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Stephen William Hawking
Stephen Hawking at NASA
Born
Stephen William Hawking

(1942-01-08) 8 January 1942 (age 82)
Oxford, England, United Kingdom
NationalityBritish
Alma materUniversity of Oxford
University of Cambridge
Known forBlack holes
Theoretical cosmology
Quantum gravity
AwardsPrince of Asturias Award (1989)
Copley Medal (2006)
Presidential Medal of Freedom (2009)
Scientific career
FieldsApplied mathematician
Theoretical physicist
InstitutionsUniversity of Cambridge
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
Doctoral advisorDennis Sciama
Other academic advisorsRobert Berman
Doctoral studentsBruce Allen
Raphael Bousso
Fay Dowker
Malcolm Perry
Bernard Carr
Gary Gibbons
Harvey Reall
Don Page
Tim Prestidge
Raymond Laflamme
Julian Luttrell
Signature
File:Stephen Hawking Signature.svg

Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA (born 8 January 1942[1]) is a British theoretical physicist, whose world-renowned scientific career spans over 40 years. His books and public appearances have made him an academic celebrity and he is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts,[2] a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences,[3] and in 2009 was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States.[4]

Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge for thirty years, taking up the post in 1979 and retiring on 1 October 2009.[5][6] He is also a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge and a Distinguished Research Chair at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Waterloo, Ontario.[7] He is known for his contributions to the fields of cosmology and quantum gravity, especially in the context of black holes. He has also achieved success with works of popular science in which he discusses his own theories and cosmology in general; these include the runaway best seller A Brief History of Time, which stayed on the British Sunday Times bestsellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.[8][9]

Hawking's key scientific works to date have included providing, with Roger Penrose, theorems regarding singularities in the framework of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction that black holes should emit radiation, which is today known as Hawking radiation (or sometimes as Bekenstein-Hawking radiation).[10]

Hawking has a neuro-muscular dystrophy that is related to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a condition that has progressed over the years and has left him almost completely paralysed.

Early life and education

Stephen Hawking was born to Dr. Frank Hawking, a research biologist, and Isobel Hawking. He had two younger sisters, Philippa and Mary and an adopted brother, Edward.[11] Though Hawking's parents were living in North London, they moved to Oxford while his mother was pregnant with Stephen, desiring a safer location for the birth of their first child (London was under attack at the time by the Luftwaffe).[12] According to Hawking, a German V-2 missile struck only a few streets away.[13]

After Hawking was born, the family moved back to London, where his father headed the division of parasitology at the National Institute for Medical Research.[11] In 1950, Hawking and his family moved to St Albans in Hertfordshire where he attended St Albans High School for Girls from 1950 to 1953. (At that time, boys could attend the Girls school until the age of 10.[14]) From the age of 11, he attended St Albans School, where he was a good, but not exceptional, student.[11] When asked later to name a teacher who had inspired him, Hawking named his Mathematics teacher, Dikran Tahta.[15] He maintains his connection with the school, giving his name to one of the four houses and to an extracurricular science lecture series. He has visited to deliver one of the lectures and has also granted a lengthy interview to pupils working on the school magazine, The Albanian.

Hawking was always interested in science.[11] Inspired by his mathematics teacher, he originally wanted to study the subject at university. However, Hawking's father wanted him to apply to University College, Oxford, where his father had attended. As University College did not have a mathematics fellow at that time, it would not accept applications from students who wished to read that discipline. Hawking therefore applied to read natural sciences, in which he gained a scholarship. Once at University College, Hawking specialised in physics.[12] His interests during this time were in thermodynamics, relativity, and quantum mechanics. His physics tutor, Robert Berman, later said in The New York Times Magazine:

It was only necessary for him to know that something could be done, and he could do it without looking to see how other people did it. [...] He didn't have very many books, and he didn't take notes. Of course, his mind was completely different from all of his contemporaries.[11]

Hawking was passing, but his unimpressive study habits resulted in a final examination score on the borderline between first and second class honours, making an "oral examination" necessary. Berman said of the oral examination:

And of course the examiners then were intelligent enough to realize they were talking to someone far more clever than most of themselves.[11]

After receiving his B.A. degree at Oxford University in 1962, he stayed to study astronomy. He decided to leave when he found that studying sunspots, which was all the observatory was equipped for, did not appeal to him and that he was more interested in theory than in observation.[11] He left Oxford for Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he engaged in the study of theoretical astronomy and cosmology.

