![]() | |
Developer | Microsoft |
---|---|
Source model | |
Initial release | November 20, 1985 |
Latest release | 21H2 (10.0.22000.527) (February 15, 2022[1]) [±] |
Latest preview | 10.0.22543.1000 (January 27, 2022[2]) [±] |
Marketing target | Personal computing |
Available in | 138 languages[3] |
Update method | |
Package manager | Windows Installer (.msi, .msix, .msp), Microsoft Store (.appx, .appxbundle),[4] Windows Package Manager |
Platforms | IA-32, x86-64, ARM, ARM64 Previously: 16-bit x86, DEC Alpha, MIPS, PowerPC, Itanium |
Kernel type |
|
Default user interface | Windows shell |
License | Proprietary commercial software |
Official website | microsoft |
Microsoft Windows, commonly referred to as Windows, is a group of several proprietary graphical operating system families, all of which are developed and marketed by Microsoft. Each family caters to a certain sector of the computing industry. Active Microsoft Windows families include Windows NT and Windows IoT; these may encompass subfamilies, (e.g. Windows Server or Windows Embedded Compact) (Windows CE). Defunct Microsoft Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows Mobile and Windows Phone.
Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985, as a graphical operating system shell for MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs).[5] Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world's personal computer (PC) market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984.
Apple came to see Windows as an unfair encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa and Macintosh (eventually settled in court in Microsoft's favor in 1993). On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system in all countries.[6][7] However, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android,[8] because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold. This comparison, however, may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. Still, numbers for server use of Windows (that are comparable to competitors) show one third market share, similar to that for end user use.
As of October 2021[update], the most recent version of Windows for PCs and tablets is Windows 11, version 21H2. The most recent version for embedded devices is Windows 10, version 21H1. The most recent version for server computers is Windows Server 2022, version 21H2.[9] A specialized version of Windows also runs on the Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S video game consoles.[10]
Genealogy
By marketing role
Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks, each of which denotes a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. As of 2014, the following Windows families were being actively developed:
- Windows NT: Started as a family of operating systems with Windows NT 3.1, an operating system for server computers and workstations. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the same time and share the same kernel:
- Windows: The operating system for mainstream personal computers and tablets. The latest version is Windows 11. The main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple for personal computers and iPadOS and Android for tablets (c.f. Usage share of operating systems § Market share by category).
- Windows Server: The operating system for server computers. The latest version is Windows Server 2022. Unlike its client sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme. The main competitor of this family is Linux. (c.f. Usage share of operating systems § Market share by category)
- Windows PE: A lightweight version of its Windows sibling, meant to operate as a live operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers (especially on many computers at once), recovery or troubleshooting purposes. The latest version is Windows PE 10.
- Windows IoT (previously Windows Embedded): Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. Eventually, however, Windows CE was renamed Windows Embedded Compact and was folded under Windows Compact trademark which also consists of Windows Embedded Industry, Windows Embedded Professional, Windows Embedded Standard, Windows Embedded Handheld and Windows Embedded Automotive.[11]
The following Windows families are no longer being developed:
- Windows 9x: An operating system that targeted the consumer market. Discontinued because of suboptimal performance.[citation needed] (PC World called its last version, Windows Me, one of the worst products of all time.[12]) Microsoft now caters to the consumer market with Windows NT.
- Windows Mobile: The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile phone operating system. The first version was called Pocket PC 2000; the third version, Windows Mobile 2003 is the first version to adopt the Windows Mobile trademark. The last version is Windows Mobile 6.5.
- Windows Phone: An operating system sold only to manufacturers of smartphones. The first version was Windows Phone 7, followed by Windows Phone 8, and Windows Phone 8.1. It was succeeded by Windows 10 Mobile, that is now also discontinued.
Version history
The term Windows collectively describes any or all of several generations of Microsoft operating system products. These products are generally categorized as follows:
Early versions
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20220216123556im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4e/Windows1.0.png/300px-Windows1.0.png)
The history of Windows dates back to 1981 when Microsoft started work on a program called "Interface Manager". It was announced in November 1983 (after the Apple Lisa, but before the Macintosh) under the name "Windows", but Windows 1.0 was not released until November 1985.[13] Windows 1.0 was to compete with Apple's operating system, but achieved little popularity. Windows 1.0 is not a complete operating system; rather, it extends MS-DOS. The shell of Windows 1.0 is a program known as the MS-DOS Executive. Components included Calculator, Calendar, Cardfile, Clipboard Viewer, Clock, Control Panel, Notepad, Paint, Reversi, Terminal and Write. Windows 1.0 does not allow overlapping windows. Instead all windows are tiled. Only modal dialog boxes may appear over other windows. Microsoft sold as included Windows Development libraries with the C development environment, which included numerous windows samples.[14]
Windows 2.0 was released in December 1987, and was more popular than its predecessor. It features several improvements to the user interface and memory management.[15] Windows 2.03 changed the OS from tiled windows to overlapping windows. The result of this change led to Apple Computer filing a suit against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apple's copyrights.[16][17] Windows 2.0 also introduced more sophisticated keyboard shortcuts and could make use of expanded memory.
Windows 2.1 was released in two different versions: Windows/286 and Windows/386. Windows/386 uses the virtual 8086 mode of the Intel 80386 to multitask several DOS programs and the paged memory model to emulate expanded memory using available extended memory. Windows/286, in spite of its name, runs on both Intel 8086 and Intel 80286 processors. It runs in real mode but can make use of the high memory area.[citation needed]
In addition to full Windows-packages, there were runtime-only versions that shipped with early Windows software from third parties and made it possible to run their Windows software on MS-DOS and without the full Windows feature set.
The early versions of Windows are often thought of as graphical shells, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and use it for file system services.[18] However, even the earliest Windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions; notably, having their own executable file format and providing their own device drivers (timer, graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound). Unlike MS-DOS, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through cooperative multitasking. Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allows it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources are swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce; data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control.
