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Demystifying Meta-Categories in Philippine Suicide Notes:

A Forensic Discourse Analysis

Leo D. Rayon, Jr.1,2

1Davao del Norte State College, Philippines

2Gonzaga University, United States of America

leo.rayon@dnsc.edu.ph/rayon@gonzaga.edu

Abstract - As suicide notes are considered severity markers of suicide acts, they often convince the

survivors that the act committed, or about to commit, is justifiable. While numerous studies were conducted

on suicide notes across research disciplines, most were meant for psychological and psychiatric

interpretations. This research examined the distinctive features and functions of meta-categories in suicide

notes written in the Philippines. As qualitative research, this study employed forensic discourse analysis as

a method of analysis through Shapero’s (2011) meta-categories framework. The notes were collected from

the Philippine National Police and Philippine newspapers. The findings revealed that Filipino note-writers

wrote their suicide notes with reasons for committing suicide, references to the happenings in the past,

instructions of command or request to survivors, statements of who they are, memory or remembrances,

and attempts for humour. No meta-categories were found for the note-writers’ methods of suicide,

specifications on the location of suicide, and details about essential responsibilities. As far as meta-

categories are concerned, the study concluded that the primary meta-categorical function of a suicide note

in the Philippines is to provide reasons for suicide. The study recommends embarking on larger Filipino

suicide corpora for a broader scope, analysis, and interpretation, characterizing meta-categories in terms

of gender, and distinguishing the similarities and differences of meta-categories in suicide notes written by

suicide-completers and attempters in the Philippines.

Keywords - forensic linguistics, suicide notes, meta-categories, forensic discourse analysis, qualitative

research, Philippines

Introduction

Suicide notes are written, or recorded messages left by individuals who either committed suicide

or intended to commit suicide (Darbonne, 1969; Leenaars, 1988; Ho, Yip, Chiu, & Halliday, 1998;

Prokofyeva, 2013). As these notes are considered markers of severity of the suicide acts, they often posit

significant perceptions on how suicidal individuals think before performing suicide. They usually function to

convince the reader(s) or addressee(s) that the act committed, or about to commit, is justifiable (McClelland,

Reicher, & Booth, 2000; Salib, Cawley, & Healy, 2002). Further, these texts offer true motivations and

reasons for the act of suicide (Ho, Yip, Chiu, & Halliday, 1998; Canetto & Lester, 2002) and could take

various forms which range from notes, letters, notebooks, diaries, poems, greeting cards, transcribed audio,

or videotapes, and even posts and blog entries on the internet (Shapero, 2011; Prokofyeva, 2013).

Unlike any of the established genres, suicide notes are written privately by note-writers who may

never have read a suicide note before. Overtly, suicide notes are part of the non-established genres, which

Swales (2007) described as occluded because of their extreme privacy and inaccessibility. They are

generally hidden from public sight and function. Thus, access to sample suicide guide texts for writing is

substantially difficult. However, behind this status, these notes have earned a position of questions and

relevance among researchers, particularly in understanding people's thoughts with suicidal tendencies.

The increasing interest that the phenomenon of suicide gained across research disciplines has stimulated

diverse research perspectives on how the language of suicide embedded in suicide notes could be

examined to characterize the consistent and prevalent linguistic structures and attitudes of suicide-

attempters and completers. As such, these notes as pieces of suicide evidence are reflected as good

sources of data for linguistic inquiry, specifically in providing suicide insights and reasons for committing

suicide acts. Thus, researchers from interdisciplinary scholarships have analyzed an array of suicide notes

to provide interpretations and understanding of the thoughts of suicidal individuals (Abaalkhail, 2015).

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Meta-categories are one of the defining and distinctive features of a suicide note. Shapero (2011)

described it as features that occur at a relatively higher level of discourse. These features are not generally

realized by stereotypical words or phrases but by larger vocabularies, several sentences, or even

paragraphs. In illustrating meta-categories, Shapero (2011) provided the basic patterns for which it is

analyzed. These include who, where, why, how, events, memories, humour, instructions, and trivia. Who is

any occurrence of the note-writer explicitly saying who he or she is. Any occurrence where the note-writer

states where he or she is during the act of suicide pertains to the meta-category where. The meta-category

why refers to any text given about the note-writer’s reason(s) for his or her suicide. Meanwhile, the meta-

category how refers to the note-writer’s method of suicide. References to happenings in the past, present,

or future are events, while memories include passages of remembrance and those non-explicitly stated

recollections. On the other hand, humour refers to any attempt at humour, including jokes. Imperatives,

inventories, and statements containing clauses of command or request are called instructions. Finally, trivia

constitutes any considerable important details concerning various responsibilities of the note-writer.