Career in theoretical physics

Almost as soon as he arrived at Cambridge, he started developing symptoms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (known colloquially in the USA as Lou Gehrig's disease), a type of motor neuron disease which would cost him almost all neuromuscular control. During his first two years at Cambridge, he did not distinguish himself, but, after the disease had stabilised and with the help of his doctoral tutor, Dennis William Sciama, he returned to working on his Ph.D.[11]

Hawking was elected as one of the youngest Fellows of the Royal Society in 1974, was created a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1982, and became a Companion of Honour in 1989. Hawking is a member of the Board of Sponsors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.

Hawking's achievements were made despite the increasing paralysis caused by the ALS. By 1974, he was unable to feed himself or get out of bed. His speech became slurred so that he could only be understood by people who knew him well. In 1985, he caught pneumonia and had to have a tracheotomy, which made him unable to speak at all. A Cambridge scientist built a device that enables Hawking to write onto a computer with small movements of his body, and then have a voice synthesizer speak what he has typed.[16]

Research fields

Hawking's principal fields of research are theoretical cosmology and quantum gravity.

Professor Stephen Hawking in Cambridge.

In the late 1960s, he and his Cambridge friend and colleague, Roger Penrose, applied a new, complex mathematical model they had created from Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity.[17] This led, in 1970, to Hawking proving the first of many singularity theorems; such theorems provide a set of sufficient conditions for the existence of a singularity in space-time. This work showed that, far from being mathematical curiosities which appear only in special cases, singularities are a fairly generic feature of general relativity.[18]

He supplied a mathematical proof, along with Brandon Carter, Werner Israel and D. Robinson, of John Wheeler's "No-Hair Theorem" – namely, that any black hole is fully described by the three properties of mass, angular momentum, and electric charge.

Hawking also suggested that, upon analysis of gamma ray emissions, after the Big Bang, primordial mini black holes were formed. With Bardeen and Carter, he proposed the four laws of black hole mechanics, drawing an analogy with thermodynamics. In 1974, he calculated that black holes should thermally create and emit subatomic particles, known today as Hawking radiation, until they exhaust their energy and evaporate.[19]

In collaboration with Jim Hartle, Hawking developed a model in which the universe had no boundary in space-time, replacing the initial singularity of the classical Big Bang models with a region akin to the North Pole: one cannot travel north of the North Pole, as there is no boundary. While originally the no-boundary proposal predicted a closed universe, discussions with Neil Turok led to the realisation that the no-boundary proposal is also consistent with a universe which is not closed.

Hawking's many other scientific investigations have included the study of quantum cosmology, cosmic inflation, helium production in anisotropic Big Bang universes, large N cosmology, the density matrix of the universe, topology and structure of the universe, baby universes, Yang-Mills instantons and the S matrix, anti de Sitter space, quantum entanglement and entropy, the nature of space and time, including the arrow of time, spacetime foam, string theory, supergravity, Euclidean quantum gravity, the gravitational Hamiltonian, Brans-Dicke and Hoyle-Narlikar theories of gravitation, gravitational radiation, and wormholes.

At a George Washington University lecture in honour of NASA's 50th anniversary, Professor Hawking theorised on the existence of extraterrestrial life, believing that "primitive life is very common and intelligent life is fairly rare."[20]

Losing an old bet

Main article: Thorne–Hawking–Preskill bet
U.S. President Barack Obama talks with Stephen Hawking in the Blue Room of the White House before a ceremony presenting him and 15 others the Presidential Medal of Freedom on Aug. 12, 2009. The Medal of Freedom is the nation's highest civilian honour.

