Serer Kings

Two Serer Kings from the Kingdom of Sine.^[1]

The Serer People

Regions with significant populations
Senegal (1,840,712.1),  Gambia (31,900),  Mauritania small number (3500) also found overseas.
Languages
Serer proper, Cangin languages, Wolof French (Senegal and Mauritania), English (The Gambia),
Religion
Mostly Serer Religion, some practice Catholicism and a very small number practice Islam.[2]
Related ethnic groups
Wolof people, Toucouleur people and Lebou people

The Serer people (also spelt "Sérère", "Sereer", "Serere", "Seereer" and sometimes wrongly "Serre") along with the Jola people are acknowledged to be the oldest inhabitants of The Senegambia.^[4]

In modern day Senegal, the Serer people live in the west-central part of the country, running from the southern edge of Dakar to The Gambian border.The Serer-Sine (also known as "Seex" or "Sine-Sine") occupy the ancient Sine and Saloum areas (now part of modern day independent Senegal). In The Gambia, they occupy parts of old "Nuimi" and "Baddibu" as well as The Gambian "Kombo". The Serer-Noon occupy the ancient area of Thiès in modern day Senegal. The Serer-Ndut are found in southern Cayor and north west of ancient Thiès. The Serer-Njeghen occupy old Baol; the Serer-Palor occupies the west central, west southwest of Thiès and the Serer-Laalaa occupy west central, north of Thiès and the Tambacounda area.^[5][6]

The Serer people are the third largest ethnic group in Senegal making up 14.7% of the Senegalese population.^[7] In Gambia they make up less than 2% of the population.^[8] Along with Senegal and The Gambia, they are also found in small numbers in southern Mauritania. Some notable Gambian Serers include Isatou Njie-Saidy, Vice President of The Gambia since 20 March 1997, and the late Senegambian historian, politician and advocate for Gambia's independence during the colonial era - Alhaji Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof.

Ancestry

As the ancestors of the Wolof people, Toucouleur people and the Lebou, the Serer Language has been absorbed by these groups. Collectively they make up the largest population of the entire Senegambia Region.^{[9][10][11][12][13]}

Sub Grouping and naming

The Serer group comprises of the Serer-Sine; Serer-Noon (sometimes spelt "Serer-None" or "Serer-Non"); Serer-Ndut (also spelt "N’doute"); Serer-Njeghene (sometimes spelt "Serer-Dyegueme" or "Serer-Gyegem" or "Serer-N'Diéghem"); Serer-Safene - (speakers of the Saafi dialect of the Serer language); Serer-Niominka; Serer-Palor (also known as "Falor", "Palar", "Siili", "Siili-Mantine", "Siili-Siili", "Waro" or just "Serer") and the Serer-Laalaa (sometimes known as "Laa", "La" or "Lâ" or just "Serer"). Each group speaks a different dialect of the Serer language ("Serer-Sine" which is the standard) due to their dispersion but they all belong to the Serer Race. Note that these variations of spelling is due to the geographical spread of the Serer people e.g. Serer people living in Senegal (a former French colony) and those living in The Gambia (a former British colony). Some writers also used different spelling without standardizing their spelling. The Serer people call themselves Serer and the pronunciation remains the same. "Serer" is the standard English spelling. "Seereer" or "Sereer" reflects the actual pronunciation of the name and are mostly used by Senegalese Serer historians.

Ethnonym

The name "Serer" which not only identifies the people but also their language, culture, tradition, etc is deemed by many anthropologists, linguists and historians (some of whom include Issa Laye Thiaw, Cheikh Anta Diop and Henry Gravrand (Henri Gravrand) to be an ancient and sacred word just as the Serer language itself.^[14]

Professor Cheikh Anta Diop proved that the name "Serer" derives from the ancient Egyptian language and that it means "those who trace the lines of the temples."^[15](See also Cheikh Anta Diop's work titled: Nations Nègres et culture: de l'antiquité Nègre Égyptienne aux problèmes culturels de l'Afrique noire d'aujourd'hui. 1954). ^[16]

History of the Serer people

Prehistory and civilisations

Serer civilisation

The first picture is of the Senegambian stone circles (megaliths) which runs from Senegal all the way to The Gambia and described by UNESCO as "the largest concentration of stone circles seen anywhere in the world". The second picture is in (modern day Mauritania)see West Saharan montane xeric woodlands. The third picture to the right is of Tassili n'Ajjer. Click on relevant links to learn more.

Numerous scholars have worked on the case of the origin of Serers, and as a result, it has been found that the Serers originate in the Nile Valley. The Serers migrated away from the Nile Valley onto Senegal at 300 B.C.E. ^{[17] [18] [19] [20] [21]}

In Charles Becker's report and analysis of the historical vestiges of Serer Country, in modern day Senegambia, he acknowledged the diversity of Serer culture, manifested across dialects, family and social organisation which reflect different historical territories. According to Becker, such diversity is an asset and certainly merits the preservation of Serer heritage. In his paper titled "Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays Sereer", he noted two types of relics:

• The non material remains which are cultural in nature
• Material remains, which are many revealed through products or artefacts

He noted that many Serer artefacts remain unknown, unlisted and preserved despite the efforts in 1960s and 1970s to collect, archive and document them all. According to Becker, many material relics where found in different Serer Countries. Most of these relics refer to the past origins of Serer families, villages and Serer Kingdoms. According to Becker, some of the Serer relics included gold, silver and metals. In mention just a few types of known objects found in Serer Countries, he divided them into two types:

• the remnants of earlier populations

According to Becker, these are the traces left by the proto-populations with which the Serer people have been in contact with "when they (the Serers) were the "Irenus" (Irenaeus) of Futa" (Takrur).

• Laterite megaliths carved planted in circular structures with stones directed towards the east are found only in small parts of ancient Saalum.

The sand tumulus, on the other hand which resembles ancestral tombs (lomb in Serer language) still built by Sereer are observed everywhere including the Kingdom of Sine, Jegem (Njegem), Saluum, with densities expressed below (see table). According to Becker "one must note that some these monuments are impressive."

NB: The following are now regions with their cities, towns and villages.

Becker also reported clusters and shell mounds, which are known in the islands and around the estuary of Saloum. In the provinces of the Gandun and Numi, Saloum and in the south-western Sine around Joal, 139 sites have been identified and they sometimes have shaped burial mounds. Becker acknowledged that the relics are very numerous and imposing in Serer Countries. He acknowledged that in Baol for instance, the importance of these vestiges is likely to be about the Serer material culture. According to Becker, the graves of the founding ancestors were also very often sanctified as "Fangool" (singular: "ancestral sprit" or "saint" in Serer Religion). Such relics associated with the ancestors are often venerated relics. For example, the relics evoking memories of migration or foundation of states are sometimes sacralised. The remnants of royalty in the Kingdoms of Sine and Saloum are similar Becker admitted because the Geulwars have the same Serer tradition, but there are peculiarities in the objects and the scene of the coronation of royalty and power which have existed since the beginnings of dynasty with the annual ritual and mandatory ceremonies. The family relics in other Serer Countries which are brought from Takrur (now Futa Toro) or Kaabu by the founders were also noted in places of worship of the village or province history. According to Becker, this may be stone, wood, musical instruments, ceremonial objects used by the Saltigue or "Yaal Pangool". Becker agreed that these relics kept by families since ancient times remain largely unknown. There are two types of Serer relics relating to two lineages that come into play in the social organisation of the Serer people:

• "kucarla" (kalcular) which means paternal lineage or paternal inheritance.
• "ƭeen yaay" which means maternal lineage or maternal inheritance.

The history of the Serer people who resided at Takrur (now called Futa Toro) which was part of what is generally referred to as Serer Country, the influence of their culture, history, religion and tradition on the land is well known and documented. As Becker puts it:

"Finally we should remember the important relic called Sereer in Fouta (Futa Toro), but also in the former countries of the Ferlo, Jolof and Kajoor (Cayor), which marked the migration of proto-Sereer, whose imprint on the Fouta was so significant and remains in the memory of the Halpulaareen" (speakers of the Fula language e.g. Fula and Toucouleur people).

