The concept of toxic masculinity is used in psychology and gender studies to refer to certain norms of masculine behavior in North America and Europe that are associated with harm to society and to men themselves. Traditional stereotypes of men as socially dominant, along with related traits such as misogyny and homophobia, can be considered "toxic" due in part to their promotion of violence, including sexual assault and domestic violence. The socialization of boys often normalizes violence, such as in the saying "boys will be boys" with regard to bullying and aggression.

Self-reliance and emotional repression are correlated with increased psychological problems in men such as depression, increased stress, and substance abuse. Toxic masculine traits are characteristic of the unspoken code of behavior among men in American prisons, where they exist in part as a response to the harsh conditions of prison life.

Other traditionally masculine traits such as devotion to work, pride in excelling at sports, and providing for one's family, are not considered to be "toxic". The concept was originally used by authors associated with the mythopoetic men's movement such as Shepherd Bliss to contrast stereotypical notions of masculinity with a "real" or "deep" masculinity that they say men have lost touch with in modern society.

Overview

In psychology, toxic masculinity refers to traditional cultural masculine norms that can be harmful to men, women, and society overall; this concept of toxic masculinity is not intended to demonize men or male attributes, but rather to emphasize the harmful effects of conformity to certain traditional masculine ideal behaviors such as dominance, self-reliance, and competition.^[3][4] Toxic masculinity is thus defined by adherence to traditional male gender roles that restrict the kinds of emotions allowable for boys and men to express, including social expectations that men seek to be dominant (the "alpha male") and limit their emotional range primarily to expressions of anger.^[5] Some traditionally prescribed masculine behaviors can produce such harmful effects as violence (including sexual assault and domestic violence), promiscuity, risky and/or socially irresponsible behaviors including substance abuse, and dysfunction in relationships.^[1][6]

In a gender studies context, Raewyn Connell argues that toxic practices such as physical violence may serve to reinforce men's dominance over women in Western societies. She argues that such practices are a salient feature of what she terms hegemonic masculinity, although not always the defining features.^[7] Terry Kupers of The Wright Institute school of psychology defines toxic masculinity as "the constellation of socially regressive male traits that serve to foster domination, the devaluation of women, homophobia and wanton violence".^[8][9] According to Kupers, toxic masculinity serves to outline aspects of hegemonic masculinity that are socially destructive, "such as misogyny, homophobia, greed, and violent domination". These traits are contrasted with more positive aspects of hegemonic masculinity such as "pride in [one's] ability to win at sports, to maintain solidarity with a friend, to succeed at work, or to provide for [one's] family".^[8] Feminist author John Stoltenberg, however, has argued that all traditional notions of masculinity are toxic and ultimately reinforce the oppression of women.^[10]

Toxic masculine norms are a feature of life for men in American prisons, where they are reflected in the behavior of both staff and inmates. The qualities of extreme self-reliance, domination of other men through violence, and avoiding the appearance of either femininity or weakness, comprise an unspoken code among prisoners.^[11][12] Suppressing vulnerable emotions is often adopted in order to successfully cope with the harsh conditions of prison life, defined by punishment, social isolation, and aggression. These factors likely play a role in suicide among male prisoners.^[11][13]

Bullying of boys by their peers and domestic violence experienced by boys at home can also be expressions of toxic masculinity.^[14] The often violent socialization of boys produces psychological trauma through the promotion of aggression and lack of interpersonal connection. Such trauma is often disregarded, such as in the saying "boys will be boys" with regard to bullying.^[15] The promotion of idealized masculine roles emphasizing toughness, dominance, self-reliance, and the restriction of emotion can begin as early as infancy. Such norms are transmitted by parents, other male relatives, and members of the community.^[1][16] Media representations of masculinity on websites such as YouTube often promote similar stereotypical gender roles.^[16]

Health effects

Men who adhere to traditionally masculine cultural norms, such as risk-taking, violence, dominance, primacy of work, need for emotional control, desire to win, and pursuit of social status, tend to be more likely to experience psychological problems such as depression, stress, body image problems, substance abuse, and poor social functioning.^[17] The effect tends to be stronger in men who also emphasize "toxic" masculine norms, such as self-reliance, seeking power over women, and sexual promiscuity or "playboy"^{[clarification needed]} behavior.^[4][18]