Hawking was in the news in July 2004 for presenting a new theory about black holes which goes against his own long-held belief about their behaviour, thus losing a bet he made with Kip Thorne and John Preskill of Caltech. Classically, it can be shown that information crossing the event horizon of a black hole is lost to our universe, and that thus all black holes are identical beyond their mass, electrical charge and angular velocity (the "no hair theorem"). The problem with this theorem is that it implies the black hole will emit the same radiation regardless of what goes into it, and as a consequence that if a pure quantum state is thrown into a black hole, an "ordinary" mixed state will be returned. This runs counter to the rules of quantum mechanics and is known as the black hole information paradox.

Mankind's future in space

At the 50th Anniversary of NASA in 2008, Hawking gave a keynote speech on the final frontier exhorting and inspiring the space technology community on why we (the human race) explore space.[21]

At the celebration of his 65th birthday on 8 January, 2007, Hawking announced his plan to take a zero-gravity flight in 2007 to prepare for a sub-orbital spaceflight in 2009 on Virgin Galactic's space service. Billionaire Richard Branson pledged to pay all expenses for the latter, costing an estimated £100,000.[22] Stephen Hawking's zero-gravity flight in a "Vomit Comet" of Zero Gravity Corporation, during which he experienced weightlessness eight times, took place on 26 April 2007.[23] He became the first quadriplegic to float in zero-gravity. This was the first time in 40 years that he moved freely, without his wheelchair. The fee is normally US$3,750 for 10–15 plunges, but Hawking was not required to pay the fee. A bit of a futurist,[24] Hawking was quoted before the flight saying:

Many people have asked me why I am taking this flight. I am doing it for many reasons. First of all, I believe that life on Earth is at an ever-increasing risk of being wiped out by a disaster such as sudden nuclear war, a genetically engineered virus, or other dangers. I think the human race has no future if it doesn't go into space. I therefore want to encourage public interest in space.[25]

In an interview with The Daily Telegraph, he suggested that space was the Earth's long term hope.[26] He continued this theme at a 2008 Charlie Rose interview.[27]

Illness

Hawking on 5 May 2006, during the press conference at the Bibliothèque nationale de France to inaugurate the Laboratory of Astronomy and Particles in Paris and the French release of his work God Created the Integers.

Stephen Hawking is severely disabled by motor neuron disease, likely a variant of the disease known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (or ALS). Most neuromuscular specialists believe he has spinal muscular atrophy type IV. Hawking's illness is markedly different from typical ALS in the fact that his form of ALS would make for the most protracted case ever documented. A survival for more than 10 years after diagnosis is uncommon for ALS; the longest documented durations are 32 and 39 years and these cases were termed benign because of the lack of the typical progressive course.[28]

When he was young, he enjoyed riding horses and playing with other children. At Oxford, he coxed a rowing team, which, he stated, helped relieve his immense boredom at the university. Symptoms of the disorder first appeared while he was enrolled at Cambridge; he lost his balance and fell down a flight of stairs, hitting his head. Worried that he would lose his genius, he took the Mensa test to verify that his intellectual abilities were intact.[29] The diagnosis of motor neuron disease came when Hawking was 21, shortly before his first marriage, and doctors said he would not survive more than two or three years. Hawking gradually lost the use of his arms, legs, and voice, and as of 2009 has been almost completely paralysed.

During a visit to the research centre CERN in Geneva in 1985, Hawking contracted pneumonia, which in his condition was life-threatening as it further restricted his already limited respiratory capacity. He had an emergency tracheotomy, and as a result lost what remained of his ability to speak. He has since used an electronic voice synthesizer to communicate.