Notwithstanding Serer civilisation and ancient history, such civilisation would come to a devastating end in the medieval era especially in the 11th century when Islam landed on their shores that is, The Kingdom of Takrur in particular. Brought from North Africa by the Almoravids who allied themselves with the African tribes they converted such as the Toucouleurs and Fulas, it became a mission to defeat and convert the Serer people to Islam by force. As the founders of Takrur, the High Priests and Priestesses of the religious affairs of Takrur – long before the birth of Islam, the land owners and nobility, faced with this foreign threat, and "jilted" by the people they have lived in peace with before Islam’s arrival e.g. the Fula and Toucouleurs, the Serer people of Takrur take it upon themselves to defend the "old ways" – that is, entered the battlefield to defend their ancient religion and way of life. As Elisa Daggs noted in her book titled All Africa: All its political entities of independent or other status, she summarized this historical period in the following terms:

"The Islamic religion which dominates Senegal today was carried from Mecca into North Africa after the seventh century by ... the Sahara by the Arabs and Arabized Berbers into Senegal. Only the powerful Serer tribes resisted conversion... "^[23]

Although the Serer people of Takrur were victorious in several battles against such foreign threats, their victories could not go on forever and were ultimately defeated. Rather than convert to Islam, they chose to migrate (see Medieval History). The legacy of that part of Senegambian history which is still present today, is summarized by the historian and author Issa Laye Thiaw in the following terms:

"If the term "religiosity" expresses the commitment or devotion to a particular religion, it also applies to the Serer who are jealously attached to their traditional values and show little interest in respect of religions from outside. However, few people adhere to these religions and gradually move away from the religion of the land. The latter is the object of aggression and distortion on the part of some Muslims, to weaken the impact in people's minds. In this context, their Serer neighbours assigned names and adjectives to things they have invented from scratch, trying to prove their superiority and that of their religion (the Serer Religion)…. The Serers are so far, one of the few people of Senegal who are not yet fully converted to a modern foreign religion…. Obstinately attached to the religion of their ancestors, the Serers refuse to change the social and religious life inherited from their ancestors, making every effort to prevent the penetration of foreign religions in their Country. Only recently were they superficially converted to Islam and Christianity."^[24]

Medieval history to present

Before the renaming of the kingdom of Sine in the 14th century, the Sine area was populated by the Serers from the kingdom of Takrur now called Fouta-Toro as well as the indigenous Serer people who have resided there for millenniums. As the first inhabitants of Takrur as well as Mauritania, they built civilisations there going back thousands of years, set up royal dynasties, political and legal frameworks as well as a priestly class who upheld the religious affairs of the region.^[25]

After the Arab invasion of North Africa the Berbers of the north advanced Islam via the Almoravid movement, penetrating parts of Africa, Europe and Asia. ^[26][27] In 1030 AD, the mixed Toucouleur, Bambara ( part of the Mandinka group) and Soninke revolutionist King War Jabi - son of Rabi and father of Leb came into power backed by his allies (the Almoravids) from the north and in particular the cleric Abdallah ibn Yasin -, whom he had invited for advice and guidance. On his father's side, War Jabi was a prince of the Bambara tribe – (a descendant of an exiled Bambara prince). On his mother's side, he was peasant Toucouleur. Mahmood (a Fula), who was nominated, elected and crowned king, although Muslim, he was not an orthodox one would be "booted" out of the throne. In 1035 AD, King War Jabi introduced force conversion to Islam and sharia law. Faced with the Almoravid assault, the Fula and Toucouleur Animists converted to Islam.^{[verification needed]} The Serer people on the other hand responded differently by engaging on the battlefield to defend it.^{[28][29][30][31]} At Saly 1035, they defeated the Almoravids and their African ally army forcing them to seek refuge in Mauritania. Whilst the Toucouleurs and Fulas submitted to Islam.^{[not specific enough to verify]}

Though the Serer were victorious in several battles, jilted by their Fula and Toucouleur neighbours, who have join forces with the Almoravids, the Serers of Takrur were finally defeated and that was the reason they abandoned Takrur in the 11th century to join their distant Serer relatives in inner Senegal.^[32] The Islamic wars that had ravaged Takrur in the 11th century which led to Serer migration from Takrur only relates to those Serer people living in Takrur at the time. It did not apply to all Serer people. The Serer people are very diverse and spread throughout the Senegambia founding towns and villages. The Serer names of these towns and villages still remain today. As the historian and author Godfrey Mwakikagile puts it:

"...the Serer traversed vast expanses of territory during pre-colonial times and saw the entire region (the Senegambia region) as their home, as their history of migration in the area clearly shows."^[33]

That was not their first migration to the Sine but it was one of their biggest migrations. In addition to those religious wars, climatic change, political and social factors also influenced those that remain to join their cousins later. For those Serers that remained, they will face constants wars brought on by the Almoravids and their African converts who have allied with them. Stubbornly attached to their religion, the Serers of Takrur continued to resist Islam throughout the medieval era before their full exodus to Sine-Saloum and old Baol. The Almoravid strong hold on Takrur and their ultimate contribution to the destruction of the Ghana Empire would not have happened without the African converts such as the Fula and Toucouleur whom have joined forces with the foreign army against other Africans.^[34][35] By 1054, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar one of the leaders of the Almoravid, assisted by the African converts, destroyed the city of Aoudaghost of the Ghana Empire.^[36] After the death of Ibn Yahya Ibrahim (another Almoravid leader), Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar succeeded him. By 1076, Abu Bakr captured Kumbi Saleh the capital of the Ghana Empire assisted by the Toucouleurs and the Fulas.^[37][38] Although the Ghana Empire did not fall, that Almoravid victory with the assistance of their African converts will play a crucial part to the destruction of Ghana in years to come. After his victory, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar tried to get deeper into Senegal in the heart of Serer Country. In November 1087 of the Christian calendar, the Serer King Ama Gôdô Maat gathered his warrior Serer army, defeated Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar and killed him.^[39][40][41] Although the Muslim sources admitted Abu Bakr was killed in Senegal (some say by a poisoned arrow), they remained silent as to who killed him and why he was killed? Others sources identified Ama Gôdô Maat as a Serer fugitive who finally killed Abu Bakr. Ama Gôdô Maat was indeed a Serer, but he was not a fugitive but a Serer king. Also known as Buur Haman, his legacy and historical account is preserved in Serer tradition for centuries thereby backing up the written sources. Abu Bakr having been victorious wanted to launch his wars in Serer country and was defeated by the Serer king. It should also be noted that, Njanjan Njie (also spelt Ndiandian Ndiaye) who is credited as the founder of the Jolof Empire by the Wolof people is not the son of Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar as Wolof legend would have us belief. Not only is the surname "Njie" (or "Ndiaye") a Serer surname and not Wolof nor Berber or Arab, Njanjan Njie himself did not rule until the 14th century (1360 AD) after the battle of Turbang in 1335.^[42][43] Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar died in November 1087. There was at least three hundred years separating them. Although Fatoumatta Sallah (a Toucouleur) was his mother, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar (the 11th century Almoravid) was not his father. This story was invented by some Wolof Muslims hoping to trace descend to Arabs and therefore to the Quraysh (tribe) and ultimately to Mohammad himself. Baboucarr Njie (a Serer living in Waalo) was his father, not Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar the Almoravid. This is just one of many Wolof stories one of which has been rebutted above (see Issa Laye Thiaw quotations above – "Ethnonym Section"). That Serer victory over the Almoravid assault was a major contributor as to why the Almoravid could not keep their hold on the Ghana Empire and totally lost it. After the death of their leader, greed and infighting among themselves as to who should lead the Almoravid movement led to their total downfall. Albeit the death of Abu Bakr, the Emperor (The Ghana) of the Empire totally bankrupt due to the wars that have ravaged his Empire over years resulted in the total destruction of the Ghana Empire.