Considering suicide notes as crucial evidence used in the investigation of death, forensic discourse

analysis (FDA) serves as an appropriate method of linguistic inquiry in providing an avenue in distinguishing

linguistic features of a suicide. As a specialized field of discourse analysis, FDA holds a scientific study of

linguistic evidence used for law enforcement and delivery of social justice (Kredens, 2016). It analyzes

spoken and written discourse in legal settings, such as analyzing written evidence provided in a court of

law. Also, Royce (2014) referred to the term FDA as the application of text analytic techniques to whole

texts and their constituent parts, including the analysis of style, word choice, spelling, punctuation, rhetorical

strategies, and the overall structure of written verbal, or electronic texts. The main focus of forensic

discourse analysis is to provide linguistic evidence for legal cases. With the FDA’s method to analyze and

discriminate linguistic evidence used for law enforcement and legal cases, the language embedded in the

occluded genre of suicide notes could be determined, including its structures, topics/themes, and textual

regularities and irregularities. Further, forensic discourse analysis could examine the function a suicide note

holds in a suicide act.

There have been previous studies across the globe that examined suicide notes as research focus

like that of Durkheim (1951), Shneidman and Farberow (1957), Darbonne (1969), Leenaars (1988), Black

(1993), and Linn and Lester (1996). However, most of the analyses came from psychological, psychiatric,

and sociological viewpoints centered on testing psychological views and theories of behavior and the preset

claims of behavioral categories used in suicide. Only a few studies on suicide notes have focused on the

linguistic or discursive stance like that of Osgood and Walker (1959), Gottschalk and Gleser (1960), Ogilvie,

Stone, and Shneidman (1966), Edelman and Renshaw (1982), and Gregory (1999). However, most of these

studies were conducted more than 50 years ago, and thus, this necessitates new and updated studies on

linguistic viewpoints of inquiry.

Behind the increasing interest in suicide research around the globe, research on suicide notes

remains unpopular in the Philippines which, in effect, impedes the development of studies in this area.

Moreover, there is still no clear body of literature and database of suicide notes in the archipelago. Even

though there were pioneering studies in mainland Luzon, most of these are from the perspectives of

characterizing legal texts and the plight for plain English writing. No studies have categorically explored

suicide notes as a niche for linguistic inquiry. With this, the researcher found the necessity to perpetuate a

forensic discourse-based study focusing on meta-categories in suicide notes written by Filipino note-writers

in the Philippines. Furthermore, the researcher aimed to address the scarcity of studies on suicide notes in

the present body of literature and make a theoretical insight into the field of forensic linguistics in the

Philippines.

Objective of the Study

This study aimed to uncover the distinctive features of meta-categories manifested in suicide notes

written by Filipino suicide-completers. Specifically, the study was guided by the research question ‘What

are the meta-categories found in Philippine suicide notes in terms of who, where, why, how, event, memory,

humour, instruction, and trivia?’.

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Framework of Meta-Categories

Shapero’s (2011) Framework for Suicide Note Analysis provides and elaborates a qualitative and

quantitative forensic discourse approach to analyzing suicide notes. In his framework, suicide notes are

examined through their anatomical features, which specify how note-writers begin and end a suicide

message. These features of suicide messages outline some categories that appear salient in writing suicide

notes. These features include topic categories, meta-categories, and linguistic oddness.

The focus of this investigation is the meta-category. Shapero (2011) defined meta-category as a

feature that occurs at a relatively higher level of discourse in suicide notes. Unlike topic categories and

linguistic oddness which are typically realized by lexis and phrases, meta-categories are not generally

demonstrated by any stereotypical set of works or phases but by a more extensive vocabulary and over

several sentences or even paragraphs. Illustrated in Table 1, Shapero (2011) provided a breakdown for the

analysis of meta-categories. This includes who, where, why, how, events, memories, humor, instructions,

and trivia.

Table 1. Meta-Categories Framework (Shapero, 2011)

Category

Description

Who

This is any occurrence of the note-writer explicitly saying who they are.

Where

This is an occurrence of the note-writer stating where they are completing the suicide act

or where the note-writer’s body can be found.

Why

This refers to any text given about the note-writer’s reason for his or her suicide.

How

This refers to the note-writer’s method of suicide.

Event

These are references to happenings in the past, present, or future.

Memory

This includes passages of the type “do you remember when…” as well as those non-

explicitly stated as remembrances.

Humour

This refers to any attempt for humour, including jokes.

Instruction

These are imperatives, inventories, and statements containing clauses of command or

request such as will you please…, please, will you…, look after…, or take care of…

Trivia

This constitutes any considerable important details concerning various responsibilities of

the note-writer.