The DECtalk DTC01 voice synthesizer he uses, which has an American accent, is no longer being produced. Asked why he has still kept it after so many years, Hawking mentioned that he has not heard a voice he likes better and that he identifies with it. Hawking is said to be looking for a replacement since, aside from being obsolete, the synthesizer is both large and fragile by current standards. As of mid 2009, he was said to be using NeoSpeech's VoiceText speech synthesizer.[30]

In Hawking's many media appearances, he appears to speak fluently through his synthesizer, but in reality, it is a tedious drawn-out process. Hawking's setup uses a predictive text entry system, which requires only the first few characters in order to auto-complete the word, but as he is only able to use his cheek for data entry, constructing complete sentences takes time. His speeches are prepared in advance, but having a live conversation with him provides insight as to the complexity and work involved. During a Technology, Entertainment, & Design Conference talk, it took him seven minutes to answer a question.[31]

He describes himself as lucky despite his disease. Its slow progression has allowed him time to make influential discoveries and has not hindered him from having, in his own words, "a very attractive family."[32] When his wife, Jane, was asked why she decided to marry a man with a three-year life expectancy, she responded, "Those were the days of atomic gloom and doom, so we all had a rather short life expectancy."

On 20 April 2009, Cambridge University released a statement saying that Hawking was "very ill" with a chest infection, and was admitted to Addenbrooke's Hospital.[33][34] The following day, it was reported that his new condition is "comfortable" and he should make a full recovery from the infection.[35]

In 2009, Investor's Business Daily (IBD) claimed in an editorial,[36] "People such as scientist Stephen Hawking wouldn't have a chance in the UK, where the National Health Service would say the life of this brilliant man, because of his physical handicaps, is essentially worthless." This caused widespread criticism, as Hawking has in fact lived and worked in the UK his entire life and has relied extensively on NHS treatments.[37] Hawking personally replied that, "I wouldn't be here today if it were not for the NHS," he said. "I have received a large amount of high-quality treatment without which I would not have survived."[38] Eventually, IBD issued a correction,[39] but continued to defend the original editorial, calling the mention of Hawking a "bad example" and accusing those that mentioned their error of "chang[ing] the subject."[40]

As popular science advocate

Main article: Stephen Hawking in popular culture

Hawking has played as himself on many television shows and has been portrayed in many more. He has played himself on a Red Dwarf anniversary special, played a hologram of himself on the episode "Descent" of Star Trek: The Next Generation, appeared in a skit on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and appeared on the Discovery Channel special Alien Planet.[41] He has also played himself in several episodes of The Simpsons and Futurama. When he was portrayed on episodes of Family Guy, the voice was actually done by a speech synthesizer on a Macintosh computer, according to DVD Commentary. He has also appeared in an episode of the Dilbert cartoon. His actual synthesizer voice was used on parts of the Pink Floyd song "Keep Talking" from the 1994 album The Division Bell, as well as on Turbonegro's "Intro: The Party Zone" on their 2005 album Party Animals, Wolfsheim's "Kein Zurück (Oliver Pinelli Mix)". As well as being fictionalised as nerdcore hip hop artist MC Hawking, he was impersonated in duet with Richard Cheese on a cover of "The Girl Is Mine". In 2008, Hawking was the subject of and featured in the documentary series Stephen Hawking, Master of the Universe for Channel 4. He was also portrayed in the movie "Superhero Movie" by Robert Joy. In the TV series Dark Angel Logan's technology savvy colleague Sebastian is characterized with many similarities to the actual physicist. In September 2008, Hawking presided over the unveiling of the 'Chronophage' Corpus Clock (time eating) clock at Corpus Christi College Cambridge.[42]

Religious views

Hawking takes an agnostic position on matters of religion.[43][44] while Fritz Schaefer categorised Hawkings beliefs as either "agnostic or deist," stating that, "He is an agnostic or deist or something more along those lines. He's certainly not an atheist and not even very sympathetic to atheism." [45] He has repeatedly used the word 'God' (in metaphorical meanings)[46] to illustrate points made in his books and public speeches. His ex-wife Jane however said he was an atheist during their divorce proceedings,[47][48] Hawking has stated that he is "not religious in the normal sense" and he believes that "the universe is governed by the laws of science. The laws may have been decreed by God, but God does not intervene to break the laws."[43]