They divided the area into lamanats, directed by Lamans (kings and descendants of ancient Serer kings and landlords). In fact, the Serers did not only push the local Mandinka population away, but also ruled over the Wolofs. They were ruling Jolof before the Jaw, Ngom, Mengue and Njie dynasties. The most notorious of them generally referred to as Mansa Jolofing [King of Jolof in the Mandinka language] was a Serer well known for his dark art during the reign of Mansa Sundiata Keita of Mali in the 13th century. When Sundiata Keita sent his men to go to Kingdom of Jolof to buy horses with a caravan loaded with gold, the Serer King of Jolof ransacked the caravan, took all the gold as well as the horses. This is known in history as "the robbery of the horses". Having found out what happened, Sundiata Keita sent his cousin and general Mansa Tiramanghan Trawally – (future conqueror of Kaabu) to Jolof to assassinate the Serer king. It was Mansa Tirimanghan's victory over the king of Jolof which led to the Mandinka Subou song created to mark the Mandinka's victory over the dark Serer king of Jolof.^[44] The surname "Njie" (the last dynasty in Jolof) although usually associated with the Wolof tribe, its origin is actually Serer not Wolof nor Arab or Berber. "Mam Kumba Njie" is a Serer Goddess, a religion that predates Islam itself as well as its predecessors, never mind the Almoravid movement.^[45]

In Sine, the Serers lived in peace and practised their religion. The nobility ruled by the title "Maat" or "Maad" or "Laman" (Kings and Landed gentry). The ordinary Serer earned their living from agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, boat building (an ancient Serer tradition) and transporting people over the river. Most of the Sosses [Mandinkas], who were present before the arrival of Serers of Takrur were driven back to the south to make room for the new Serer arrivals. In the first half of the 14th century, some Mandinkas came from Kaabu to live in Sine. These Mandinkas were no ordinary Mandinkas but members of the Guelwar royal family of Kaabu (modern day Guinea Bissau). They were blood relatives of the Nyanco royal dynasty of kaabu (sometimes spelt Gabou) and descendants of Mansa Tirimanghan Trawally of Mali. They left Kaabu following the massacre of Turubang in 1335AD.^[46][47] Turubang in Mandinka means to wipe out a clan or family. Just as in pre-colonial Senegal, there were different noble maternal clans e.g. Joos, Wagadou, Tedyek, Sai, etc who can marry into the paternal dynasties e.g. Faye, Joof, Njie, etc, Kaabu also had different noble maternal clans e.g. Nyanco, Guelwar etc. Different maternal clans will fight to death in order to marry off their daughters, sisters and nieces into the royal family and ensured the continuation of their maternal clan. That was what happened in Kaabu at that time. Once they arrived in Sine, the council of Lamans mainly occupied by the Serer nobility granted them asylum. In addition to being granted asylum, they will cohabit with the Serer aristocracy. The reasons for that was political, economic and social. They were of royal stock just as their Serer hosts. It was political because the Mali Empire was not far away. Having a Mandinka political ally was a strategic move on the part of the Serer Lamans. After-all, these Guelwar royals were of the same family as that of the royal family of Mali (they are distant relatives). However, before any interbreeding between Serer - Guelwar, these Mandinka royals will learn the Serer language, pledged allegiance to the Serer Gods and Goddesses, loyalty to the Serer kingdom of Sine (and later Saloum) as well as to the Serer people. That was the deal before any breeding between Serer - Guelwar. In return, the children of these Mandinka women and Serer men will inherit the throne. These children in time will be authentic Serers with loyalty to Sine and later Saloum and not Kaabu. The council of Jambuurs (nobles who are not necessarily members of the royal family) made up of Serers will continue to check this.^[48] Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh - (reigned 1350) who took the name of "Maysa Wali Jon" towards the end of his long reign was the first Guelwar king of Sine post Turubang 1335. It was him who appointed Njanjan Njie (a Serer) to rule Jolof and head the Jolof Empire where he (Njanjan Njie) resided after he left Waalo. That was ten years after the reign of Maissa Wali. He himself did not have a Serer father, he was one of those Guelwar princes who survived the Battle of Turubang. His father Silmang Koli and his mother Jomogue died at Turubang in Kaabu. His sisters and nieces that escaped the massacre married into the old Serer royal families e.g. Faye, Joof, Njie, etc. These noble paternal clans were in the main, the old royal families - descendants of the ancient Serer kings and land owners. They provided the royal paternal bloodline and the Mandinka Guelwars provided the maternal blood by marrying into these families just as the Nyanco and Guelwar maternal clans of Kaabu married into the paternal noble families of Kaabu: Sanneh and Manneh before Turubang. Contrary to popular belief, the Mandinkas of Kaabu did not conquer Sine. They were granted asylum by the Serer nobility. Maissa Wali himself did not reign until fifteen years after Turubang. He was nominated and elected by his hosts, the Serer nobility due to his good character. His nieces and sisters he gave the Serer nobility in marriage. That sealed the union between Serer-Guelwar(see Alioune Sarr. Histoire du Sine-Saloum (Sénégal), Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker. 1986-87). Such false account that the Guelwars conquered Sine was invented by certain Senegambian Muslims e.g. Wolof, Fula, Toucouleur and to a lesser extend the Mandinkas. But as the list of Kings would testify as noted by Martin A. Klein in “Islam and Imperialism in Senegal”; Alioune Sarr in “Histoire du Sine-Saloum and other historians, almost all Kings of Sine as well as Saloum bore Serer surnames not Mandinka. Further, Serer culture, language, religion and traditions prevailed in Sine and Saloum not Mandinka. As indicated by the historians: Issa Laye Thiaw and Martin A. Klein (see above) in reference to how Islam has divided African communities, these false accounts were invented by these groups due to their hatred of Serer people and religion. Unlike these groups, the Serer managed to resist Islam for almost one thousand years whilst they were easily converted. Other false claims by these groups include: the Fulas drove out the Serers from Futa Toro (formerly Takrur) in the 19th century and enslaved them; the Serers were mixing with the Portuguese in the 15th century and were responsible for mixed people in Senegambia; and the Tondyon dynasty of Takrur that succeeded the Dyago dynasty of Takrur in the 14th century were Serers and that "Tondyon" in Mandinka means "crowned slave". These are just some of the false claims narrated by these groups. As evident above, the Serers of Takrur left Takrur in the eleventh century. The Fulas and Toucouleurs resided there. So how could the Fulas have driven out Serers from Futa in the 19th century when the Serers have left almost eight hundred years earlier? In similarity, how could the Serers have set up a Tondyon dynasty in the 14th century when they have already left three hundred years earlier? As for Serers mixing with the Portuguese, Alvise Cadamosto - the 15th century Venetian navigator, slave trader and chronologist give us some insight about his voyages in Senegambia. Some of his accounts are as follows:

• Along the Grande Côteat at an anchor point, Alvise called it the "Palma di Budomel.^[49][50][51]

Note that "Budomel" actually means the Damel of Cayor (the King of Cayor) who ruled over the Wolof inhabitants of Cayor.

• Alvise stated that this point has previously been used by the Portuguese traders and dated that trade between the Portuguese and Wolof was established in 1450 – "that was five years before I went on this voyage" Alvise noted.^[52] Note that the chronicles of Henrican discoveries by Gomes Eanes de Zurara ended in 1448 and conflict between the Wolof people and the Portuguese were noted. Although it is unknown how peace and trade resumed between the Wolof and Portuguese, in Peter E. Russell's book (Prince Henry 'the Navigator': a life. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 2000. Page 297) he cited a document (f-1489) which demonstrates that Lourenço Dias opened trade again between the Wolof and the Portuguese. Lourenço was of course the same person who participated in the slave raiding of Lançarote de Freitas between 1445 and 1446 and returned between 1448 and 1450.

Alvise wanted to trade horses for slaves which was the main income generator for Wolofs at that point and Alvise is reported to have sold seven horses and woolen products for 100 Wolof slaves.^[53][54]

• At his time in Wolof Cayor, Alvise got to meet the king of Cayor and stayed with the king’s nephew named "Bisboror" for atleast a month.

• Accompanied by Usodimare, they decided to sail further south and finally reached the Sine-Saloum delta, which is inhabited by the Serer people whom he called "Sereri" (a term his Wolof interpreter might have used – which means "Serer of …"). In his chronicle, Alvise has nothing good to say about the Serer people. He referred to the Serers on the border as "idolaters of great cruelty." Alvise has never set foot in Serer Country and his opinions about the Serers is mostly coming from his Wolof interpreters.^[55] According to Alvise, he was the one who named the Saloum River as "Rio di Barbacini" as it would be become known in European maps. Although Alvise, his Portuguese entourage and slaves they have been carrying from Wolof Cayor tried to rest there before moving on, they decided against it when one of his Wolof interpreters got off the ship and tried to make contact with the local Serers and was killed on the spot for daring to bring foreigners into their land. In his chronicle, Alvise described how the Serers people seeing their ship gathered at the beach looking menacing and unwelcoming. As a result, the Portuguese occupants of the ship were ordered not to get off the ship. Instead, they moved the ship further back and ordered no one to come off the ship apart from their Wolof interpreter whom they sent to make contact with the Serer natives to negotiate on their behalf. Their Wolof interpreter was killed by the Serers for his heresy. The occupants of the ship inlcuding Alvise himself still didn't dare to come out but headed south to The Gambia.