Who is any occurrence of the note-writer explicitly saying who he or she is. It excludes signatures

unless they are in the form: ‘I am Jose Martinez’ or ‘Yours faithfully, Jose Martinez’. Any occurrence of the

note-writer stating where they are during the act of suicide pertains to the meta-category where. This

category need not be explicit as a lone sentence or paragraph and can be reasonably taken to mean that

this is where the note-writer’s body can be found (Shapero, 2011). The meta-category why refers to any

text given about the note-writer’s reason for his or her suicide. The meta-category how refers to the note-

writer’s method of suicide rather than his or her reasons for it. As a meta-category, event is a reference to

happenings in the past, present, or future while memory is a passage with phrases containing ‘do you

remember when…’ and those non-explicitly stated as remembrances. Event and memory are sometimes

difficult to distinguish from each other. Hence, Shapero (2011) identified these two categories as mutually

exclusive. On the other hand, humour as a meta-category refers to any attempt for humour, including jokes.

Imperatives, inventories, and statements containing clauses of command or request such as ‘will you

please…’, ‘please, will you…’, ‘look after…’, and ‘take care of…’ are referred as instruction. Finally, trivia

constitutes any considerable important details concerning various responsibilities of the note-writer like ‘Pay

my library fine of Php 35.00’.

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Methodology

This study is qualitative research employing forensic discourse analysis through the framework of

Shapero (2011) on meta-categories. As qualitative research, the study involved interpretative and

naturalistic approaches to the case of suicide notes in the Philippines. This means that the investigation of

the suicide corpora was done in their natural settings, attempting to sense or interpret phenomena in terms

of the meanings that writers bring to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). Particularly, through the lens of forensic

discourse analysis, the study uncovered and described the anatomical features of meta-categories in

suicide notes written in English and Filipino languages by Filipino suicide-completers.

Data Gathering of the Corpora of Suicide Notes

The corpora of suicide notes were collected from two sources: Philippine National Police and

newspapers across the Philippines that reported suicide acts and published verified suicide notes. The

corpora gathered from the Philippine National Police were physical notes recovered during the investigation

of verified deaths through suicide across the Philippines. Characteristically, these were tagged as evidence

of suicide and were identified as genuine suicide notes written by Filipino suicide-completers. On the other

hand, the suicide notes gathered from news articles comprised of suicide notes published in newspapers

with national and regional circulation in the Philippines. The gathering of corpora was a collaborative

endeavor with Simon (2015) who similarly compiled suicide notes published in newspapers. Comparably,

these suicide letters published in newspapers were marked and validated by Philippine National Police

(PNP) as genuine suicide notes left by Filipino suicide-completers.

In the raw collection of the suicide notes, the researcher observed the following selection and

inclusion criteria: (a) The note should be in complete physical text and primarily illustrated as a photograph

in the published news article. This measure was critically considered to ensure that the suicide notes were

free from distortions, modifications, and other typological errors. This was critical since this research aimed

to investigate Philippine suicide notes in their natural, original, and authentic form and setting; (b) The note

must be marked and stated explicitly as a genuine suicide note in the news article as verified by the police

authorities in the Philippines. This was an essential measure in the study since the investigation aims to

reveal and characterize meta-categories that hovered in genuine suicide notes; (c) The person who

committed the suicide and left the suicide note is a Filipino and this detail must be stated explicitly in the

news article. This measure ensured that the scope of the data was written exclusively by Filipino suicide-

completers before committing the act of suicide; (d) The language of the suicide note is either written in

English, Filipino, Cebuano, or a combination of two or all of the said languages. This measure ensured that

the meta-categories manifested in suicide notes are examined in the context of Philippine English, Filipino

or Cebuano languages; and (e) The newspapers that reported a case of suicide and published the suicide

notes were either nationally or regionally circulated. This measure helped the researcher narrow the

verifiable sources of suicide notes. Table 2 shows the corpora of the study in two categories.

Table 2. Corpora of the Study

Corpora Category

Number of Notes

Suicide Notes Written in English

29

Suicide Notes Written in Filipino/Cebuano

30

Total

59

Given the selection and inclusion criteria, only 59 suicide notes met the data collection measures

and served as the corpora and unit of analyses in this study. As illustrated in Table 2, 29 were written in the

English language, and 30 were written in the Filipino/Cebuano language. The notes were written by Filipino

male and female suicide completers aged 15 to 55 years old. The collected suicide letters were written from

the year 2000 to 2016.

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Data Preparation and Analysis

The preparation of suicide notes for analyses started with the establishment of a corpora coding

system. The corpora coding system was followed to establish a systematic order, reference, and validation

in analyzing and presenting the suicide notes. Since there were two corpora categories, the corpora coding

system was divided into two clusters, namely: SNE and SNF. SNE stands for Suicide Notes written in

English while SNF refers to Suicide Notes written in Filipino/Tagalog. The code No. 01 is the sequence

number of the individual suicide note in the corpora compilation. The M and F (Male and Female) represent

the codes for the gender of the note-writers. The digits after the code for gender (i.e., 38) illustrate the age

of the note-writer during the act of suicide. An example of a coded suicide note is SNE No. 01-F-38 where

No. 01 is note 1 in the corpora sequence of suicide notes written in the English language in which the note-

writer is a female aged 38 years old at the time of suicide.