Windows 3.x
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20220216123556im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/15/Windows_3.0_workspace.png/250px-Windows_3.0_workspace.png)
Windows 3.0, released in 1990, improved the design, mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) that allow Windows to share arbitrary devices between multi-tasked DOS applications.[citation needed] Windows 3.0 applications can run in protected mode, which gives them access to several megabytes of memory without the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme. They run inside the same address space, where the segmented memory provides a degree of protection. Windows 3.0 also featured improvements to the user interface. Microsoft rewrote critical operations from C into assembly. Windows 3.0 is the first Microsoft Windows version to achieve broad commercial success, selling 2 million copies in the first six months.[19][20]
Windows 3.1, made generally available on March 1, 1992, featured a facelift. In August 1993, Windows for Workgroups, a special version with integrated peer-to-peer networking features and a version number of 3.11, was released. It was sold along with Windows 3.1. Support for Windows 3.1 ended on December 31, 2001.[21]
Windows 3.2, released 1994, is an updated version of the Chinese version of Windows 3.1.[22] The update was limited to this language version, as it fixed only issues related to the complex writing system of the Chinese language.[23] Windows 3.2 was generally sold by computer manufacturers with a ten-disk version of MS-DOS that also had Simplified Chinese characters in basic output and some translated utilities.
Windows 9x
The next major consumer-oriented release of Windows, Windows 95, was released on August 24, 1995. While still remaining MS-DOS-based, Windows 95 introduced support for native 32-bit applications, plug and play hardware, preemptive multitasking, long file names of up to 255 characters, and provided increased stability over its predecessors. Windows 95 also introduced a redesigned, object oriented user interface, replacing the previous Program Manager with the Start menu, taskbar, and Windows Explorer shell. Windows 95 was a major commercial success for Microsoft; Ina Fried of CNET remarked that "by the time Windows 95 was finally ushered off the market in 2001, it had become a fixture on computer desktops around the world."[24] Microsoft published four OEM Service Releases (OSR) of Windows 95, each of which was roughly equivalent to a service pack. The first OSR of Windows 95 was also the first version of Windows to be bundled with Microsoft's web browser, Internet Explorer.[25] Mainstream support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2000, and extended support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2001.[26]
Windows 95 was followed up with the release of Windows 98 on June 25, 1998, which introduced the Windows Driver Model, support for USB composite devices, support for ACPI, hibernation, and support for multi-monitor configurations. Windows 98 also included integration with Internet Explorer 4 through Active Desktop and other aspects of the Windows Desktop Update (a series of enhancements to the Explorer shell which were also made available for Windows 95). In May 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an updated version of Windows 98. Windows 98 SE added Internet Explorer 5.0 and Windows Media Player 6.2 amongst other upgrades. Mainstream support for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002, and extended support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, 2006.[27]
On September 14, 2000, Microsoft released Windows Me (Millennium Edition), the last DOS-based version of Windows. Windows Me incorporated visual interface enhancements from its Windows NT-based counterpart Windows 2000, had faster boot times than previous versions (which however, required the removal of the ability to access a real mode DOS environment, removing compatibility with some older programs),[28] expanded multimedia functionality (including Windows Media Player 7, Windows Movie Maker, and the Windows Image Acquisition framework for retrieving images from scanners and digital cameras), additional system utilities such as System File Protection and System Restore, and updated home networking tools.[29] However, Windows Me was faced with criticism for its speed and instability, along with hardware compatibility issues and its removal of real mode DOS support. PC World considered Windows Me to be one of the worst operating systems Microsoft had ever released, and the 4th worst tech product of all time.[12]
Windows NT
Version history
Early versions (Windows NT 3.1/3.5/3.51/4.0/2000)
In November 1988, a new development team within Microsoft (which included former Digital Equipment Corporation developers Dave Cutler and Mark Lucovsky) began work on a revamped version of IBM and Microsoft's OS/2 operating system known as "NT OS/2". NT OS/2 was intended to be a secure, multi-user operating system with POSIX compatibility and a modular, portable kernel with preemptive multitasking and support for multiple processor architectures. However, following the successful release of Windows 3.0, the NT development team decided to rework the project to use an extended 32-bit port of the Windows API known as Win32 instead of those of OS/2. Win32 maintained a similar structure to the Windows APIs (allowing existing Windows applications to easily be ported to the platform), but also supported the capabilities of the existing NT kernel. Following its approval by Microsoft's staff, development continued on what was now Windows NT, the first 32-bit version of Windows. However, IBM objected to the changes, and ultimately continued OS/2 development on its own.[30][31]
Windows NT was the first Windows operating system based on a hybrid kernel. The hybrid kernel was designed as a modified microkernel, influenced by the Mach microkernel developed by Richard Rashid at Carnegie Mellon University, but without meeting all of the criteria of a pure microkernel.
The first release of the resulting operating system, Windows NT 3.1 (named to associate it with Windows 3.1) was released in July 1993, with versions for desktop workstations and servers. Windows NT 3.5 was released in September 1994, focusing on performance improvements and support for Novell's NetWare, and was followed up by Windows NT 3.51 in May 1995, which included additional improvements and support for the PowerPC architecture. Windows NT 4.0 was released in June 1996, introducing the redesigned interface of Windows 95 to the NT series. On February 17, 2000, Microsoft released Windows 2000, a successor to NT 4.0. The Windows NT name was dropped at this point in order to put a greater focus on the Windows brand.[31]
Windows XP
The next major version of Windows NT, Windows XP, was released on October 25, 2001. The introduction of Windows XP aimed to unify the consumer-oriented Windows 9x series with the architecture introduced by Windows NT, a change which Microsoft promised would provide better performance over its DOS-based predecessors. Windows XP would also introduce a redesigned user interface (including an updated Start menu and a "task-oriented" Windows Explorer), streamlined multimedia and networking features, Internet Explorer 6, integration with Microsoft's .NET Passport services, a "compatibility mode" to help provide backwards compatibility with software designed for previous versions of Windows, and Remote Assistance functionality.[32][33]
At retail, Windows XP was now marketed in two main editions: the "Home" edition was targeted towards consumers, while the "Professional" edition was targeted towards business environments and power users, and included additional security and networking features. Home and Professional were later accompanied by the "Media Center" edition (designed for home theater PCs, with an emphasis on support for DVD playback, TV tuner cards, DVR functionality, and remote controls), and the "Tablet PC" edition (designed for mobile devices meeting its specifications for a tablet computer, with support for stylus pen input and additional pen-enabled applications).[34][35][36] Mainstream support for Windows XP ended on April 14, 2009. Extended support ended on April 8, 2014.[37]
After Windows 2000, Microsoft also changed its release schedules for server operating systems; the server counterpart of Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, was released in April 2003.[31] It was followed in December 2005, by Windows Server 2003 R2.