These Serers are without doubt the Serer-Ndut (one of the members of the Serer Group) who resided at that area and refused to submit to the Kings of Cayor. They are renowned warriors who for centuries refused to bow to the Kings of Cayor and have defeated the Kings of Cayor with their armies as Alvise will testify to in his chronicle. Highly feared among the Wolofs of Cayor including the Cayor army itself, they possess a reputation for using poisoned spears and arrows as well as terrorising the Wolofs and Moors of Cayor. Subsequent historians will testify to that fact hence why the Serer-Ndut were never subjugated by the Kings of Cayor but left alone. They are the only group in Cayor who enjoyed their independence and did what they wanted to do without approval from the King. The reason they differentiated themselves from the Wolof people was due to the fact that, they were well versed on the slave trading off the Wolof people. As followers of the Orthodox Serer Religion, they looked down at those who engage in slave trading. Slavery is forbidden in the Serer Religion. As such, when Alvise’s interpreter came off the ship to talk to them, they (the Serer-Ndut) knew exactly what the Wolof and his accompanies wanted and he was killed on the spot for his sacriledge.

The word "Barbacini" used by Alvise, without doubt came from his Wolof interpreter. If he had spoken to the Serers, they would not have used such a term. Although Alvise misspelt and mispronounced the word, the word comes from the Wolof phrase "Bur ba Sine" which means "The King of Sine" who took residence at the Serer Kingdom of Sine. Due to the fact that the Serer Ndut who resided at the Wolof border refused to submit to the King of Cayor, some Wolof historians have used Alvise's commentary literally in reference to the Serer Ndut of Cayor, by saying the Serer people as a whole didn’t have kings which is further from the truth. The Serer-Ndut of Cayor refused to bow to the Kings of Cayor, but the Serer people as a whole have Kingdoms and certainly Kings two of which were the Kingdom of Sine and the Kingdom of Saloum. By Alvise distinguishing between the "Sereri" and the "Barbacini", this seems to indicate that he is referring to two different people when in fact, the Kingdom of Sine was a Serer Kingdom where the King of Sine ("Barbacini") took residence. But since he has never set foot in Serer Country, not only was he confused as to what his Wolof interpreters were telling him, but he based his opinions about the Serers mainly from his Wolof interpreters, for whom the Serer Ndut of Cayor brings fear. Although Alvise's chronology provides some insight about Senegambian society in the 15th century, his chronology is full of errors and should therefore be taken with caution. As noted by Robert Kerr when commenting on Alvise's entry regarding sand banks in Senegal, "which extend about half a mile into the sea", Kerr noted that: "It is necessary to be cautious with respect to these early voyages, which, having gone through various transcriptions and translations, are liable to numerous errors. In our best charts, this sank bank, intermixed with sunk rocks, extends two miles out to sea…".^[56] Another error made by Alvise is the year Cape Verde was discovered by the Portuguese. According to Alvise, "Cape Verd was so named by the Portuguese, who discovered it about a year before" (i.e. the year before his journey). This is totally wrong. In fact, it was discovered in 1446 by Denis Fernandez which was nine years prior to Alvise's entry.^[57][58]

In any case, not only does this demonstrates that it was the Wolof and Portugese who were in contact with each other and not the Serer, it also shows Wolof long history of selling their own people and absolves the Serer people of slave trading, at least not in huge numbers. When Serer kings and nobles sold others into slavery, they were mainly prisoners of war and were done in revenge. In most cases, they rather killed their prisoners than sold them to slavery. Slave trading is forbidden in Serer Religion and custom. It is something that is looked down at as uncivilised and barbaric. This account is backed up by François G. Richard who noted that:

"The Kingdom of Sine remained a modest participant in the Atlantic system, secondary to the larger Wolof, Halpulaar (speakers of the Fula language i.e. the Fula people and Toucouleur people)or Mandinka polities surrounding it on all sides... As practices of enslavement intensified among other ethnic groups (i.e. Wolof people, Fula people, Toucouleur people and Mandinka people) during the 18th century, fuelling a lucrative commerce in captives and the rise of internal slavery, the Siin may have been demoted to the rank of second player, in so far as the kingdom was never a major supplier of captives."^[59]

This testimony is also backed up by Martin A. Klein (1968) and Mbogj (1978). "In times of peace, the Kingdom of Siin (Sine) more readily supplied grain, cattle and other basic necessities to the French."^[60]

In any case, all these false accounts against the Serer people surfaced after 18 July 1867. This date is very significant in Senegambian Muslim history. On 18 July 1867, a Toucouleur Muslim jihadist called Maba Diakhou Bâ tried to launch his jihad in the heart of the Serer Kingdom of Sine. The Serer army led by the King of Sine Maat Sine Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof, killed Maba Diakhou Bâ at The Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune commonly as Battle of Somba (or Somb).^[61] Some Senegambian Muslims particularly the Wolof and Fula try to use the fact that it was raining that day as an excuse in order to reduce the Muslim humiliation. They claim that, "it was raining on the date the Serers defeated the Muslim Marabouts and killed the leader of the jihadist, and that the Muslim army’s armoury was jammed." This is nothing more than an attempt to reduce the blow and humiliation as Maba was a formidable jihadist and highly feared by the British administration as well as the French. Note that he was only a slave trader who ravaged Mandinka villages, but was also engaged in secret dealings with the colonialists such as the Treaty of Njiene (see Islam and Imperialism in Senegal, by Martin A. Klein). In any case, when the Muslim jihadists tried to come back to Sine in 1869, the Serer army of Sine led by the King defeated them and they retreated heading towards Saloum (another Serer Kingdom) and were destroyed by the Saloum army. From then on, the Muslim jihadist never came back to Sine to try their jihads or Islamized the Serer people of Sine.

The last true kings of Sine and Saloum were Maat Sine Mahecor Joof and Maat Saloum Fode Ngui Joof respectively. They both died in 1969. After their deaths, the Serer Kingdoms of Sine and Saloum were incorporated into independent Senegal which gained its independence from France in 1960. The Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum are two of few pre-colonial African Kingdoms whose royal dynasty survived up to the 20th century without great interruption by the colonial powers. It is true that some Serer King especially after the death of Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof signed treaties with the French e.g. King Sanou Moon Faye. Nevertheless, they played the French to "their own game" – signing treaties and then revoking it. Muslim States and Islamic leaders like Maba on the other hand didn’t know how to play the colonial powers to their own game. Not only did they sell their own people to buy arms, they also negotiated deals with the colonial powers to serve their own purpose. A good example of this is Maba’s treaty with the British Governor of The Gambia. The treaty that was signed at Njiene for the British to protect his son (Saer Matti Bâ ) if ever the French or the Serers went after him (i.e. Saer Matti)(see Martin A. Klein. Islam and Imperialism in Senegal 1968). As regards to Saer Matti Bâ (son of Maba) another jihadist, too much credit is given to the French which led to his defeat at the Battle of Kumbof 1886 which forced him to seek the protection of the British governor in The Gambia where he would later die. Saer Matti Bâ (sometimes spelt "Sait Matti Bah") played a key role in the brutal assassination of Ali Huja Bâ in 1885, who was the Chief of Ndemene as well as his own blood relative. Ali Huja was also cousin and brother in law of Gedal Mbooj – the king of Saloum. Saer also assassinated the brother of the future King of Saloum - Semou Jimit Joof a year earlier (1884). From that day on, Semou Jimit tried to hunt him down. In 1884 and 1885, Saer colluded with Biram Ceesay, planned and executed the assassination of these two men and then went into hiding. The King Gedal Mbooj and Semou Jimit Joof (then the future King of Saloum) had never forgotten nor forgiven Saer Matti for his brutal acts. In his desire to fight the King of Saloum, he allied himself with the Royal Family of Jolof. His mother Matti Njie, was the sister of the King of Jolof and had asked her brother (the King of Jolof) to help her son (Saer Matti) defeat the young King of Saloum (Gedal Mbooj). Backed by the Jolof army which was given to him by his maternal uncle as well as horses, the King of Saloum (Gedal) requested the help of his cousin Semou Jimit. Saer Matti and his army were defeated at the battle of kumbof (1886) by the Serer army. Having put his men's lives at risk, he cowardly abandoned most of his men in battle and fled for refuge to Albreda in The Gambia under British protection and finished his days in exile in Bakau (a Gambian town) where he died. This is the ultimate sacrilege in both Wolof and Serer military custom. It is one thing you just don't do. Even when the kings used to engage in battle with other kings, they would rather die with their men than abandon them in battle. That code of honour has been in place since the ancient kings. Although highly revered by the Senegambian Muslims such as the Wolof, Toucouleur, Fula, Mandinka, etc, any respect Saer Matti may have had from the Serer Ultra Orthodox people turned to dust when he exercised such cowardice. He died in The Gambia and was buried in Bakau where Sunbeach Hotel now stands.^[62][63]