Using the lens of forensic discourse analysis through Shapero’s framework, the researcher

identified, analyzed, and described the meta-categories prevalent and consistent in the suicide notes written

by Filipino suicide-completers. The examination of meta-categories in suicide notes in this study was limited

only to the sub-categories who, where, why, how, events, memories, humor, instructions, and trivia. With

this, the researcher followed a topical approach of analysis and review based on these nine sub-categories.

Hence, the analyses involved nine stages.

The results and findings of the analyses were subjected to the rigorous process of inter-coder reliability and

validity review. The inter-coders and reviewers consisted of two groups: forensic practitioners and faculty

experts in forensic linguistics. The forensic practitioners have backgrounds in document analysis and

criminology while the faculty reviewers have track records in conducting studies related to language and

law and have undergone a short course training on forensic linguistic analysis. The inter-coders were

briefed on Shapero’s Framework on Meta-Categories and were asked to independently and separately

code and review the researcher's raw and consolidated analyses and results. Another two faculty experts

in forensic linguistics were tapped to review the interpretation of the results and findings of the study. This

measure was done to assess and establish the soundness, trustworthiness, and validity of the results and

interpretations yielded in the analyses. Moreover, the researcher utilized the criteria of Lincoln and Guba

(1985) in the evaluation of the analyses.

Finally, the extraction of excerpts from the original corpora of suicide notes was reviewed and

validated for consistency, reliability, and truthfulness purposes. This move was carefully considered in this

study to avoid manipulation and ensure that the excerpts that illustrate or manifest each feature of meta-

categories are accurate and the same as the suicide-completers wrote them. The same faculty experts in

forensic linguistics reviewed the truthfulness and veracity of all suicide text excerpts presented and

illustrated in this study.

Ethical Considerations

Since the case of suicide corpora in the Philippines is extremely a sensitive subject, the names of

Filipino suicide-completers who wrote and left suicide notes were anonymized for privacy, professional, and

ethical considerations. The anonymization was done by assigning dummy names on the suicide notes that

reflect the actual names of the suicide-completers. The dummy names were indicated by the coding [name].

However, non-linguistic attributes such as age and gender were noted accordingly in the coding of the

corpora for text value and reference. Further, the dates indicated in the suicide notes were filtered during

coding and presentation since this detail may uncover and trace the anonymized names of the note-writers.

Results and Discussions

As examined based on its distinctive features and functions, meta-categories are recognized

through a larger vocabulary and over several sentences or paragraphs. They occurred at a relatively higher

level of discourse in the suicide notes, namely: who, where, why, how, event, memory, humour, instruction,

and trivia. Table 3 presents the summary of meta-categories with their corresponding corpora presence

and category frequency.

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Table 3. Meta-Categories in Philippine Suicide Notes

Category

Corpora

Presence

(n=59)

%

f

%

Sample Excerpts

Why

38/59

64.4

38

42.7

I feel certain that I am going

mad again;

Niloko niya ako mama kaya ko

nagawa ito.

Event

18/59

30.5

28

31.5

Pumunta ako sa inyo tapos

madadatnan ko na may

kasama kang iba,

Instruction

17/59

28.8

18

20.2

Please pray for me; Panoorin

na lang ninyo ang video sa

laptop.

Who

2/59

3.4

2

2.3

We spouses [Louie] and [Rose

Lim]; my name was [julie

loraine buena]

Humour

1/59

1.7

2

2.3

haha how messed up is that;

surprise mon and dad ive

known I was trans since i was

13

Memory

1/59

1.7

1

1.1

You remember when I returned

from the hospital I broke down.

Total

108

100

Table 3 presents the results of the analysis for the meta-categories. It shows that why is the most

manifested meta-category in Philippine suicide notes. It is found in 38 or 64.4% out of the 59 notes

investigated and has 38 or 42.7% category frequency. Event comes as second having found in 18 notes or

30.5% with 28 or 31.5% category frequency. As the third most manifested, instruction is illustrated in 17

notes or 28.8% with 18 or 20.2% category frequency. Who, as fourth, is explicated in two notes or 3.4%

with 2 or 2.3% category frequency while humor and memory were mentioned in one note or 1.7% with two

or 2.3% and one or 1.1% category frequency, respectively. Characteristically, the meta-categories how,

where, and trivia were not found in the Philippine suicide corpora during the analyses.

Meta-Category Why

As a meta-category, why refers to any reasons that a note-writer indicates for his or her suicide. It

can be in the form of small or large texts in a note that attempt to explain reasons for suicide explicitly or

implicitly. Reasons for suicide that are explicitly stated are easy to identify because of the high emotions

these statements embody while implicit reasons are quite challenging to identify. However, most of these

include statements or phrases like ‘I don’t know why I’m doing this’ (Shapero, 2011). Conversely, as to the

perception of suicide, common reasons that most suicide completers wrote in their notes are relationship

problems or failures, mental, psychological and physical health issues, work or business-related problems,

and others (McClelland, Reicher, & Booth, 2000; Shapero, 2011; Abaalkhail, 2015). Sample excerpts with

relationship problems as reasons for suicide are provided as follows:

SNE No. 14-F-21

My dearest [June]

It seems as if I have been spending all my life apologizing to you for things that happened

whether they were my fault or not......I don’t want you to think I would kill myself over you

because you’re not worth any emotion at all. It is what you cost me that hurts and nothing

can replace it.

