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==Official Status==
==Official Status==
⚫
Afghanistan has two [[official language]]s, one is Pashto and the other is [[Dari (Persian)]]. Since the early 18th century, nearly [[List of monarchs of Afghanistan|every king of Afghanistan]] was Pashtun and fluent in both languages. However, the Persian language (referred to in Afghanistan officially today as ''Dari'') was more widely used in government institutions while Pashto was spoken by the [[Pashtun tribes]] as their [[native tongue]]. In 1936, Pashto was made the [[national language]] of Afghanistan by a [[royal]] [[decree]].<ref name="Iranica-languages">{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranica.com/articles/afghanistan-v-languages|title=AFGHANISTAN v. Languages|work=Ch. M. Kieffer|quote=''A. Official languages. Paṧtō (1) is the native tongue of 50 to 55 percent of Afghans...''|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] Online Version|accessdate=2010-10-10}}</ref><ref name="socioling">Modarresi, Yahya: ''Iran, Afghanistan and Tadjikistan". 1911 - 1916. In: Sociolinguistics, Vol. 3, Part. 3. Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill (eds.). Berlin, De Gryuter: 2006. p. 1915.</ref> In this regard the [[Center for Applied Linguistics]] states:{{quote|Pashto was designated a national language of Afghanistan by the Pashtuns in the various [[constitution of Afghanistan|constitutions]], and in the period of modernization, all non-Pashto-speaking government workers were required to learn the language. It was by no means a popular activity: those who took such Pashto classes allege that the Pashtun teachers made the language more difficult than it needed to be. Pashto was also required as a subject in elementary schools where the medium of instruction was Dari. The language served as a national symbol since it is primarily a language associated with Afghanistan, though around half its speakers live in Pakistan. Even so, Pashto has never had the status of Dari, which has a vast cultural and literary tradition.<ref name="CAL-2">{{cite web |url=http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/alang.html#2 |title=The Afghans - Language Use |accessdate=2010-10-24|publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL)|location=United States|date=June 30, 2002}}</ref>}}
Pashto and [[Dari Persian]] are the two [[official language|official languages]] of Afghanistan - a status held until the 1930s by Persian alone.<ref name="socioling">Modarresi, Yahya: ''Iran, Afghanistan and Tadjikistan". 1911 - 1916. In: Sociolinguistics, Vol. 3, Part. 3. Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill (eds.). Berlin, De Gryuter: 2006. p. 1915.</ref>


Since the early 18th century, nearly [[List of monarchs of Afghanistan|every king of Afghanistan]] was ethnic Pashtun and fluent in both languages.{{Citation needed|reason=to confirm truth of statement and contradicts another source|date=November 2010}} However, Persian was more widely used in government institutions while Pashto was spoken by the [[Pashtun tribes]] as their [[native tongue]]. In the 1930s, a movement began to take hold to promote Pashto as a language of government, administration and art<ref name="socioling" /> with the establishment of a Pashto Society in 1931 and the inauguration of the Kabul University in 1932 as well as the formation of the Pashto Academy ''Pashto Tolana'' in 1937.<ref name="hussain" /> In 1936, Pashto was granted the status of an official language<ref>Campbell, George L.: ''Concise compendium of the world's languages''. London: Routledge 1999.</ref> with full rights to usage in all aspects of government and education by [[royal]] [[decree]] despite the fact that the ethnically Pashtun rulers and bureaucrates spoke Persian at home and work.<ref name="hussain">Hussain, Rizwan. ''Pakistan and the emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan''. Burlington, Ashgate: 2005. p. 63.</ref> The status of official language was reaffirmed in 1964 by the constitutional assembly when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari.<ref>Dupree, Louis: ''Language and Politics in Afghanistan''. In: Contributions to Asian Studies. Vol. 11/1978. p. 131 - 141. E. J. Brill, Leiden 1978. p. 131.</ref><ref>Spooner, Bryan: "Are we teaching Persian?". In: Persian studies in North America: studies in honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery. Mehdi Marashi (ed.). Bethesda, Iranbooks: 1994. p. 1983.</ref> In Pakistan, Pashto is the official language of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] (formerly North-West Frontier Province) and the [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas]].{{Citation needed|reason=to confirm truth of statement|date=October 2010}}
In the 1930s, a movement began to take hold to promote Pashto as a language of government, administration and art<ref name="socioling" /> with the establishment of a Pashto Society in 1931 and the inauguration of the [[Kabul University]] in 1932 as well as the formation of the Pashto Academy ''Pashto Tolana'' in 1937.<ref name="hussain" /> In 1936, Pashto was granted the status of an official language<ref>Campbell, George L.: ''Concise compendium of the world's languages''. London: Routledge 1999.</ref> with full rights to usage in all aspects of government and education by royal decree despite the fact that the ethnically Pashtun rulers and bureaucrates spoke Persian at home and work.<ref name="hussain">Hussain, Rizwan. ''Pakistan and the emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan''. Burlington, Ashgate: 2005. p. 63.</ref> The status of official language was reaffirmed in 1964 by the constitutional assembly when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari.<ref>Dupree, Louis: ''Language and Politics in Afghanistan''. In: Contributions to Asian Studies. Vol. 11/1978. p. 131 - 141. E. J. Brill, Leiden 1978. p. 131.</ref><ref>Spooner, Bryan: "Are we teaching Persian?". In: Persian studies in North America: studies in honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery. Mehdi Marashi (ed.). Bethesda, Iranbooks: 1994. p. 1983.</ref> In Pakistan, Pashto is the official language of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] (formerly North-West Frontier Province) and the [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas]].{{Citation needed|reason=to confirm truth of statement|date=October 2010}}