The Serer kingdoms

Pre-colonial Serer kingdoms included the Kingdom of Sine and the Kingdom of Saloum. In addition to these twin Serer kingdoms, the Serers also ruled in the Wolof kingdoms such as Jolof, Waalo, Cayor and Baol. The Wolof Empire (aka Joloff, Jolof or Dyoloff) although associated with the Wolof people, in reality it was actually a Serer Empire. All the so called "Wolof Kingdoms" such as Jolof, Waalo, Cayor and Baol were in actual fact ruled by Serers, Bambaras or Moors. None of them were actually ruled by Wolofs but by outsiders. Although the population were predominantly Wolofs, the rulers of these Kingdoms were not. For example:

• The kings of Jolof have the paternal lineage Njie which is originally Serer. Previous to the "Njie" or "Ndiaye" paternal dynasty, Jolof was ruled by the Ngom and Jaw dynasties who are also Serer in origin and the Mengue (also spelt "Mbengue") dynasty who are Lebou in origin (a tribe that is usually associated with the Wolof but in reality distinct).^[64][65]
• The kings of Waalo came from the Mboge paternal lineage. The surname "Mbooj", "Mboge" or "Mbodj" derives from "Bo" which is Bambara in origin. The surname became Wolofized into "Mbooj" or "Mboge" just as the Fula surname "Bâ" or "Bah" becames Wolofized into Mbacké. The three matrilineal dynasties of Waalo: "Joos", "Tedyek" and "Logar" were also not Wolofs. The "Joos maternal dynasty" trace their descend to a Serer princes called "Linger Ndoye Demba" from the Kingdom of Sine who was given in marriage to the king of Waalo in the 14th century. All the kings and princesses of Waalo with "Joos" maternal lineage were of Serer heritage. The "Tedyek" were Fula and the "Logar" were Moors.^[66][67]
• The Faal paternal dynasty of Cayor and Baol that ruled after 1549 following the Battle of Danki were originally Moors. Prior to the Faal dynasty of Cayor and Baol, these two kingdoms were ruled by the Serer people with the patrilineages "Joof" or Diouf, Faye (surname) and Njie, and the maternal lineage of Wagadou – members of the royal families from the Ghana Empire who married into the Serer aristocracy.^[68]

At the time of The Jolof Empire, the Kingdom of Jolof was the administrative centre of the Emperor - from the Njie paternal dynasty who are Serers in origin. As such, although the term The "Wolof Empire" or "Jolof Empire" may at face value indicate that it was the Wolof people who were ruling the Empire, in reality, it was ruled by the Serer people who became Wolofized by virtue of the fact that, these Serer kings resided in predominantly Wolof areas (their subjects) and became assimilated.^[69][70]

Social organization in the Serer kingdoms

The Serer Kings and land owners ( Maat, Maad or Laman or even "Barr" as used by some mainly non-Serers when referring to Serer kings) were at the top. The terms "Buur Sine" and "Buur Saloum" (King of Sine and King of Saloum respectively) are Wolof terms when referring to Serer Kings. "Buur" or "Bur" are not Serer terms but Wolof terms. When Serers refer to their kings they say “Maat”. Bur or Buur is a Wolof corruption. The Serer kings divided their capacity as follows (not in order of importance): the King of Sine "Maat Sine" or "Maat Saloum" appointed the chiefs of provinces named "Laman", of "Serer" or "Guelwar" origin (note that pre 1335, Lamans were kings. Also note that that these Guelwars became Serers and had Serer surnames. All the kings that ruled Serer Kingdoms had Serer surnames with the exception of the Mboge and Faal paternal dynasties whose reigns are very recent and they did not provide many kings. Nevertheless they had Serer mothers hence why they were able to rule in Saloum for instance). These post Turubang Laman should not be confused with ancient Lamans who were kings of their state as well as land owners, these recent Lamans were merely provincial chiefs answerable to the King of Sine or King of Saloum; the Farba Kaba (Chief of the Army); the Farba Binda (Minister of Finance also responsible for the the police force and the Royal Palace), "Dialigne" or "Jaligne" (the Chief of the provinces inhabited by the Fula subjects); the Diaraf Beukeneg (Chief of the servants of the Royal Court) and the Serer "Jaraff" who headed the council of nobles some of whose main roles were to advise and elect the Serer Kings. Other notable titles included "Buumi" or "Bumi" (of Serer origin meaning inheritor). This word (Bumi) has been borrowed by the Wolof from the Serer but it is Serer in origin. They were members of the Royal Family and were eligible to succeed after the death of Kings. The "Buur Kevel" or "Buur Geweel" (the Griot of the King). This person was also a rather important figure in the Royal Court as well as in wars. Not only did he kept the history and genealogy of the royal dynasty, he was also the advisor to the King. The "Buur Kevel(s)" or "Buur Geweel(s)" were very wealthy and powerful. They had the power to destroy a royal dynasty if they chose to do so. Their other role included accompanying kings to battles; advising kings when and how to launch a war against another kingdom; what the King should eat; how to walk; what to wear; whom to give audience to; whom to employ and whom to sack etc. Although the word "Buur" is Serer in origin it it is normally attributed to the Wolof who tend to use it to describe their Kings. There are thousands of Serer words found in the Wolof language as noted earlier.

Population

As evident in Serer Prehistory, the Serer people are very diverse and for millenniums have colonised the whole of Senegambia and wherever they settled, they gave Serer names to most of which still survives today. Though they spread throughout the Senegambia region, they are more numerous in places like old Baol, Sine, Saloum and in The Gambia which was a colony of the Kingdom of Saloum.

The following table gives the estimated Serer population per country:

Serer languages

Most people who identify themselves as Serer speak the Serer language. This is spoken in Sine-Saloum, Kaolack, Diourbel, Dakar, and in Gambia, and is part of the national curriculum of Senegal.

About 200,000 Serer speak various Cangin languages, such as Serer-Ndut and Serer-Safene, which are not closely related to Serer proper. There are clear lexical similarities among the Cangin languages. However, they are more closely related to other languages than to Serer, and vice versa.^[78] For comparison in the table below, 85% is approximately the dividing line between dialects and different languages.

Serer culture

The Serer people have a very rich and ancient culture that predominates modern day Senegambia which is imitated and enjoyed by all Senegambian ethnic groups. For example the Senegalese wrestling called "Laamb" originated from the Serer Kingdom of Sine. It was a preparatory exercise for war among the warrior class. That style of wrestling (a brutal and violent form) is totally different from the sport wrestling enjoyed by all Senegambian ethnic groups today, nevertheless the ancient rituals are still visible in the sport version. Among the Serers, wrestling is classifed into different techniques and each technique takes several years to master. Children start young trying to master the basics before moving on to the more advance techniques like the "mbapatte", which is one of the oldest tehniques and totally different from modern wrestling. Yékini (whose real name is "Yakhya Diop"), who is a professional wrestler in Senegal is one of the top wrestlers proficient in the "mbapatte" technique. Serer wresting crosses ethnic boundaries and is a favourite past time for Senegalese and Gambians etc.

The Sabar (drum) tradition associated with the Wolof people actually orignated from the Serer people and more so from the Serer Kingdom of Saloum. The Wolof people who migrated to Saloum picked it up and spread it to Wolof Kingdoms. Each motif has a purpose and are used for different occasions. For example the musical motifs representing the family history and genealogy of a particular family; weddings; naming ceremonies; funerals etc.