Recognition

Acclaim

On 19 December 2007, a statue of Professor Stephen Hawking by renowned late artist Ian Walters was unveiled at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology, Cambridge University.[49] In May 2008 the statue of Hawking was unveiled at the African Institute for Mathematical Sciences in Cape Town. The Stephen W. Hawking Science Museum in San Salvador, El Salvador is named in honour of Stephen Hawking, citing his scientific distinction and perseverance in dealing with adversity.[50] Stephen Hawking Building in Cambridge, opened on 17 April 2007. The building belongs to Gonville and Caius College and is used as an undergraduate accommodation and conference facility.[51]

Distinctions

Hawking's belief that the lay person should have access to his work led him to write a series of popular science books in addition to his academic work. The first of these, A Brief History of Time, was published on 1 April 1988 by Hawking, his family and friends, and some leading physicists. It surprisingly became a best-seller and was followed by The Universe in a Nutshell (2001). Both books have remained highly popular all over the world. A collection of essays titled Black Holes and Baby Universes (1993) was also popular. His most recent book, A Briefer History of Time (2005), co-written by Leonard Mlodinow, aims to update his earlier works and make them accessible to an even wider audience. He and his daughter, Lucy Hawking, have recently published a children's book focusing on science that has been described to be "like Harry Potter, but without the magic." This book is called George's Secret Key to the Universe and includes information on Hawking radiation.

Hawking is also known for his wit; he is famous for his oft-made statement, "When I hear of Schrödinger's cat, I reach for my pistol." This was a deliberately ironic paraphrase of "Whenever I hear the word culture... I release the safety-catch of my Browning", from the play Schlageter (Act 1, Scene 1) by German playwright and Nazi Poet Laureate Hanns Johst. His wit has both entertained the non-specialist public and helped them to understand complex questions. Asked in October 2005 on the British daytime chat show Richard & Judy, to explain his assertion that the question "What came before the Big Bang?" was meaningless, he compared it to asking "What lies north of the North Pole?"

Hawking has generally avoided talking about politics at length, but he has appeared on a political broadcast for the United Kingdom's Labour Party. He supports the children's charity SOS Children's Villages UK.[52]

Awards and honours

Personal life

Hawking revealed that he did not see much point in obtaining a doctorate if he were to die soon. Hawking later said that the real turning point was his 1965 marriage to Jane Wilde, a language student.[11] After gaining his Ph.D. at Trinity Hall, Stephen became first a Research Fellow, and later on a Professorial Fellow at Gonville and Caius College.

Jane Hawking (née Wilde), Hawking's first wife, cared for him until 1991 when the couple separated, reportedly due to the pressures of fame and his increasing disability. They had three children: Robert (b. 1967), Lucy (b. 1969), and Timothy (b. 1979). Hawking then married his nurse, Elaine Mason (who was previously married to David Mason, the designer of the first version of Hawking's talking computer), in 1995. In October 2006, Hawking filed for divorce from his second wife.[56]

In 1999, Jane Hawking published a memoir, Music to Move the Stars, detailing her own long-term relationship with a family friend whom she later married. Hawking's daughter, Lucy, is a novelist. Their oldest son, Robert, emigrated to the United States, married, and has one child, George Edward Hawking. Reportedly, Hawking and his first family were reconciled in 2007.[57]

Selected publications

Technical

Popular

Footnote: On Hawking's website, he denounces the unauthorised publication of The Theory of Everything and asks consumers to be aware that he was not involved in its creation.

Children's fiction

These are co-written with his daughter Lucy.

Films and series

A list of Hawking's publications through the year 2002 is available on his website.