Windows Vista
After a lengthy development process, Windows Vista was released on November 30, 2006, for volume licensing and January 30, 2007, for consumers. It contained a number of new features, from a redesigned shell and user interface to significant technical changes, with a particular focus on security features. It was available in a number of different editions, and has been subject to some criticism, such as drop of performance, longer boot time, criticism of new UAC, and stricter license agreement. Vista's server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 was released in early 2008.
Windows 7
On July 22, 2009, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 were released as RTM (release to manufacturing) while the former was released to the public 3 months later on October 22, 2009. Unlike its predecessor, Windows Vista, which introduced a large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista was already compatible.[38] Windows 7 has multi-touch support, a redesigned Windows shell with an updated taskbar with revealable jump lists that contain shortcuts to files frequently used with specific applications and shortcuts to tasks within the application,[39] a home networking system called HomeGroup,[40] and performance improvements.
Windows 8 and 8.1
Windows 8, the successor to Windows 7, was released generally on October 26, 2012. A number of significant changes were made on Windows 8, including the introduction of a user interface based around Microsoft's Metro design language with optimizations for touch-based devices such as tablets and all-in-one PCs. These changes include the Start screen, which uses large tiles that are more convenient for touch interactions and allow for the display of continually updated information, and a new class of apps which are designed primarily for use on touch-based devices. The new Windows version required a minimum resolution of 1024×768 pixels,[41] effectively making it unfit for netbooks with 800×600-pixel screens.
Other changes include increased integration with cloud services and other online platforms (such as social networks and Microsoft's own OneDrive (formerly SkyDrive) and Xbox Live services), the Windows Store service for software distribution, and a new variant known as Windows RT for use on devices that utilize the ARM architecture, and a new keyboard shortcut for screenshots.[42][43][44][45][46][47][48] An update to Windows 8, called Windows 8.1,[49] was released on October 17, 2013, and includes features such as new live tile sizes, deeper OneDrive integration, and many other revisions. Windows 8 and Windows 8.1 have been subject to some criticism, such as removal of the Start menu.
Windows 10
On September 30, 2014, Microsoft announced Windows 10 as the successor to Windows 8.1. It was released on July 29, 2015, and addresses shortcomings in the user interface first introduced with Windows 8. Changes on PC include the return of the Start Menu, a virtual desktop system, and the ability to run Windows Store apps within windows on the desktop rather than in full-screen mode. Windows 10 is said to be available to update from qualified Windows 7 with SP1, Windows 8.1 and Windows Phone 8.1 devices from the Get Windows 10 Application (for Windows 7, Windows 8.1) or Windows Update (Windows 7).[50]
In February 2017, Microsoft announced the migration of its Windows source code repository from Perforce to Git. This migration involved 3.5 million separate files in a 300 gigabyte repository.[51] By May 2017, 90 percent of its engineering team was using Git, in about 8500 commits and 1760 Windows builds per day.[51]
In June 2021, shortly before Microsoft's announcement of Windows 11, Microsoft updated their lifecycle policy pages for Windows 10, revealing that support for their last release of Windows 10 will be October 14, 2025.[52][53]
Windows 11
On June 24, 2021, Windows 11 was announced as the successor to Windows 10 during a livestream. The new operating system was designed to be more user-friendly and understandable. It was released on October 5, 2021.[54][55] Windows 11 is a free upgrade to some Windows 10 users as of now.
Windows 365
In July 2021, Microsoft announced it will start selling subscriptions to virtualized Windows desktops as part of a new Windows 365 service in the following month. It is not a standalone version of Microsoft Windows, but a web service that provides access to Windows 10 and Windows 11 built on top of Azure Virtual Desktop. The new service will allow for cross-platform usage, aiming to make the operating system available for both Apple and Android users. The subscription-based service will be accessible through any operating system with a web browser. Microsoft has stated that the new service is an attempt at capitalizing on the growing trend, fostered during the COVID-19 pandemic, for businesses to adopt a hybrid work environment, in which "employees split their time between the office and home" according to vice president Jared Spataro. As the service will be accessible through web-browsers, Microsoft will be able to bypass the need to publish the service through Google Play or the Apple App Store.[56][57][58][59][60]
Microsoft announced Windows 365 availability to business and enterprise customers on August 2, 2021.[61]
Multilingual support
Multilingual support has been built into Windows since Windows 3.0. The language for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed through the Region and Language Control Panel. Components for all supported input languages, such as Input Method Editors, are automatically installed during Windows installation (in Windows XP and earlier, files for East Asian languages, such as Chinese, and right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic, may need to be installed separately, also from the said Control Panel). Third-party IMEs may also be installed if a user feels that the provided one is insufficient for their needs.
Interface languages for the operating system are free for download, but some languages are limited to certain editions of Windows. Language Interface Packs (LIPs) are redistributable and may be downloaded from Microsoft's Download Center and installed for any edition of Windows (XP or later) – they translate most, but not all, of the Windows interface, and require a certain base language (the language which Windows originally shipped with). This is used for most languages in emerging markets. Full Language Packs, which translates the complete operating system, are only available for specific editions of Windows (Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista and 7, and all editions of Windows 8, 8.1 and RT except Single Language). They do not require a specific base language, and are commonly used for more popular languages such as French or Chinese. These languages cannot be downloaded through the Download Center, but available as optional updates through the Windows Update service (except Windows 8).
The interface language of installed applications is not affected by changes in the Windows interface language. The availability of languages depends on the application developers themselves.
Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 introduces a new Language Control Panel where both the interface and input languages can be simultaneously changed, and language packs, regardless of type, can be downloaded from a central location. The PC Settings app in Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 also includes a counterpart settings page for this. Changing the interface language also changes the language of preinstalled Windows Store apps (such as Mail, Maps and News) and certain other Microsoft-developed apps (such as Remote Desktop). The above limitations for language packs are however still in effect, except that full language packs can be installed for any edition except Single Language, which caters to emerging markets.
Platform support
Windows NT included support for several platforms before the x86-based personal computer became dominant in the professional world. Windows NT 4.0 and its predecessors supported PowerPC, DEC Alpha and MIPS R4000 (although some of the platforms implement 64-bit computing, the OS treated them as 32-bit). Windows 2000 dropped support for all platforms, except the third generation x86 (known as IA-32) or newer in 32-bit mode. The client line of Windows NT family still runs on IA-32 but the Windows Server line ceased supporting this platform with the release of Windows Server 2008 R2.