The "Tassu" tradition (also spelt Tassou) which is the progenitor of rap originated from the Serer people. It was actually used when chanting ancient religious verses. The people would sing then interweave it with a "Tassu". The late Serer Diva Yande Coudou Sene who was the griot of the late and former president of Senegal (Leopold Sedar Senghor) (a Serer) was proficient in the "Tassu". She was the best "Tassukat" (one who Tassu) of her generation. Originally religious in nature, the griots of Senegambia regardless of ethnic group or religion picked it up from Serer Religious practices and still use it in different occasions e.g. marriages, naming ceremonies or when they are just singing the praises of their patrons. Most Senegalese and Gambian artists use it in their songs even the younger generation like "Baay Bia". The greatest Senegalese musical export Youssou N'Dour who is also a Serer, uses "Tassu" in many of his songs. As stated by Ali Colleen Neff:

"The Serer people are known especially for their rich knowledge of vocal and rhythmic practices that infuse their everyday language with complex overlapping cadences and their ritual with intense collaborative layerings of voice and rhythm."^[80]

Serer cultural, religious, musical traditions and terminology have had a strong imprint on Senegambia. Even the ancient religious ceremonies of the Serer people which are animist in nature have made their mark on Senegambian people, and are borrowed by Senegambian Muslims to describe their Islamic ceremonies (see "Serer Religious Festivals: There Influence On Senegambia").

The Serers also practice trade, agriculture, fishing, boat building and animal husbandry. Indeed the majority of Serers are farmers and land owners since unmemorable times. Although they practiced animal husbandry, they are less known for that, as in the past, Serer nobles entrusted their herds to the pastoralist Fulas. Even nowadays, some Serers do that. Also, trade is a recent phenomenon among the Serers. For the Serers, the soil (where their ancestors lay in rest) is very important to them and they guard it with jealousy. They have a legal framework governing every aspect of life even land law with strict guidelines. Apart from agriculture (and other forms of production such as animal husbandry, fishing especially the Serer-Niominka, boat building, etc), all other positions especially trade they viewed as vulgar, common and ignoble. This is why in the colonial era especially among the Serer nobles, they would hire others to do the trading on their behalf - acting as middle men, usually the Moors from Mauritania whom to this day they do not trust and are prejudice towards. In the old days, Moors from Mauritania who came to settle in the Serer Kingdoms were ill treated by their Serer masters if that is they were even welcomed and allowed to stay. If a Moor dies in a village or principality for instance, his body was dragged out of the village and left for the vultures to feast on if there is no family or friend to claim the body and bury it elsewhere and not in the Serer Kingdoms. They were also never accompanied by grave goods. Further, no matter how long a Mauritanian Moor has lived in the area as a migrant, he could never achieve high status within the Serer aristocracy. The best position he could ever wish for within Serer high society was to work as a Bissit. Apart from spying for the Serer Kings, the Bissit's main job was to be a clown - for the sole entertainment of the Serer King, the Serer aristocracy and the common people. He was expected to dance in ceremonies before the king and liven up the king's mood and the king's subjects. This position was always given to the Moors and that was the highest position they could wish for. It was a humiliating job and not a title of honour. The purpose of this position was solely created to humiliate the Moors whom the Serers at that time (even now to some degree) view as dishonourable and shameful. The history of this position in the Serer Kingdoms goes back to an early Moor in the area who had a son by his own daughter. This is why that position was especially given to any Moor that wishes to fill the vacant position. The Serer people’s unwillingness to trade (in mass numbers) directly during the colonial era was a double edged sword to the Serer language. That resulted in the Wolof language being the dominant language in the market place as well as the factories. As such, the Wolof language became dominant after the colonials left. However, the Serer language among with other local languages are now part of the national curriculum of Senegal.

Joking relationship (Kal)

Serers and Toucouleur are linked by a bond of "cousinage". This is a tradition common to many ethnic groups of West Africa called a "Relation du jeste" (Joking relationship) (known as 'Kal' in Serer), which comes from the old Serer word kalcular - meaning paternal lineage. This joking relationship enables one group to criticise another, but also obliges the other with mutual aid and respect. The Serers call this "Kal". This is because the Serers are the ancestors of the Toucouleurs. The Serers also maintain the same bond with the Jola people with whom they have an ancient relationship with. In the Serer ethnic group, this same bond exists between the Serer patronym, for example between Joof and Faye.

Incidentally, the Senegambian people refer to this joking relations as "Kal" and "Gamo". Again, these words are borrowed from the old Serer language. The word "Kal" comes from the Serer word "Kalcular" (paternal lineage) and the word "Gamo" derives from the old Serer word "Gamohu" or "Gamohou". Although many think of these words as Wolof, just like thousands of words found in the Wolof language, they are actually Serer in origin and not Wolof.

Serer patronyms

Religion (Fat Rog)

The Serer people believe in a universal Supreme Deity called Rog also spelt Roog and sometimes referred to as Rog Sene (Rog the Immensity). They have an elaborate religious tradition dealing with various dimensions of life, death, space and time, ancestral spirit communications and cosmology. See Serer Religion to learn more.

Sport

The sport played by the Serer is the wrestling called "Laamb". In ancient times, this was not merely a sport, but a preparation for war. The "battle wrestling" and the "sport wrestling" of today are totally different. However if one looks closely at the ritual dances of pre-wrestling Serer sport, one will see elements of battle. The Serers have a long history of being renowned warriors.^[81] That is understandable, because even right back in the 11th century, they needed to preserve their ancient way of life against the Almoravid and their African Muslim converts who wish to destroy them. They have fought and died to preserve their ancient religion. Wrestling, the preparatory exercises for war, therefore holds great significance among the Serers. The Laamb is now a cultural pass time for all Senegambian people crossing religion and ethicity boundaries.

Notable Serer people

Some notable Serer people covering royalty, literature, art, politics and sports.

• Laman Jegan Joof The Great - An 11th century ancestor of the Joof (English spelling), Diouf (French spelling) or Juuf (Serer spelling) family of Senegambia. He is also the founder of Tukar in modern day Senegal. His descendants went on to rule in Bawol, Sine and Saloum - pre and post Geulowar. His female descendants were also given in marriage to the Kings of Sine, Saloum, Jolof, Cayor, Baol, Waalo etc in which their descendants went on to rule. There was no royal family throughout Senegambia that did not have Serer ancestry. The history of Jegan Joof is now part of the Senegalese curriculum.^[82]
• Buur Ndaah Njemeh Joof - The Great (also known as "Maat Ndaah Njeeme Juuf" or "Ndaah Njeeme Juuf"). 13th century King of Lâ in modern day Senegal. "Maat" means King sometimes used interchangably with "Buur".^[83]
• Patar Kholleh Joof The Great - grandson of Buur Ndaah Njemeh Joof and father of Kings of Sine: Buur Sine Niokhobai Mane Joof and Buur Sine Guejopal Mane Joof. His two sons were the first of the family Joof to rule in Sine after the Battle of Turubang 1335 under the Royal House of "Boury Gnilane" of the Family Joof. Buur Patar Kholleh Joof who was ruling Lâ also defeated the King of Baol and annexed his State. He was a descendant of Jegan Joof and ancestor of the Joof Paternal Dynasty of Sine and Saloum.^[84][85]
• Laman Panga Yaye Sarr The Great. 14th century Serer noble and great opponent of the Geulwars.^[86]
• Boukar Jilak Faye. The Great 14th century warrior and father of Kings of Sine - Buur Sine Wagane Tening Faye and Tasse Tening Faye. Tasse Tening Faye was the first of the Faye Family to ruled in Sine after the Battle of Turubang 1335. His brother Wagane Tening Faye succeeded him.^[87]
• Buur Saloum Mbegani Ndour also known as Mbegan Ndour. King of the Serer Kingdom of Saloum 1494.^[88][89]