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SNF No. 11-M-27

Hindi kita mapapatawad, dadalawin kita habambuhay [Maris]! Mag-aaply ako ng trabaho

para sayo, ano ginawa mo? Pumunta ako sa inyo tapos madadatnan ko na may kasama

kang iba......

Niloko niya ako mama kaya ko nagawa ito. Sory kuya, ate, apo at mga pamangkin

In SNE No. 14-F-21, the concluding statement ‘It is what you cost me that hurts and nothing can

replace it’ is a clear indication of a relationship issue, not to mention the context of the other previous

statements. Also, the statement conveys the severity of the relationship problem hinted at by the words

cost and hurt. Similarly, the case of SNF No. 11-M-27 shows cheating as the cause of the relationship

problem. The line ‘Niloko niya ako mama kaya ko nagawa ito’ (She cheated on me mama which resolved

me to do this) shows cheating as the explicit reason why the note-writer committed suicide.

Sample notes with suicide reasons related to mental, psychological, and physical health issues are provided

as follows:

SNE No. 01-M-44

[Mary Anne],

I feel certain that I am going mad again. I feel we can’t go through another of those terrible

times. And I shan’t recover this time. I begin to hear voices, and I can’t concentrate. So I

am doing what seems the best thing to do...

SNE No. 17-M-28

[Ivan], I am telling you that I committed suicide because I could no longer take the illness I

got from Iloilo City which could be transmitted thru blood contact.

SNE No. 22-M-24

It’s a crazy planets

SNE No. 01-M-44’s line ‘I feel certain that I am going mad again’ is an explicit manifestation of a

mental issue initiated as a reason for committing suicide. Hamilton (2012) purported that madness is one

of the most common health issues used as reasons by individuals who settled for suicide. In another view,

health issues linked to the physical aspect are exemplified in SNE No. 17-M-28. The note-writer in his

statement ‘I am telling you that I committed suicide because I could no longer take the illness I got from

Iloilo City which could be transmitted thru blood contact’ gives the addressee, [Ivan], the explicit information

why the note-writer decided to commit suicide. Meanwhile, the statement ‘It’s a crazy planets’ in SNE No.

22-M-24 illustrates a psychological health issue experienced by the note-writer. The phrase ‘crazy planets’

can be perceived as psychological forms of isolation, hopelessness, or perception of the world as cruel for

the note-writer.

Sample notes with work or business-related problems as reasons for suicide are provided as

follows:

SNE No. 06-M-44

To whom this may concern:

Due to financial difficulties encountered in the course of our business corporation over the

years, which resulted to heavy borrowing from loans, the high interest rates had made

impossible for us to survive. In view of this We spouses [Louie] and [Rose Lim], have

decided to leave this world and to bring along our 3 children ([Jimmy], [Jenny] and

[Jude])......

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SNE No. 11-M-53

I come to the end. I don't want my family to bear this problem. Being indicted for graft is

the worst thing for me. All I wanted was to have a clean, simple life...that's an example I

want to leave to my children......

In SNE No. 06-M-44, the note-writer explicates their financial difficulties in business as the reason

for the family’s suicide. Meanwhile, the statement ‘Being indicted for graft is the worst thing for me’ in SNE

No. 11-M-53 indicates work problems as the note-writer’s reason for suicide. In the excerpt, the word ‘graft’

tells readers that the note-writer is associated with government service and being indicted of it ascribes

dishonor, dishonesty, tainted credibility, and corruption in public service. By this interpretation, the note-

writer wanted to avoid these complications as marked by the word ‘worst’ which obligated him to view

suicide as the best way out.

The presence of why as a meta-category is given references in many previous studies dealing with

suicide notes. Capstick (1960) reported that more than 50% of his note-writers were inclined to explain why

they settled for suicide. Similarly, Darbonne (1969) reported a category for suicide reasons while Gregory

(1999) found the inclusion of reasons in the notes he investigated and posited that ‘detailed’ suicide reasons

are characteristics of genuine suicide notes. Moreover, McClelland, Reicher, and Booth (2000) propounded

that 104 of their 172 notes reflected reasons for suicide. Correspondingly, this study adds value to suicide

reasons as the most manifested linguistic category in the suicide notes investigated.