With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture (IA-64), Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it. Itanium versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 were released at the same time as their mainstream x86 counterparts. Windows XP 64-Bit Edition, released in 2005, is the last Windows client operating systems to support Itanium. Windows Server line continues to support this platform until Windows Server 2012; Windows Server 2008 R2 is the last Windows operating system to support Itanium architecture.
On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003 x64 Editions to support x86-64 (or simply x64), the 64-bit version of x86 architecture. Windows Vista was the first client version of Windows NT to be released simultaneously in IA-32 and x64 editions. x64 is still supported.
An edition of Windows 8 known as Windows RT was specifically created for computers with ARM architecture and while ARM is still used for Windows smartphones with Windows 10, tablets with Windows RT will not be updated. Starting from Windows 10 Fall Creators Update (version 1709) and later includes support for PCs with ARM architecture.[62]
Windows 11 is the first version to drop support for 32-bit hardware.[63]
Windows CE
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20220216123556im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/bc/WindowsCE7.png/250px-WindowsCE7.png)
Windows CE (officially known as Windows Embedded Compact), is an edition of Windows that runs on minimalistic computers, like satellite navigation systems and some mobile phones. Windows Embedded Compact is based on its own dedicated kernel, dubbed Windows CE kernel. Microsoft licenses Windows CE to OEMs and device makers. The OEMs and device makers can modify and create their own user interfaces and experiences, while Windows CE provides the technical foundation to do so.
Windows CE was used in the Dreamcast along with Sega's own proprietary OS for the console. Windows CE was the core from which Windows Mobile was derived. Its successor, Windows Phone 7, was based on components from both Windows CE 6.0 R3 and Windows CE 7.0. Windows Phone 8 however, is based on the same NT-kernel as Windows 8.
Windows Embedded Compact is not to be confused with Windows XP Embedded or Windows NT 4.0 Embedded, modular editions of Windows based on Windows NT kernel.
Xbox OS
Xbox OS is an unofficial name given to the version of Windows that runs on Xbox consoles.[64] From Xbox One onwards it is an implementation with an emphasis on virtualization (using Hyper-V) as it is three operating systems running at once, consisting of the core operating system, a second implemented for games and a more Windows-like environment for applications.[65] Microsoft updates Xbox One's OS every month, and these updates can be downloaded from the Xbox Live service to the Xbox and subsequently installed, or by using offline recovery images downloaded via a PC.[66] It was originally based on NT 6.2 (Windows 8) kernel, and the latest version runs on an NT 10.0 base. This system is sometimes referred to as "Windows 10 on Xbox One" or "OneCore".[67][68] Xbox One and Xbox Series operating systems also allow limited (due to licensing restrictions and testing resources) backward compatibility with previous generation hardware,[69] and the Xbox 360's system is backwards compatible with the original Xbox.[70]
Version control system
Before 2017 Microsoft has used a proprietary SourceDepot Version Control system which couldn't keep up with size of Windows. Microsoft had begun to integrate Git into Team Foundation Server in 2013, but Windows continued to rely on Source Depot.[citation needed] The Windows code was divided among 65 different repositories with a kind of virtualization layer to produce unified view of all of the code.[51]
In 2017 Microsoft announced that it would start using Git, an open source version control system created by Linus Torvalds and in May 2017 they reported that has completed migration into the Git repository.[71][72][51]
VFSForGit
Because of its large, decades-long history, however, the Windows codebase is not especially well suited to the decentralized nature of Linux development that Git was originally created to manage.[citation needed] Each Git repository contains a complete history of all the files, which proved unworkable for Windows developers because cloning the whole repository takes several hours.[citation needed] Microsoft has been working on a new project called the Virtual File System for Git (VFSForGit) to address these challenges.[72]
In 2021 the VFS for Git has been superseded by Scalar.[73]
Timeline of releases
Product name | Latest version | General availability date | Codename | Support until[74] | Latest version of | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mainstream | Extended | IE | DirectX | Edge | ||||
Windows 1.0 | 1.01 | November 20, 1985 | Interface Manager | December 31, 2001 | N/A | N/A | N/A | |
Windows 2.0 | 2.03 | December 9, 1987 | N/A | December 31, 2001 | ||||
Windows 2.1 | 2.11 | May 27, 1988 | N/A | December 31, 2001 | ||||
Windows 3.0 | 3.0 | May 22, 1990 | N/A | December 31, 2001 | ||||
Windows 3.1 | 3.1 | April 6, 1992 | Janus | December 31, 2001 | 5 | |||
Windows For Workgroups 3.1 | 3.1 | October 1992 | Sparta, Winball | December 31, 2001 | ||||
Windows NT 3.1 | NT 3.1.528 | July 27, 1993 | N/A | December 31, 2001 | ||||
Windows For Workgroups 3.11 | 3.11 | August 11, 1993 | Sparta, Winball | December 31, 2001 | ||||
Windows 3.2 | 3.2 | November 22, 1993 | N/A | December 31, 2001 | ||||
Windows NT 3.5 | NT 3.5.807 | September 21, 1994 | Daytona | December 31, 2001 | ||||
Windows NT 3.51 | NT 3.51.1057 | May 30, 1995 | N/A | December 31, 2001 | ||||
Windows 95 | 4.0.950 | August 24, 1995 | Chicago, 4.0 | December 31, 2000 | December 31, 2001 | 5.5 | 6.1 | |
Windows NT 4.0 | NT 4.0.1381 | July 31, 1996 | Cairo | June 30, 2002 | June 30, 2004 | 6 | N/A | |
Windows 98 | October 4, 1998 | June 25, 1998 | Memphis, 97, 4.1 | June 30, 2002 | July 11, 2006 | 6.1 | ||
Windows 98 SE | 4.10.2222 | May 5, 1999 | N/A | June 30, 2002 | July 11, 2006 | |||
Windows 2000 | NT 5.0.2195 | February 17, 2000 | N/A | June 30, 2005 | July 13, 2010 | N/A | ||
Windows Me | 4.90.3000 | September 14, 2000 | Millennium, 4.9 | December 31, 2003 | July 11, 2006 | 9.0c | ||