• Buur Sine Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof also spelt: "Maat Sine" or "Bour Sine" Coumba Ndoffene Famak Diouf or Coumba Ndoffène Diouf. King of the ancient Kingdom of Sine. Died in August 1871. He and his army defeated and killed Maba Diakhou Bâ at The Battle of Somba (18 July 1867) (proper: Battle of Fandane-Thiouthiogne or "Fandane-Thioutioune").^[90]
• Buur Sine Kumba Ndoffene Fandeb Joof also spelt: Bour Sine Coumba Ndoffene Fandeb Diouf - King of Sine. Extremely powerful and influential during the colonial days. Although an Animist like his ancestors, he was the only Senegambian King or leader that spoke up for Amadou Bamba when the French accused Amadou Bamba Mbackeh of piling weapons in order to attack the French.^[91]
• Alhaji A.E. Cham Joof. The well respected veteran historian and author from The Gambia. Former politician; former Director of Programmes at Radio Gambia; Former Chairman of the Gambia Scout Association and co-founder of The Education Through Culture and Communication Organisation (ECCO) - in The Gambia.^[92]
• Alhaji Demba Lamin Joof also spelt El Hadji Demba Lamine Diouf. The veteran historian on Radio Senegal and Radio Gambia, who was a regular on the program called Chossani Senegambia (the History of Senegambia).
• Alhaji Mansou Njie. Veteran history broadcaster at Radio Gambia now Gambia Radio Television Services. He was and still is the presenter of Chossani Senegambia (The History of Senegambia).
• Isatou Njie-Saidy or Mrs Isatou Njie Saidy - Vice president of The Gambia. A Serer who married a Fula hence her married name "Saidy".
• Mamadou Diouf- historian and author some of whose work include: New Perspectives on Islam in Senegal: Conversion, Migration, Wealth, Power, and Femininity
• Fatou Diome- author
• Fatou Ndiaye Sow or Madame Fatou Ndiaye Sow – children’s author. A Serer who married a Fula hence her married name "Sow".
• Léopold Sédar Senghor, was Senegal's first president.
• Abdou Diouf, the second president of Senegal and current Secretary-General of La Francophonie
• Coumba Ndoffène Diouf, politician.
• Blaise Diagne (son of a Serer) who was a Senegalese political leader, the first black African elected to the French National Assembly, and mayor of Dakar.
• Ngalandou Diouf the first officially elected African since the beginning of colonization. He represented the commune of Rufisque (Teunggèdj) at the Advisory General Assembly (Conseil Général) of Saint-Louis (Ndar), then capital of colonial Senegal.
• Nafissatou Dia Diouf- author
• Fama Diagne Sène- author
• Youssou N'Dour, the most famous and successful African singer and export over the decades. Although people think he is Wolof because he tends to sing in Wolof, the surname Ndour just like his ancestors were Serers.
• Mamadou Ndiaye, commonly known as Doudou N'Diaye Rose. Senegalese drummer and composer
• El Hadji Diouf - Footballer and twice winner of the African Gold Boot
• Laity Kama - A Senegalese judge and the first President of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda.^[93]
• Yékini (Yakhya Diop) - One of the greatest professional wrestlers of his generation. He studied the "mbapatte" Serer technique of wrestling and has ruled the wrestling ring for years.
• Moussa Sene Absa (proper name: Moussa Sene) - A highly celebrated Senegalese film director, editor, songwriter, producer and screenwriter.

See also

Related ethnic groups and dialect

• Serer-Sine
• Serer-Ndut
• Serer-Noon
• Serer-Safene
• Serer-Laalaa
• Serer-Niominka
• Template:Fr Serer people in French. External link

Other ethnic groups

• Ethnic groups in Senegal
• List of African ethnic groups

Serer kingdoms

• Kingdom of Sine
• Kingdom of Saloum
• Kingdom of Baol
• Biffeche

Demographics

• Demographics of Senegal

Presidents of Senegal

• List of Presidents of Senegal

Royalty

• Ama Gôdô Maat - (the 11th century Serer king who killed the Almoravid leader Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar)
• Maat Sine Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof - (King of Sine 1853 - 1871)
• Coronation of Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof

Filmography

• Template:Fr "Molaan" - A documentary film by Moussa Sene Absa, audiovisual ORSTOM, Bondy, 1994, 25 '(VHS)
• Template:Fr "Le Mbissa" - A documentary film by Alexis Fifis and Cécile Walter, produced by the IRD [1]

Notes

Language bibliography

English language bibliography

• Mamadou Diouf & Mara Leichtman, New perspectives on Islam in Senegal: conversion, migration, wealth, power, and femininity. Published by: Palgrave Macmillan. 2009. the University of Michigan. ISBN 0230606482, 9780230606487
• Mamadou Diouf, History of Senegal: Islamo-Wolof model and its outskirts. Maisonneuve & Larose. 2001. ISBN 2706815035, 9782706815034
• David P. Gamble & Linda K. Salmon with Alhaji Hassan Njie, Gambian Studies No. 17. People of The Gambia. I. The Wolof San Francisco 1985.
• Ebou Momar Taal, Senegambian Ethnic Groups: Common Origins and Cultural Affinities Factors and Forces of National Unity, Peace and Stability. 2010
• Elizabeth L. Berg and Ruth Wan. "Senegal". Cavendish Marshall. 2009.
• Alvise Cadamosto, Kerr (originally Portuguese) - (English commentaries - Verrier. 1994: p. 136. Russell. 2000: p. 299-300).
• Florence Mahoney, Stories of Senegambia. Publisher by Government Printer, 1982
• Elisa Daggs. All Africa: All its political entities of independent or other status. Hasting House, 1970. ISBN 0803803362, 9780803803367
• Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Hilburn Timeline of Art History. The Fulani/Fulbe People.
• Russell G. Schuh, The Use and Misuse of language in the study of African history. 1997
• Andrew Burke and David Else, The Gambia & Senegal, 2nd edition - September 2002. Published by Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd, page 13
• Daniel Don Nanjira, African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy: From Antiquity to the 21st Century. Page 91-92. Published by ABC-CLIO. 2010. ISBN 0313379823, 9780313379826
• Maurice Lombard, The golden age of Islam. Page 84. Markus Wiener Publishers. 2003. ISBN 1558763228, 9781558763227
• Roland Anthony Oliver, & J. D. Fage, Journal of African History. Volume 10. Published by: Cambridge University Press. 1969
• The African archaeological review, Volumes 17-18. Published by: Plenum Press, 2000
• J. F. Ade Ajayi & Michael Crowder, History of West Africa, Volume 1. Published by: Longman, 1985. ISBN 0582646839, 9780582646834
• Peter Malcolm Holt , The Indian Sub-continent, south-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West. Volume 2, Part 1. Published by: Cambridge University Press. 1977. ISBN 0521291372, 9780521291378
• Molefi K. Asante, The history of Africa: the quest for eternal harmony. Routledge. 2007. ISBN 0415771390, 9780415771399
• Willie F. Page, Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500). Volume 2. Published by: Facts on File. 2001. ISBN 0816044724, 9780816044726
• Anthony Ham, West Africa. Published by: Lonely Planet. 2009. ISBN 1741048214, 9781741048216
• Godfrey Mwakikagile, Ethnic Diversity and Integration in the Gambia. Page 224
• François G. Richard, "Recharting Atlantic encounters. Object trajectories and histories of value in the Siin (Senegal) and Senegambia". Archaeological Dialogues 17 (1) 1–27. Cambridge University Press 2010
• Samba Diop, The Wolof Epic: From Spoken Word to Written Text. "The Epic of Ndiadiane Ndiaye"
• Two studies on ethnic group relations in Africa - Senegal, The United Republic of Tanzania. Pages 14–15. UNESCO. 1974
• Dennis Charles Galvan, The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal. Berkeley, University of California Press, 2004
• Martin A. Klein, Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, Edinburgh At the University Press (1968)
• Lucie Gallistel Colvin. Historical Dictionary of Senegal. Scarecrow Press/ Metuchen. NJ - London (1981) ISBN 081081885x
• Portions of this article were translated from the French language Wikipedia article fr:Sérères, 2008-07-08 and August 2011.
• Patience Sonko Godwin. Leaders of Senegambia Region, Reactions To European Infiltration 19th-20th Century. Sunrise Publishers Ltd - The Gambia (1995) ISBN 9983860023
• Patience Sonko Godwin. Ethnic Groups of The Senegambia Region, A Brief History. Third Edition. Sunrise Publishers Ltd - The Gambia (2003). ISBN 9983990062
• Dennis C. Galvan. The State Must be Our Master of Fire. ISBN 9780520235915
• Samba Diop. The Wolof Epic: From Spoken Word to Written Text. "The Epic of Ndiadiane Ndiaye"
• Andrew F. Clark and Lucie Colvin Philips. Historical Dictionary of Senegal. Second Edition (1994)