Meta-Category Event

Events are generally concerned with the note-writer’s past happenings but may also refer to present and

future references (Shapero, 2011). In this study, events usually recall past experiences and were closely

associated with the reasons that escalated the note-writer to decide for suicide. Sample excerpts of events

are as follows:

SNE No. 04-M-34

I made this biggest mistake of my life last week. I shouldn’t have submitted the affidavit. I

should have followed my heart. My mind was confused. I don’t want to live with the thought

that I turned my back on the people who trust me. By submitting that affidavit, I exposed

myself to going beyond the truth.

SNE No. 09-M-28

[Anita], I’m not sure why I’m writing this. I went online to look up information on suicide:

statistics, methods and all that stuff. I was raised in a family where I went to church every

Sunday and was taught the importance of faith and God in our lives. It doesn’t matter. It

doesn’t help me. I got hurt...bad...when I was a child. I was hurt in a way that no person,

no little child should be hurt......

SNF No. 10-M-26

Iniwan niya ako ng walang dahilan at natuklasan ko na mayroon na pala siyang ibang

minamahal. Well to all my friends and family, thank you for all the support and guidance,

I’m so sorry if I fail you guys for just a girl......

SNF No. 11-M-27

Hindi kita mapapatawad, dadalawin kita habambuhay [Maris]! Mag-aaply ako ng trabaho

para sayo, ano ginawa mo? Pumunta ako sa inyo tapos madadatnan ko na may kasama

kang iba......

In SNE No. 04-M-34, a reference to an event is found in the line ‘I made this biggest mistake of my

life last week’. Here, the word ‘made’ and the phrase ‘last week’ indicate a past happening described by

the note-writer as the biggest mistake of his life. Also, the concept of an event as a past happening is further

highlighted in the lines ‘I shouldn’t have submitted the affidavit’ and ‘I should have followed my heart’. These

lines expound the regret of the note-writer which is a circumstance of a past action related to work problems.

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Similarly, the case of SNE No. 09-M-28 shows a narrative of past experiences, specifically the note-

writer’s mental health struggle. Here, the statement ‘I got hurt…bad…when I was a child’ reveals a past

action associated with the note-writer’s current sufferings that eventually led to suicide. Henceforth, events

are interpreted as escalated justifications why a note-writer resolved for suicide.

In another case, the line ‘Iniwan niya ako ng walang dahilan at natuklasan ko na mayroon na pala

siyang ibang minamahal’ in SNF No. 10-M-26 indicates an event that is linked to a relationship failure. In

this excerpt, the note-writer revealed that his girlfriend dumped him without reason and eventually found

out she was already with someone else. This is also the case of SNF No. 11-M-27 wherein the note-writer

associated his event to relationship failure through the lines ‘Mag-aaply ako ng trabaho para sayo, ano

ginawa mo?’ and ‘Pumunta ako sa inyo tapos madadatnan ko na may kasama kang iba’ which are

interpreted as ‘I am going to apply for job for you, but what did you do?’ and ‘I went to your place then only

to find out that you were with someone else’, respectively.

Events, as a meta-category, were also given attention in the study of Osgood and Walker (1959)

who described it as a ‘time’ category. Likewise, McClelland, Reicher, and Booth (2000) found ten percent

of event forms while investigating self-blame mitigations. Shapero (2011) similarly reported that over 54%

of the genuine suicide he analyzed reflected events in his meta-category scheme. It is noteworthy to

mention that Shapero’s meta-category scheme was the framework utilized in this study.

Meta-Category Instruction

Instructions are imperatives, inventories, statements, and clauses containing requests such as ‘will

you please...’, ‘please will you...’, ‘look after...’, and ‘take care of [name]’ (Shapero, 2011). For this study,

reminders of care are also included as instructions. Characteristically, instructions in suicide notes are

viewed as the note-writer’s positive self-presentations and mitigating measures for the eventual pain being

caused. Forms of this feature are usually taken as funeral arrangements, assigning responsibility or care,

requests for prayers, relaying messages of appreciation, care reminders, and others. Sample excerpts of

instructions are as follows:

SNE No. 16-F-25

To all my cousins relatives and friends, death is not the end but it is the beginning of a new

life...I’ll just go ahead of you. Please come to my burol. Please pray for my soul. [Lyn]

SNE No. 19-M-33

I’m sorry but this is my final option. Always remember that I am always at your side. I love

you so much.

SNF No. 13-M-33

Gang mahal na mahal kita, alagaan mo si [Maria], kahit kailan ikaw lang ang minahal ko

kaya lang hindi mo ko pinagbigyan, sawa na ako mag-isang matulog, sobrang lungkot ko.

SNF No. 15-M-21

Ma, ate, [Alyn], ikakabigla ninyo ito. Hindi ko na kaya. Panoorin na lang ninyo ang video

sa laptop. Sorry...I love you, [Alyn]. [Tom].