Windows XP | NT 5.1.2600 | October 25, 2001 | Whistler | April 14, 2009 | April 8, 2014 | 8 | ||
Windows XP 64-bit Edition | NT 5.2.3790 | March 28, 2003 | N/A | April 14, 2009 | April 8, 2014 | |||
Windows Server 2003 | NT 5.2.3790 | April 24, 2003 | N/A | July 13, 2010 | July 14, 2015 | |||
Windows XP Professional x64 Edition | NT 5.2.3790 | April 25, 2005 | N/A | April 14, 2009 | April 8, 2014 | |||
Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs | NT 5.1.2600 | July 8, 2006 | Eiger, Mönch | April 14, 2009 | April 8, 2014 | |||
Windows Vista | NT 6.0.6003 | January 30, 2007 | Longhorn | April 10, 2012 | April 11, 2017 | 9 | 11 | |
Windows Home Server | NT 5.2.4500 | November 4, 2007 | Quattro | January 8, 2013 | 8 | 9.0c | ||
Windows Server 2008 | NT 6.0.6003 | February 27, 2008 | Longhorn Server | January 13, 2015 | January 14, 2020 | 9 | 11 | |
Windows 7 | NT 6.1.7601 | October 22, 2009 | Windows 7[75] | January 13, 2015 | January 14, 2020 | 11 | 92 | |
Windows Server 2008 R2 | NT 6.1.7601 | October 22, 2009 | N/A | January 13, 2015 | January 14, 2020 | |||
Windows Home Server 2011 | NT 6.1.8400 | April 6, 2011 | Vail | April 12, 2016 | 9 | |||
Windows Server 2012 | NT 6.2.9200 | September 4, 2012 | Server 8 | October 9, 2018 | October 10, 2023 | 11 | 11.1 | |
Windows 8 | NT 6.2.9200 | October 26, 2012 | N/A | January 12, 2016 | 10 | |||
Windows 8.1 | NT 6.3.9600 | October 17, 2013 | Blue | January 9, 2018 | January 10, 2023 | 11 | 11.2 | |
Windows Server 2012 R2 | NT 6.3.9600 | October 18, 2013 | Server Blue | October 9, 2018 | October 10, 2023 | |||
Windows 10 | NT 10.0.19044 | July 29, 2015 | Various | October 14, 2025[52][53] | 12 | |||
Windows Server 2016 | NT 10.0.14393 | October 12, 2016 | N/A | January 11, 2022 | January 12, 2027 | |||
Windows Server 2019 | NT 10.0.17763 | October 2, 2018 | N/A | January 9, 2024 | January 9, 2029 | |||
Windows Server 2022 | NT 10.0.20348 | August 18, 2021 | N/A | October 13, 2026 | October 14, 2031 | |||
Windows 11 | NT 10.0.22000 | October 5, 2021 | N/A | October 10, 2023 | October 8, 2024 | N/A |
![](https://web.archive.org/web/20220216123556im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/p1tlgchny8w60hlgf8xzeg9477un696.png)
![Windows logo and wordmark - 2021.svg](https://web.archive.org/web/20220216123556im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Windows_logo_and_wordmark_-_2021.svg/200px-Windows_logo_and_wordmark_-_2021.svg.png)
Version market share
As a percentage of desktop and laptop systems using Windows,[76] according to StatCounter data from January 2022.[77]
Desktop OS | StatCounter |
---|---|
other versions | 0.21% |
Windows XP | 0.49% |
Windows 7 | 11.92% |
Windows 8 | 0.69% |
Windows 8.1 | 2.93% |
Windows 10 | 81.15% |
Windows 11 | 2.6% |
Use of the latest version Windows 10 has exceeded Windows 7 globally since early 2018.[78]
For desktop and laptop computers, according to Net Applications and StatCounter, which track the use of operating systems in devices that are active on the Web, Windows was the most used operating-system family in August 2021, with around 91% usage share according to Net Applications[79] and around 76% usage share according to StatCounter.[80]
Including personal computers of all kinds (e.g., desktops, laptops, mobile devices, and game consoles), Windows OSes accounted for 32.67% of usage share in August 2021, compared to Android (highest, at 46.03%), iOS's 13.76%, iPadOS's 2.81%, and macOS's 2.51%, according to Net Applications[81] and 30.73% of usage share in August 2021, compared to Android (highest, at 42.56%), iOS/iPadOS's 16.53%, and macOS's 6.51%, according to StatCounter.[82]
Those statistics do not include servers (including so-called cloud computing, where Microsoft is known not to be a leader, with Linux used more than Windows), as Net Applications and StatCounter use web browsing as a proxy for all use.
Security
Consumer versions of Windows were originally designed for ease-of-use on a single-user PC without a network connection, and did not have security features built in from the outset.[83] However, Windows NT and its successors are designed for security (including on a network) and multi-user PCs, but were not initially designed with Internet security in mind as much, since, when it was first developed in the early 1990s, Internet use was less prevalent.[84]
These design issues combined with programming errors (e.g. buffer overflows) and the popularity of Windows means that it is a frequent target of computer worm and virus writers. In June 2005, Bruce Schneier's Counterpane Internet Security reported that it had seen over 1,000 new viruses and worms in the previous six months.[85] In 2005, Kaspersky Lab found around 11,000 malicious programs – viruses, Trojans, back-doors, and exploits written for Windows.[86]
Microsoft releases security patches through its Windows Update service approximately once a month (usually the second Tuesday of the month), although critical updates are made available at shorter intervals when necessary.[87] In versions of Windows after and including Windows 2000 SP3 and Windows XP, updates can be automatically downloaded and installed if the user selects to do so. As a result, Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, as well as Service Pack 1 for Windows Server 2003, were installed by users more quickly than it otherwise might have been.[88]
While the Windows 9x series offered the option of having profiles for multiple users, they had no concept of access privileges, and did not allow concurrent access; and so were not true multi-user operating systems. In addition, they implemented only partial memory protection. They were accordingly widely criticised for lack of security.
The Windows NT series of operating systems, by contrast, are true multi-user, and implement absolute memory protection. However, a lot of the advantages of being a true multi-user operating system were nullified by the fact that, prior to Windows Vista, the first user account created during the setup process was an administrator account, which was also the default for new accounts. Though Windows XP did have limited accounts, the majority of home users did not change to an account type with fewer rights – partially due to the number of programs which unnecessarily required administrator rights – and so most home users ran as administrator all the time.
