". The Seattle Times. p. B4.
  62. ^ "KPLU.org".
  63. ^ "Waters of Death". Retrieved July 9, 2020.
  64. ^ "10.5". Retrieved July 9, 2020.

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

source: https://web.archive.org/web/20220421044410/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Needle

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