The lines ‘Please come to my burol (wake)’ and ‘Please pray for my soul’ in SNE No. 16-F-25

constitute a funeral instruction and a prayer request whereas a reminder of care is conceived as instruction

in SNE No. 19-M-33. Also, the line ‘alagaan mo si [Maria]’ (take care of [Maria]) assigns responsibility to

the addressee of SNF No. 13-M-33. Lastly, SNF No. 15-M-21’s‘Panoorin na lang ninyo ang video sa laptop’

line translated as ‘Just watch the video in the laptop’, shows an instruction of what to do once the suicide

is discovered.

Many early studies found locations of instruction in suicide notes. First to report it is Shneidman

and Farberow (1957) who posited instruction as a definite characteristic of genuine suicide notes. Capstick

(1960) found 30 instruction mentions in the 136 suicide notes he examined. Also, Ogilvie, Stone, and

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Shneidman (1966) reported specific instruction as typical to female note-writers while Jacobs (1967)

included instructions to his six categories of suicide notes. Darbonne (1969) postulated that instructions are

common to notes written by individuals aged between 50 to 59 years old at their death. Furthermore, the

studies of Edelman and Renshaw (1982), Arbeit and Blatt (1973), Lester and Leenaars (1988), and

O’Donnell, Farmer, and Catalan (1993) found out that instructions are common in genuine suicide notes. It

was similarly confirmed by Black (1993) and Gregory (1999). Additionally, there were references of

instruction in the study Etkind (1997) who labeled instructions as ‘mundane’. In most recent studies,

McClelland, Reicher, and Booth (2000) found 50 representations of instruction in their investigation while

Salib and Maximous (2002) and Salib, Cawley, and Healy (2002) reported that 17% of their notes were

much concerned in giving instructions.

Meta-Category Who

Who is simply any occurrence of the note-writer stating who he or she is. This meta-category is

easy to identify because of its high explicitness in suicide notes. However, names or roles appended as

signatures are not included in this meta-category since signature names are generally part of the move

structure, another linguistic feature in suicides notes. Specific to who as meta-category are statements that

note-writers used to introduce themselves in their notes such as My name is…, I am…, and other self-

introductory statements. Sample excerpts that show who as meta-category are as follows:

SNE No. 06-M-44

To whom this may concern:

...the high-interest rates had made impossible for us to survive. In view of this We spouses

[Louie] and [Rose Lim], have decided to leave this world and to bring along our 3 children

([Jimmy], [Jenny] and [Jude]) as we believe that they will more comfortable leaving with us

than to be left behind......

SNE No. 29-F-15

…my name was [julie loraine buena] and my gender neutral name was lee. i was 15,

assigned female at birth, and i dentified as nonbinary (surprise mon and dad ive known I

was trans since i was 13)......

The excerpts presented are notes that indicate note-writer’s statements of who they are. The line

‘We spouses [Louie] and [Rose Lim]’ in SNE No. 06-M-44 gives explicit information on the names of the

suicide-completers. Further, in its distinct characteristic, SNE No. 06-M-44 presents a mutually written note

by two individuals as directed by the words ‘we’ and ‘spouses’. By this, it is interpreted that the decision to

commit suicide gained consensus between the spouses as the note reflected their names. On another view,

SNE No. 29-F-15’s ‘my name was [julie loraine buena]’ line explicitly details who is the note-writer. By

highlighting the word was as the past tense of is, it can be construed that the note-writer was already

assuming her death when writing the note with her complete name.

The low statistics manifested by the meta-category who in this study is aligned to the findings of Shapero

(2011) who similarly established it as one of the least manifested items in his meta-category scheme.

Meta-Category Humour

Shapero (2011) described humour as any attempt to evoke laughter or jokes in a suicide note. This

also includes expressions such as ‘hahaha’, ‘surprise’, ‘gotcha’, and the like. In this study, the concept of

humour, although rare in the suicide notes, is found to project the intention of the note-writer to avoid

sympathy or pity and even to appear the act of suicide being committed as less serious. Below is a sample

note that attempted to display humour:

SNE No. 29-F-15

okay. this post isnt about my reasoning for taking my life and all its –potential-- im letting

my reasons die with me, cause im afraid of being judged for them haha how messed up is

that. this is all being typed just for the sake of it......

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...my name was [julie loraine buena] and my gender neutral name was lee. i was 15,

assigned female at birth, and i dentified as nonbinary (surprise mon and dad ive known I

was trans since i was 13). panromantic, demisexual, as of this moment, so yes dad i made

out with a girl......

Rather than listing her reasons for suicide, the note-writer in SNE No. 29-F-15 invoked humour

through the line ‘haha how messed up is that’ which can be viewed as her way of avoiding judgment for

committing suicide. The word ‘surprise’ in the line ‘surprise mon (mom) and dad ive known I was trans since

i was 13’ allowed the note-writer to convey a serious identity admission in a quip manner. By this, humour

can be construed as a façade for self-mitigating measures expressed by a note-writer to make a concept

or emotion appear less serious.