Windows Vista changes this[89] by introducing a privilege elevation system called User Account Control. When logging in as a standard user, a logon session is created and a token containing only the most basic privileges is assigned. In this way, the new logon session is incapable of making changes that would affect the entire system. When logging in as a user in the Administrators group, two separate tokens are assigned. The first token contains all privileges typically awarded to an administrator, and the second is a restricted token similar to what a standard user would receive. User applications, including the Windows shell, are then started with the restricted token, resulting in a reduced privilege environment even under an Administrator account. When an application requests higher privileges or "Run as administrator" is clicked, UAC will prompt for confirmation and, if consent is given (including administrator credentials if the account requesting the elevation is not a member of the administrators group), start the process using the unrestricted token.[90]
Leaked documents published by WikiLeaks, codenamed Vault 7 and dated from 2013 to 2016, detail the capabilities of the CIA to perform electronic surveillance and cyber warfare,[91] such as the ability to compromise operating systems such as Microsoft Windows.[92]
In August 2019, computer experts reported that the BlueKeep security vulnerability, CVE-2019-0708, that potentially affects older unpatched Microsoft Windows versions via the program's Remote Desktop Protocol, allowing for the possibility of remote code execution, may now include related flaws, collectively named DejaBlue, affecting newer Windows versions (i.e., Windows 7 and all recent versions) as well.[93] In addition, experts reported a Microsoft security vulnerability, CVE-2019-1162, based on legacy code involving Microsoft CTF and ctfmon (ctfmon.exe), that affects all Windows versions from the older Windows XP version to the most recent Windows 10 versions; a patch to correct the flaw is currently available.[94]
File permissions
All Windows versions from Windows NT 3 have been based on a file system permission system referred to as AGDLP (Accounts, Global, Domain Local, Permissions) in which file permissions are applied to the file/folder in the form of a 'local group' which then has other 'global groups' as members. These global groups then hold other groups or users depending on different Windows versions used. This system varies from other vendor products such as Linux and NetWare due to the 'static' allocation of permission being applied directly to the file or folder. However using this process of AGLP/AGDLP/AGUDLP allows a small number of static permissions to be applied and allows for easy changes to the account groups without reapplying the file permissions on the files and folders.
Alternative implementations
Owing to the operating system's popularity, a number of applications have been released that aim to provide compatibility with Windows applications, either as a compatibility layer for another operating system, or as a standalone system that can run software written for Windows out of the box. These include:
- Wine – a free and open-source implementation of the Windows API, allowing one to run many Windows applications on x86-based platforms, including UNIX, Linux and macOS. Wine developers refer to it as a "compatibility layer"[95] and use Windows-style APIs to emulate Windows environment.
- CrossOver – a Wine package with licensed fonts. Its developers are regular contributors to Wine, and focus on Wine running officially supported applications.
- Cedega – a proprietary fork of Wine by TransGaming Technologies, designed specifically for running Microsoft Windows games on Linux. A version of Cedega known as Cider allows Windows games to run on macOS. Since Wine was licensed under the LGPL, Cedega has been unable to port the improvements made to Wine to their proprietary codebase. Cedega ceased its service in February 2011.
- Darwine – a port of Wine for macOS and Darwin. Operates by running Wine on QEMU.
- Linux Unified Kernel – a set of patches to the Linux kernel allowing many Windows executable files in Linux (using Wine DLLs); and some Windows drivers to be used.
- ReactOS – an open-source OS intended to run the same software as Windows, originally designed to simulate Windows NT 4.0, now aiming at Windows 7 compatibility. It has been in the development stage since 1996.
- Linspire – formerly LindowsOS, a commercial Linux distribution initially created with the goal of running major Windows software. Changed its name to Linspire after Microsoft v. Lindows. Discontinued in favor of Xandros Desktop, that was also later discontinued.
- Freedows OS – an open-source attempt at creating a Windows clone for x86 platforms, intended to be released under the GNU General Public License. Started in 1996, by Reece K. Sellin, the project was never completed, getting only to the stage of design discussions which featured a number of novel concepts until it was suspended in 2002.[96][97][98]
See also
- Architecture of Windows NT
- Azure Sphere, Microsoft's Linux-based operating system
- BlueKeep
- De facto standard
- Dominant design
- Windows Subsystem for Linux, a subsystem in Windows 10, not using the Linux kernel; reimplementing
- Wintel
References
- ^ "February 15, 2022—KB5010414 (OS Build 22000.527)". Microsoft Support. Microsoft. February 15, 2022.
- ^ "Announcing Windows 11 Insider Preview Build 22543". Windows Insider Blog. January 27, 2022.
- ^ "Listing of available Windows 7 language packs". Msdn.microsoft.com. Archived from the original on August 2, 2012. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
- ^ "App packages and deployment (Windows Store apps) (Windows)". Msdn.microsoft.com. Archived from the original on March 30, 2014. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
- ^ "The Unusual History of Microsoft Windows". Retrieved April 22, 2007.
- ^ "Operating System Market Share Worldwide". StatCounter Global Stats. Retrieved January 5, 2021.
- ^ "Desktop Operating System Market Share Worldwide". StatCounter Global Stats. Retrieved January 5, 2021.
- ^ Keizer, Gregg (July 14, 2014). "Microsoft gets real, admits its device share is just 14%". Computerworld. IDG. Archived from the original on August 21, 2016.
[Microsoft's chief operating officer] Turner's 14% came from a new forecast released last week by Gartner, which estimated Windows' share of the shipped device market last year was 14%, and would decrease slightly to 13.7% in 2014. Android will dominate, Gartner said, with a 48% share this year
- ^ "Windows Server release information". docs.microsoft.com. Retrieved July 26, 2021.
- ^ "Xbox One Architecture Finally Explained - Runs OS 'Virtually Indistinguishable' from Windows 8". WCCFtech. April 20, 2014. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015.
- ^ "RTOS: Embedded Real Time Operating Systems". microsoft.com. Microsoft. Archived from the original on December 15, 2014. Retrieved November 7, 2014.
- ^ a b "The 25 Worst Tech Products of All Time". PC World. IDG. May 26, 2006. Archived from the original on February 15, 2012. Retrieved February 10, 2012.