French language bibliography

• Template:Fr Issa Laye Thiaw, "La Religiosité des Sereer, Avant et Pendant Leur Islamisation". Éthiopiques, No: 54, Revue Semestrielle de Culture Négro-Africaine. Nouvelle Série, Volume 7, 2e Semestre 1991.
• Template:Fr Issa Laye Thiaw, La Femme Sereer
• Template:Fr Amadou Wade. Chronique du Wâlo Sénégalais, 1186?-1855. Commented on by Vincent Monteil . Bulletin de l'IFAN, 1964, tome 26, no 3-4.
• Template:Fr Oumar Ndiaye Leyti, Le Djoloff et ses bourba
• Template:Fr Boubacar Barry, Le Royaume Du Waalo: Le Sénégal Avant La Conquėte. ISBN 2865371417 (2-86537-141-7)
• Template:Fr Hugues Jean de Dianou, "Culture et Civilisation". Éthiopiques, numéro 13, 1978. Revue Socialiste de Culture Négro Africaine. Frédéric Mistra et Léopold Sédar Senghor
• Template:Fr Cheikh Anta Diop, Nations nègres et culture: de l'antiquité nègre égyptienne aux problèmes culturels de l'Afrique noire d'aujourd'hui. 1954.
• Template:Fr Cheikh Anta Diop, Parénte génétique de l'égyptien pharaonique et des language Négro Africaines. Nouvelles Editions Africaines. 1977. Dakar.
• Template:Fr Cheikh Anta Diop, L'unité culturelle de l'Afrique noire. 1959
• Template:Fr Charles André Julien & Roger Le Tourneau, Histoire de L'Afrique du Nord. Published by: Praeger. 1970
• Template:Fr [Makhtar Diouf, Sénégal, les ethnies et la nation. Nouvelles Éditions Africaines du Sénégal. Dakar. (1998).
• Template:Fr C.A. Diéye, Questions nationales et ethnie en Afrique noire - le cas du Sénégal. Paris. Afrique et Développement. 1995.
• Template:Fr Cheikh Anta Diop, Nations nègres et culture: de l'antiquité nègre égyptienne aux problèmes culturels de l'Afrique noire d'aujourd'hui. 1954.
• Template:Fr A. Secka, I. Sow and M. Niass. Collaborators: A.D. Ndoye, T. Kante, A. Thiam, P. Faye and T. Ndiaye. Senegal, Horticonsult, P. Assainies, BP 26130, Dakar-Senegal.
• Template:Fr Charles Becker, Vestiges historiques, témoins matériels du passé dans les pays sereer, Dakar, CNRS-ORSTOM, 1993, 12 p.
• Template:Fr Ismaïla Ciss, Les Seerer du Nord-Ouest, Dakar, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, 1982, 66 p. (Mémoire de Maîtrise)
• Template:Fr Ismaïla Ciss, L'évolution des sociétés Sereer du nord-ouest du milieu du XIXe à la veille de la deuxième guerre mondiale, Dakar, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, 1993, 35 p. (Mémoire de DEA)
• Template:Fr Ismaïla Ciss, Colonisation et mutation des sociétés sereer du nord-ouest du milieu du XIX^e siècle à la 2^e guerre mondiale, Dakar, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, 2001, 396 p. (Thèse)
• Template:Fr Léon Diagne, Le système de parenté matrilinéaire sérère, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1985, 279 p. (Thèse de 3^e cycle)
• Template:Fr Salif Dione, L'Education traditionnelle à travers les chants et poèmes sereer, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1983, 344 p. (Thèse de 3^e cycle)
• Template:Fr Marie-Madeleine Diouf, L'image de l'enfant à travers le conte sereer du Sine, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1985, 217 p. (Mémoire de Maîtrise)
• Template:Fr Marguerite Dupire, « Funérailles et relations entre lignages dans une société bilinéaire : les Serer (Sénégal) », Anthropos, St Paul, Fribourg, 1977, vol. 72, p. 376-400
• Template:Fr Marguerite Dupire, « Les "tombes de chiens" : mythologies de la mort en pays Serer (Sénégal) », Journal of Religion in Africa, 1985, vol. 15, fasc. 3, p. 201-215
• Template:Fr Amad Faye, La poésie funèbre en pays sereer du Sine, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1980, 212 p. (Mémoire de Maîtrise)
• Template:Fr Jean-Marc Gastellu, L’égalitarisme économique des Serer du Sénégal, Paris, ORSTOM, 1981, 808 p. (Travaux et Documents de l’ORSTOM n°128) (Thèse d’Etat publiée)
• Template:Fr Henri Gravrand, La Civilisation Sereer. Cosaan : les origines, Dakar, NEA, 1983, 361 p.
• Template:Fr Henry Gravrand,La civilisation Sereer, Pangool, Dakar, Nouvelles Editions Africaines (1990)
• Template:Fr Brigitte Guigou, Les effets de l'islamisation et du catholicisme sur la condition de la femme serer (Sénégal), Paris, EHESS, 1985, 7-106 p. (Diplôme d’Études Approfondies, sociologie)
• Template:Fr Oumy K. Ndiaye, Femmes sérères et projets de développement : example de la diffusion des foyers améliorés dans le Département de Fatick, Sénégal, Université Laval, 1988 (M.A.)
• Template:Fr Théodore Ndiaye, Littérature orale et culture: example des Serer du Sénégal, Paris, Université de Paris, 1972 (Thèse de 3^e cycle)
• Template:Fr Robert A.D. Sarr, L’éducation traditionnelle chez les Sérèr (Sénégal), Paris, EPHE, 1971, 210 p. (Mémoire)
• Template:Fr Robert A.D. Sarr, Société sérèr et problèmes d’éducation traditionnelle et moderne, Paris, Université de Paris V-EPHE, 1973, 334 p. (Thèse de 3^e cycle)
• Template:Fr Birane Sène, La royauté dans vingt contes sérères, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 198?, (Mémoire de Maîtrise)
• Template:Fr Vincent Aly Thiaw, Les Sereer du Kajoor au XIX^e siècle, Uniuversité de Dakar, 1990, 117 p. (Mémoire de Maîtrise)
• Template:Fr Georges Gaan Tine, Ethnographie comparée et tourisme au Sénégal : étude du cas des pyramides dites "sereer" de Bandia, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1988, 119 p. (Mémoire de Maîtrise)
• Template:Fr Paul E. Vallée, Changements socio-économiques dans une communauté Serer, Université de Montréal, 1969 (M. A.)
• Template:Fr Alioune Sarr, Histoire du Sine-Saloum. Introduction, bibliographie et Notes par Charles Becker, BIFAN, Tome 46, Serie B, n° 3-4, 1986–1987
• Template:Fr Louis Diene Faye, Mort et Naissance - le monde Sereer. Les Nouvelles Edition Africaines. 1983. ISBN 2-7236-0868-9
• Template:Fr Simone Kalis, Médecine Traditionnelle, Religion et Divination Chez les Seereer Siin du Sénégal. La Connaissance de la Nuit. L'Harmattan, 1997. ISBN 2-7384-5196-9
• Template:Fr Salif Dione, L'Appel du Ndut, Ou l'initiation des garçons Seereer. Dakar, IFAN Cheikh Anta Diop - Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire. 2004. ISBN 92 9130 0470
• Template:Fr Éthiopiques No: 54 biannual of Black African culture. New Series Volume 7, (1991)
• Template:Fr Niokhobaye Diouf. "Chronicle of the Kingdom of Sine". Bulletin IFAN 34 B, 4
• Template:Fr Alioune Sarr. Histoire du Sine-Saloum. Introduction, bibliographie et Notes par Charles Becker, BIFAN, Tome 46, Serie B, n° 3-4, 1986–1987
• Template:Fr Boubacar Barry. Le Royaume Du Waalo: Le Sénégal Avant La Conquėte. ISBN 2865371417 (2-86537-141-7)

External links

English external Links

• National Centre For Arts and Culture – The Gambia
• Africa.com A. E. Cham Joof - Tribute
• Peoples of The Gambia, (1. The Wolof), By David P. Gamble & Linda K. Salmon with Alhaji Hassan Njie (PDF)
• Moving from Teaching African Customary Laws to Teaching African Indigenous Law. By Dr Fatou. K. Camara [PDF]
• Ethnolyrical. Tassou: The Ancient Spoken Word of African Women
• Africa.com A. E. Cham Joof - Tribute

French external links

• Template:Fr« A la découverte de la civilisation sereer avec le R. P. Gravrand » (article de Papa Massène Sène dans Éthiopiques, n° 39, nouvelle série, volume 2, 4^e trimestre 1984)
• Template:Fr« Diversité et unicité sérères : l'exemple de la région de Thiès » (article de Ousmane Sémou Ndiaye dans Éthiopiques, n° 54, nouvelle série, volume 7, 2^e semestre 1991)
• Template:Fr« Politique coloniale et organisation économique des pays serer, Sénégal, 1910-1950 » (article de Jean-Marc Gastellu, d'après son ouvrage L’égalitarisme économique des Serer du Sénégal, Paris, ORSTOM, 1981)
• Template:Fr Éthiopiques No: 54 biannual of Black African culture New Series Volume 7 (1991
• Template:Fr Soumbala La Librairie Africaine