The social value of self-reliance has diminished over time as modern American society has moved more toward interdependence.^[16] Both self-reliance and the stifling of emotional expression can work against mental health, as they make it less likely for men to seek psychological help or to possess the ability to deal with difficult emotions.^[16] Preliminary research suggests that cultural pressure for men to be stoic and self-reliant may also shorten men's lifespans by causing them to be less likely to discuss health problems with their physicians.^[19][20]

Toxic masculinity is also implicated in socially-created public health problems, such as elevated rates of skin cancer among men,^{[21][verification needed]} and the role of “trophy-hunting” sexual behavior in rates of transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections.^{[22][non-primary source needed]}

Psychiatrist Frank Pittman wrote about the ways in which men are harmed by traditional masculine norms, suggesting this includes shorter lifespans, greater incidence of violent death, and ailments such as lung cancer and cirrhosis of the liver.^[23]

Men's movements

Some authors associated with the mythopoetic men's movement have referred to the social pressures placed upon men to be violent, competitive, independent, and unfeeling as a "toxic" form of masculinity, in contrast to a "real" or "deep" masculinity that they say men have lost touch with in modern society.^[24][25] The academic Shepherd Bliss proposed a return to agrarianism as an alternative to the "potentially toxic masculinity" of the warrior ethic.^[26] Sociologist Michael Kimmel writes that Bliss's notion of toxic masculinity can be seen as part of the mythopoetic movement's response to male feelings of powerlessness at a time when the feminist movement was challenging traditional male authority:

Thus Shepherd Bliss, for example, rails against what he calls 'toxic masculinity'—which he believes is responsible for most of the evil in the world—and proclaims the unheralded goodness of the men who fight the fires and till the soil and nurture their families.^[27]

See also

• Machismo
• Male privilege
• Patriarchy
• Sexism

References

Further reading

Academic sources

• Addis, Michael E.; Cohane, Geoffrey H. (June 2005). "Social scientific paradigms of masculinity and their implications for research and practice in men's mental health" (PDF). Journal of Clinical Psychology. 61 (6): 633–647. doi:10.1002/jclp.20099.
• Banet-Weiser, Sarah; Miltner, Kate M. (December 2015). "#MasculinitySoFragile: culture, structure, and networked misogyny". Feminist Media Studies. 16 (1): 171–174. doi:10.1080/14680777.2016.1120490.
• Bliss, Shepherd (1995). "Mythopoetic Men's Movements". In Kimmel, Michael S. (ed.). The Politics of Manhood: Profeminist Men Respond to the Mythopoetic Men's Movement (And the Mythopoetic Leaders Answer). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 292–307. ISBN 978-1-56-639365-2. JSTOR j.ctt14bswd0. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
• Connell, R.W. (2005). Masculinities (2nd ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-74-563426-5.
• Karner, Tracy (January 1996). "Fathers, Sons, and Vietnam: Masculinity and Betrayal in the Life Narratives of Vietnam Veterans with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder" (PDF). American Studies. 37 (1): 63–94. JSTOR 40642783.

Popular press

• Campbell, Olivia (23 October 2017). "The Men Taking Classes to Unlearn Toxic Masculinity". The Cut.
• Hamblin, James (16 June 2016). "Toxic Masculinity and Murder". The Atlantic.
• Hays, Charlotte (27 February 2018). "Jordan Peterson on the Nihilism that Contributes to the Creation of a School Shooter". Independent Women's Forum.
• Holloway, Kali (12 June 2015). "Toxic masculinity is killing men: The roots of male trauma". Salon.
• Marcotte, Amanda (13 July 2016). "Overcompensation Nation: It's time to admit that toxic masculinity drives gun violence". Salon.
• Masciotra, David (4 July 2016). "Toxic masculinity doesn't just target women: The viciousness and vacuity of modern American manhood is also harmful to the self". Salon.
• Salter, Michael (27 February 2019). "The Problem With a Fight Against Toxic Masculinity". The Atlantic.
• Weiss, Suzannah (23 February 2016). "6 Harmful Effects Of Toxic Masculinity". Bustle.
• Winton, Tim (9 April 2018). "About the boys: Tim Winton on how toxic masculinity is shackling men to misogyny". The Guardian.