See also

References

  1. ^ The Times 8 January 2010, Retrieved 2010-01-09
  2. ^ "Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts" (PDF). Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
  3. ^ Mason, Michael. "Alliance, Many of the greatest minds of science meet regularly in Vatican City to counsel the pope on the hot topics of the day". Discover Magazine (September 2008). Discover Magazine: 43. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  4. ^ a b "Hawking receives honour from Obama". Guardian. 13 August 2009. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
  5. ^ "Stephen Hawking to give up prestigious Cambridge title". CBC News. Associated Press. 2008-10-24. Retrieved 2009-10-01.
  6. ^ "Hawking gives up academic title". BBC News. 2009-09-30. Retrieved 2009-10-01.
  7. ^ "Stephen Hawking accepts post at Ontario institute". CTV.ca. Retrieved 2008-11-27.
  8. ^ Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time. Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-38016-8.
  9. ^ Redfor, Tim "How God propelled Stephen Hawking into the bestsellers lists" Guardian 31 July 2009 [1]
  10. ^ "Particle creation by black holes". Project Euclid. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i Current Biography, 1984. New York City: H. W. Wilson Company. 1984.
  12. ^ a b O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. "Stephen William Hawking". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. University of St Andrews. Retrieved 2009-10-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Hawking, Stephen W. (1993). Black Holes And Baby Universes and Other Essays. London: Bantam Books. ISBN 0553374117.
  14. ^ Stephen Hawking A Biography. Greenwood Press. 1995.
  15. ^ "Dick Tahta". The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
  16. ^ Hawking, Stephen W. "Disability Advice". Retrieved 2009-10-01.
  17. ^ "Origins of the universe: Stephen Hawking's J. Robert Oppenheimer Lecture". University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original on 2008-06-15. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
  18. ^ Hawking, Stephen (1970). "The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 314 (1519): 529–548. doi:10.1098/rspa.1970.0021. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |doi_brokendate= ignored (|doi-broken-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. ^ Hawking, SW (1974). "Black Hole Explosions". Nature. 248 (1): 30–31. doi:10.1038/248030a0. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
  20. ^ "Primitive life 'likely elsewhere'". Channel 4 News. 22 April 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
  21. ^ Hawking, Stephen W. (2008-09-24). "The final frontier". Cosmos Magazine. Retrieved 2009-10-01.
  22. ^ "Stephen Hawking plans to see space". Telegraph.co.uk. 2007-01-09. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
  23. ^ "Hawking takes zero-gravity flight". news.bbc.co.uk. 2007-04-26. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
  24. ^ "Move To New Planet, says Hawking". BBC. 2006-11-06. Retrieved 2008-02-21.
  25. ^ "Physicist Hawking experiences zero gravity". CNN. 2007-04-26. Archived from the original on 2007-05-04. Retrieved 2007-05-04.
  26. ^ "Colonies in space may be only hope, says Hawking". Telegraph.co.uk. 15 October 2001. Retrieved 2007-08-05.
  27. ^ Video: A conversation with Dr. Stephen Hawking & Lucy Hawking Charlie Rose, 7 March 2008
  28. ^ Hitshumoto & Munsat (2001). Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, A guide for patients and family. Demos Medical Publishing, LLC. p. 36. ISBN 1888799285.
  29. ^ Hawking, Stephen (1992). Stephen Hawking's A Brief History of Time: A Reader's Companion. New York Bantam. p. 44. ISBN 0553077724.
  30. ^ "Stephen Hawking chooses a new voice". Retrieved 2009-08-10.
  31. ^ "Stephen Hawking: Asking big questions about the universe (Video time index 8:25)". TED Conferences, LLC. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
  32. ^ "My experience with ALS". Wattpad. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
  33. ^ Booth, Robert. Stephen Hawking 'very ill' in hospital, The Guardian, 20 April 2009.
  34. ^ "Scientist Hawking 'very ill'". CNN.com. 21 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
  35. ^ Sample, Ian and Booth, Robert (21 April 2009). "Stephen Hawking expected to make full recovery | Science | guardian.co.uk". Guardian. Retrieved 2009-05-22.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ "How House Bill Runs Over Grandma". Investor's Business Daily. 31 July 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-08-11. Retrieved 2009-09-30.
  37. ^ "Bloggers debate British healthcare". BBC. 2009-08-12. Retrieved 2009-08-26.
  38. ^ "Stephen Hawking: I would not be alive without the NHS". The Daily Telegraph. 2009-08-12. Retrieved 2009-08-26.