- ^ A history of Windows (at microsoft.com)
- ^ Microsoft C 5.0 C Language Reference Guide, Microsoft Doc410840001-500-R04-0887A, 10/1987 page 250-267
- ^ "A legacy of Windows, part 1: Windows 1-2-3 - TechRepublic". TechRepublic. Archived from the original on March 27, 2017. Retrieved March 26, 2017.
- ^ "The Apple vs. Microsoft GUI Lawsuit". 2006. Archived from the original on March 4, 2008. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
- ^ "Apple Computer, Inc. v. MicroSoft Corp., 35 F.3d 1435 (9th Cir. 1994)". Archived from the original on December 14, 2007. Retrieved March 12, 2008.
- ^ "Windows Evolution". Soft32.com News. Archived from the original on February 8, 2008.
- ^ "Chronology of Personal Computer Software". Archived from the original on February 11, 2012.
- ^ "Microsoft Company". Archived from the original on May 14, 2008.
- ^ "Windows 3.1 Standard Edition Support Lifecycle". Archived from the original on January 12, 2012. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
- ^ "Microsoft Windows Simplified Chinese 3.2 Upgrade Is Available". microsoft.com. Microsoft. Archived from the original on November 8, 2006.
- ^ "Microsoft Windows Simplified Chinese 3.2 Upgrade Is Available". Microsoft. October 30, 2003. Archived from the original on May 24, 2011. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
- ^ "Windows 95 turns 15: Has Microsoft's OS peaked?". CNET/CNN Tech. August 25, 2010. Archived from the original on August 26, 2010. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
- ^ "Microsoft Internet Explorer Web Browser Available on All Major Platforms, Offers Broadest International Support". News Center. San Jose, California: Microsoft. April 30, 1996. Archived from the original on January 15, 2008. Retrieved February 14, 2011.
- ^ "Windows 95 Support Lifecycle". Microsoft. Archived from the original on November 22, 2012. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
- ^ "Windows 98 Standard Edition Support Lifecycle". Microsoft. Archived from the original on November 22, 2012. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
- ^ "Improving "Cold Boot" Time for System Manufacturers". Microsoft. December 4, 2001. Archived from the original on February 13, 2010. Retrieved August 26, 2010.
- ^ "Windows Millennium Edition: All About Me". PC World. Archived from the original on August 1, 2013. Retrieved May 21, 2013.
- ^ Custer, Helen (1993). Inside Windows NT. Redmond: Microsoft Press. ISBN 1-55615-481-X.
- ^ a b c Thurrott, Paul (January 24, 2003). "Windows Server 2003: The Road To Gold - Part One: The Early Years". Archived from the original on January 1, 2005. Retrieved May 28, 2012.
- ^ "Windows XP review". CNET. Archived from the original on May 26, 2013. Retrieved May 24, 2013.
- ^ "Windows XP Program Compatibility Wizard". ServerWatch. March 12, 2002. Retrieved November 13, 2021.
- ^ David Coursey (October 25, 2001). "The 10 top things you MUST know about Win XP". ZDNet. Archived from the original on April 3, 2009. Retrieved July 22, 2008.
- ^ David Coursey (August 31, 2001). "Your top Windows XP questions answered! (Part One)". ZDNet. CNET Networks. Archived from the original on December 19, 2007. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
- ^ "A Look at Freestyle and Mira". Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows. Penton. September 3, 2002. Retrieved January 3, 2011.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Windows XP Professional Lifecycle Support". Archived from the original on February 27, 2013. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
- ^ Nash, Mike (October 28, 2008). "Windows 7 Unveiled Today at PDC 2008". Windows Experience Blog. Microsoft. Archived from the original on November 1, 2008. Retrieved November 11, 2008.
- ^ Kiriaty, Yochay; Goldshtein, Sasha (2009). "Windows 7 Taskbar APIs". docs.microsoft.com. Retrieved August 21, 2021.
- ^ LeBlanc, Brandon (October 28, 2008). "How Libraries & HomeGroup Work Together in Windows 7". Windows Experience Blog. Microsoft. Archived from the original on November 2, 2008. Retrieved November 11, 2008.
- ^ "New Windows 8 hardware specs hint at 7-inch tablets and a Microsoft Reader". ZDNet. Retrieved March 29, 2013.
- ^ Paul, Ian (July 5, 2021). "How to Take Screenshots in Windows 10, 8, and 7".
- ^ Case, Loyd. "Test Driving Windows 8 RTM". PC World. IDG. Archived from the original on September 4, 2012. Retrieved September 9, 2012.
- ^ Rosoff, Matt. "Here's Everything You Wanted To Know About Microsoft's Upcoming iPad Killers". Business Insider. Archived from the original on January 22, 2013. Retrieved February 10, 2012.
- ^ "Announcing the Windows 8 Editions". Microsoft. April 16, 2012. Archived from the original on April 18, 2012. Retrieved April 17, 2012.
- ^ "Building Windows for the ARM processor architecture". Microsoft. Archived from the original on November 26, 2012. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
- ^ "Microsoft talks Windows Store features, Metro app sandboxing for Windows 8 developers". The Verge. Vox Media. May 17, 2012. Archived from the original on September 10, 2012. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
- ^ Miller, Michael. "Build: More Details On Building Windows 8 Metro Apps". PC Magazine. Archived from the original on February 17, 2012. Retrieved February 10, 2012.
- ^ Windows 8.1 now available! Archived October 19, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Blogs.windows.com. Retrieved on October 31, 2013.
- ^ "Announcing Windows 10 - Windows Blog". September 30, 2014. Archived from the original on September 10, 2015. Retrieved September 30, 2014.
- ^ a b c d Bright, Peter (May 24, 2017). "Windows switch to Git almost complete: 8,500 commits and 1,760 builds each day". Ars Technica. Condé Nast. Archived from the original on May 24, 2017.
- ^ a b "Window 10 Home and Pro Lifecycle". Microsoft. Retrieved July 2, 2021.
- ^ a b "Window 10 Enterprise and Education Lifecycle". Microsoft. Retrieved July 2, 2021.
- ^ Cox, George. "Windows 11 release date is October 5". The Spectrum. Retrieved September 18, 2021.
- ^ Warren, Tom (June 24, 2021). "Microsoft announces Windows 11, with a new design, Start menu, and more". The Verge. Retrieved June 24, 2021.
- ^ Foley, Mary Jo (July 14, 2021). "Microsoft brings Windows to the cloud with Windows 365 and Cloud PC". ZDNet. Retrieved July 14, 2021.