The minimal presence of humour in the suicide corpora investigated is consistent with the findings of

Jacobs (1967) who only found four reflections of humour out of the 112 notes he investigated. Similarly,

O’Donnell, Farmer, and Catalan (1993) described one humour occurrence in their 37 suicide notes. In a

more recent investigation, Shapero (2011) reported that at least nine percent of the genuine suicide notes

he investigated manifested incidences of humour.

Meta-Category Memory

With only one occurrence in the current corpora, memory shares similar concepts with events; however, it

is limited only to expressions containing ‘do you remember...’, ‘do you remember when’, and ‘you remember

the time...’ (Shapero, 2011). In this study, memory is related to escalated justifications imposed by note-

writers in their suicide note. Hence, this meta-category is seen to share mutually exclusive characteristics

with event. A sample note that manifested memory is presented as follows:

SNE No. 12-M-52

Dear [Marie],

For 23 years we lived happy together. Our married life was ideal, until two years ago when

I witnessed [June] die in the hospital something snapped in me. You remember when I

returned from the hospital I broke down. That was the beginning of my illness. Since then

my condition was getting progressively worse, I could neither work or think logically......

The line ‘You remember when I returned from the hospital I broke down’ shows a part of the

narrative that propounded the justification of the note-writer for committing suicide. Overtly, the phrase ‘you

remember when’ highlights the concept of memory as a meta-category that is expectedly associated with

recalling experiences. As the primary framework of this investigation, the study of Shapero (2011) reported

15% of memory occurrence in the genuine suicide notes he analyzed. This figure is seen approximately

14% less in the current suicide corpora investigated.

Finally, this study yielded no findings on the meta-categories how, where, and trivia since none of

the Filipino note-writers categorically mentioned or gave details on the methods (i.e., shooting, hanging)

they have used for suicide and their location where they performed the suicide act. Further, there are no

mentions of responsibilities that can stand as trivia as most note-writers settled to leave more instructions

related to their funeral, things, and other non-trivial requests. Overtly, the non-presence of how, trivia, and

where is associated with the sensitivity and privacy concerns that these meta-categories may indicate in

suicide notes. By this, Filipino note-writers are viewed to conceal these details as they see these as too

critical and private to be disclosed in their suicide notes.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Filipino suicide completers wrote their suicide notes with reasons or justifications for committing

suicide, recall of events and memories, and instructions to people. As far meta-categories are concerned,

the primary meta-categorical function of a suicide note in the Philippines is to provide reasons for suicide.

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The examination of meta-categories in this study can give valuable insights in establishing the

genuineness of a disputed suicide note in the Philippines' current practice of fraud analysis. This may also

generate alternative paradigms of characterizing the conventional and unconventional patterns of suicide

notes as far as meta-categories in linguistic features are concerned. Finally, future endeavors on suicide

may embark on larger Filipino suicide corpora for a broader scope and interpretation of meta-categories,

characterize the language of gender in terms of meta-categories in suicide notes, typify the characteristics

of meta-categories between English and Filipino-written suicide notes, and distinguish the similarities and

differences of meta-categories in suicide notes written by suicide-completers and attempters in the

Philippines.

Finally, some limitations are essential to be accounted for in this study. The first limitation is related

to the corpora examined in this study. The 59 suicide notes investigated may be small. As a consequence,

the findings of this study may not be entirely generalizable to describe the phenomenon of meta-categories

present in Philippine suicide notes. However, the results and findings suggest patterns and means of

investigating meta-categories in suicide notes through the lens of linguistic methodologies. With this, future

studies on the same niche may include a broader scope of suicide notes from multiple sources and diverse

groups of Filipino suicide-completers. Meanwhile, the second limitation is accounted to the framework of

analysis employed in this study. Shapero’s (2011) Framework for Meta-Categories may be limited in terms

of identifying, capturing, and describing other unique and distinct features that hovered in Philippine suicide

notes. Nevertheless, the findings and interpretations yielded are good starting points to explain the

occurrence of meta-categories in genuine suicide notes for this pilot forensic discourse-based study in the

Philippines.

Acknowledgement

This paper is a component of the research project entitled ‘Forensic Discourse Analysis on Suicide Notes’

funded by the Philippine Commission on Higher Education under its K12 Transition Program Scholarship

for Graduate Studies – Local’s Dissertation and Thesis Grant.

About the Author

Leo D. Rayon, Jr. is currently a Fulbright-FLTA Fellow and Visiting Faculty at the Department of Modern

Languages and Literature, Gonzaga University in Spokane, Washington, U.S.A. He is also an Assistant

Professor of English and Linguistics at the Department of English, Institute of Teacher Education, Davao

del Norte State College in Panabo City, Davao del Norte, Philippines. He has a Ph.D. from the University

of Southeastern Philippines in Davao City, Philippines. His interests are qualitative researches in forensic

linguistics, applied second language studies, sociolinguistics, and critical race, gender, and ethnic studies.

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