  39. ^ "How House Bill Runs Over Grandma". Investor's Business Daily. Retrieved 2009-08-26.
  40. ^ "Health Care Here And Over There". Investor's Business Daily. Retrieved 2009-08-26.
  41. ^ "Stephen Hawking". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
  42. ^ "News from Cambridge UK". Cambridgenetwork.co.uk. 22 September 2008. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
  43. ^ a b "Pope sees physicist Hawking at evolution gathering | Science". Reuters. 2008-10-31. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
  44. ^ "Stephen Hawking". Nndb.com. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
  45. ^ http://www.leaderu.com/real/ri9501/bigbang2.html
  46. ^ "Though A Brief History of Time brings in God as a useful metaphor, Hawking is an atheist" Anthony Burgess, 'Towards a Theory of Everything', The Observer, 29 December 1991, Pg. 42
  47. ^ "Then, in 1999, his former wife published Music To Move The Stars: My Life with Stephen, in which she detailed (...) how her Christian faith clashed with his steadfast atheism; (...) The last line in A Brief History Of Time is famous for saying that, if we could tie together the equations describing the universe, we would "know the mind of God." But, as his former wife says, he is an atheist. So why is the deity making an appearance? The obvious answer is that it helps sell books." Charles Arthur, 'The Crazy World of Stephen Hawking', The Independent (London), 12 October 2001, Features, Pg. 7.
  48. ^ "Jane took much of her dramatic hope at the time from her faith, and still sees something of the irony in the fact that her Christianity gave her the strength to support her husband, the most profound atheist. 'Stephen, I hope, had belief in me that I could make everything possible for him, but he did not share my religious - or spiritual - faith.' " Tim Adams, 'A Brief History of a First Wife', The Observer, 4 April 2004, Review Pages, Pg. 4.
  49. ^ "Vice-Chancellor unveils Hawking statue". University of Cambridge. 2007-12-21. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
  50. ^ Komar, Oliver (October 2000). "The Stephen W. Hawking Science Museum in San Salvador Central America Honours the Fortitude of a Great Living Scientist". Journal of College Science Teaching. XXX (2). Retrieved 2008-09-28. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  51. ^ The Stephen Hawking Building: HRH Prince Philip, The Duke of Edinburgh, visits Cambridge for the official opening of a stunning student accommodation and conference venue, the Stephen Hawking Building 2007-04-18
  52. ^ "Our Friends". SOS Children's Villages. Retrieved 2006-05-06.
  53. ^ "Julius Edgar Lilienfeld Prize". American Physical Society. Retrieved 2008-08-29.
  54. ^ "Oldest, space-travelled, science prize awarded to Hawking". The Royal Society. 24 August 2006. Retrieved 2008-08-29.
  55. ^ "Fonseca Prize 2008". University of Santiago de Compostela. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
  56. ^ "Hawking and second wife agree to divorce". Telegraph.co.uk. 2007-01-09. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
  57. ^ "Welcome back to the family, Stephen". The Times. 2007-05-06. Retrieved 2007-05-06.
  58. ^ "The Hawking Paradox". Internet Movie Database. 2005. Retrieved 2008-08-29.

Further reading

  • Boslough, John (1985). Stephen Hawking's Universe. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 0-380-70763-2. A layman's guide to Stephen Hawking.
  • Ferguson, Kitty (1991). Stephen Hawking: Quest For A Theory of Everything. Franklin Watts. ISBN 0-553-29895-X.
  • Hawking, S. W. & Ellis, G. F. R. (1973). The Large Scale Structure of Spacetime. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-09906-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link). Highly influential in the field.
  • Hawking, S. W. & Israel, W. (1979). General relativity: an Einstein centenary survey. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22285-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link). A much cited centennial survey.
  • Misner, Charles; Thorne, Kip S. & Wheeler, John Archibald (1995). Stephen Hawking A Biography. San Francisco: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313323928.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • A Brief History of Time (Documentary). 1991. {{cite AV media}}: Unknown parameter |director= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |distributor= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)
  • Pickover, Clifford, Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them, Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0195336115

External links

Dated

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source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Hawking&oldid=341948417

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