- ^ Tilley, Aaron (July 14, 2021). "Microsoft Aims to Put Windows in Hands of Apple, Android Users Through Hybrid Work". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- ^ Higgins, Tim (June 23, 2021). "Apple's Fight for Control Over Apps Moves to Congress and EU". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- ^ "Microsoft unveils Windows 365, a Windows 10 PC in the cloud". Engadget. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- ^ "Windows 365 Cloud PC | Microsoft". www.microsoft.com. Retrieved July 15, 2021.
- ^ Hill, Paul (August 2, 2021). "Microsoft announces the general availability of Windows 365". Neowin. Retrieved August 2, 2021.
- ^ Bott, Ed (October 7, 2019). "Windows 10 on Arm: What you need to know before you buy a Surface Pro X". ZDNet.
- ^ "Windows 11 Specs and System Requirements | Microsoft". Windows. Retrieved October 6, 2021.
- ^ Anand Lal Shimpi. "The Xbox One - Mini Review & Comparison to Xbox 360/PS4". anandtech.com. Archived from the original on October 12, 2014. Retrieved October 21, 2014.
- ^ "Xbox One: Hardware and software specs detailed and analyzed - Three operating systems in one". ExtremeTech. Archived from the original on November 16, 2013. Retrieved December 1, 2013.
- ^ "How to use the Offline System Update Diagnostic Tool on Xbox One". Xbox Official Site. Microsoft. Archived from the original on April 27, 2021. Retrieved November 30, 2013.
- ^ "Xbox One Is "Literally a Windows Device"". GameSpot. Archived from the original on December 27, 2015.
- ^ "New Xbox One Update Will Make Some Functionality 50 Percent Faster". GameSpot. Archived from the original on February 2, 2016.
- ^ Tom Warren (June 16, 2015). "Xbox One dashboard update includes a huge new design and Cortana". The Verge. Vox Media. Archived from the original on July 8, 2017.
- ^ Eric Qualls. "Xbox 360 and Xbox Games Backwards Compatibility". About.com Tech. Archived from the original on September 28, 2015.
- ^ "The largest Git repo on the planet". Brian Harry's Blog. May 24, 2017. Retrieved October 8, 2021.
- ^ a b Bright, Peter (February 6, 2017). "Microsoft hosts the Windows source in a monstrous 300GB Git repository". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on December 26, 2017. Retrieved December 26, 2017.
- ^ "Frequently Asked Questions | VFS for Git". GitHub. Microsoft. Archived from the original on July 7, 2021. Retrieved July 7, 2021.
We transitioned our large repository strategy to focus on using
git sparse-checkout
instead of filesystem virtualization. We then forked the VFS for Git codebase to create Scalar. - ^ "Microsoft Support Lifecycle". Microsoft. Archived from the original on October 11, 2008.
- ^ Chen, Raymond (July 22, 2019). "What was the code name for Windows 7?". The Old New Thing.
- ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". StatCounter. "Are laptops included in the desktop platform?".
- ^ "Desktop Windows Version Market Share Worldwide". StatCounter.
- ^ "Desktop Windows Version Market Share Worldwide | StatCounter Global Stats". StatCounter Global Stats. Retrieved November 24, 2019.
- ^ "Desktop Operating system market share: August 2021". Net Applications.
- ^ "Desktop Operating System Market Share Worldwide: August 2021". StatCounter.
- ^ "Operating system market share: August 2021". Net Applications.
- ^ "Operating System Market Share Worldwide: August 2021". StatCounter.
- ^ Multi-user memory protection was not introduced until Windows NT and XP, and a computer's default user was an administrator until Windows Vista. Source: UACBlog Archived April 28, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "Telephones and Internet Users by Country, 1990 and 2005". Information Please Database. Archived from the original on May 22, 2009. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ Bruce Schneier (June 15, 2005). "Crypto-Gram Newsletter". Counterpane Internet Security, Inc. Archived from the original on June 6, 2007. Retrieved April 22, 2007.
- ^ Andy Patrizio (April 27, 2006). "Linux Malware On The Rise". InternetNews. QuinStreet. Archived from the original on February 5, 2012. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
- ^ Ryan Naraine (June 8, 2005). "Microsoft's Security Response Center: How Little Patches Are Made". eWeek. Ziff Davis Enterprise. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
- ^ John Foley (October 20, 2004). "Windows XP SP2 Distribution Surpasses 100 Million". InformationWeek. UBM TechWeb. Archived from the original on May 27, 2010. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
- ^ Northrup, Tony (June 1, 2005). "Windows Vista Security and Data Protection Improvements". TechNet. Microsoft Docs. Retrieved October 20, 2021.
In Windows Vista, the User Account Control (UAC) initiative introduces fundamental operating system changes to enhance the experience for the non-administrative user.
- ^ Kenny Kerr (September 29, 2006). "Windows Vista for Developers – Part 4 – User Account Control". Archived from the original on March 29, 2007. Retrieved March 15, 2007.
- ^ Greenberg, Andy (March 7, 2017). "How the CIA Can Hack Your Phone, PC, and TV (Says WikiLeaks)". WIRED.
- ^ "Vault 7: Wikileaks reveals details of CIA's hacks of Android, iPhone Windows, Linux, MacOS, and even Samsung TVs". Computing. March 7, 2017.
- ^ Greenberg, Andy (August 13, 2019). "DejaBlue: New BlueKeep-Style Bugs Renew The Risk Of A Windows worm". wired. Retrieved August 15, 2019.
- ^ Seals, Tara (August 14, 2019). "20-Year-Old Bug in Legacy Microsoft Code Plagues All Windows Users". ThreatPost.com. Retrieved August 15, 2019.
- ^ "Wine". Winehq.org. Archived from the original on April 4, 2014. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
- ^ "A Student's Dream of Creating A New Operating System Encounters Problems". The Chronicle of Higher Education. September 18, 1998. Archived from the original on May 12, 2013. Retrieved May 17, 2013.
- ^ "Older blog entries for chipx86". Advogato.org. Advogato. June 27, 2002. Archived from the original on May 20, 2013. Retrieved May 17, 2013.
- ^ "Freedows splits". Slashdot. Dice Holdings. August 31, 1998. Archived from the original on November 4, 2013. Retrieved May 17, 2013.