⚫
The [[Center for Applied Linguistics]] states:{{quote|Pashto was designated a national language of Afghanistan by the Pashtuns in the various [[constitution of Afghanistan|constitutions]], and in the period of modernization, all non-Pashto-speaking government workers were required to learn the language. It was by no means a popular activity: those who took such Pashto classes allege that the Pashtun teachers made the language more difficult than it needed to be. Pashto was also required as a subject in elementary schools where the medium of instruction was Dari. The language served as a national symbol since it is primarily a language associated with Afghanistan, though around half its speakers live in Pakistan. Even so, Pashto has never had the status of Dari, which has a vast cultural and literary tradition.<ref name="CAL-2">{{cite web |url=http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/alang.html#2 |title=The Afghans - Language Use |accessdate=2010-10-24|publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL)|location=United States|date=June 30, 2002}}</ref>}}


==Grammar==
==Grammar==

Revision as of 02:28, 6 December 2010

Pashto
پښتو
Pronunciation[paʂˈto], [paçˈto], [paxˈto]
Native toAfghanistan
Pakistan
Iran (minor)
RegionSouth-Central Asia
Native speakers
C. 40-60 million[1][2][3][4][5]
Pashto alphabet
Official status
Official language in
 Afghanistan
 Pakistan (provincial language in K.P. and FATA)
Regulated byAcademy of Sciences of Afghanistan
Language codes
ISO 639-1ps
ISO 639-2pus
ISO 639-3Variously:
pst – Central Pashto
pbu – Northern Pashto
pbt – Southern Pashto

Pashto (Naskh: پښتو [paʂˈto]; also transliterated Pakhto, Pushto, Pukhto, Pashtu, or Pushtu), also known as Afghani[6], is a member of the Eastern Iranian languages group which is spoken primarily by the Pashtun people in Afghanistan and Pakistan, as well as by the Pashtun diaspora across the globe.[3][7]

Pashto belongs to the Northeastern Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian language family,[8] but Ethnologue lists it as Southeastern Iranian.[9] The number of Pashtuns or Pashto-speakers is estimated 40-60 million people world wide.[1][2][3][4][5] The Constitution of Afghanistan declares Pashto as one of the two official languages of the country, the other being Dari (Persian).[7][10][11][12]

Geographic distribution

In Afghanistan, Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south and southwest, but also in some northern and western parts of the country. The exact numbers of speakers are unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is the mother tongue of 35-60%[13][14][15][16] of the total population of Afghanistan.

Pashto is the first language of about 15.42%[17] of Pakistan's 170 million people. It is the main language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and northwestern Balochistan, but also spoken in parts of Mianwali and Attock districts of the Punjab province as well as by Pashtuns who are found living in different cities throughout the country. Modern Pashto-speaking communities are also found in the cities of Karachi and Hyderabad in Sindh.

Other communities of Pashto speakers are found in northeastern Iran, primarily in South Khorasan Province to the east of Qaen, near the Afghan border[18], and in Tajikistan.[1] There are also Pashtun communities in the southwestern part of Jammu and Kashmir as well as in Uttar Pradesh, India.[19][20][21]

Sizable Pashto-speaking communities also exist in the Middle East, especially in the United Arab Emirates,[22] and Saudi Arabia, as well as in the United States, United Kingdom,[22] Thailand, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, Qatar and Australia.

Official Status

Afghanistan has two official languages, one is Pashto and the other is Dari (Persian). Since the early 18th century, nearly every king of Afghanistan was Pashtun and fluent in both languages. However, the Persian language (referred to in Afghanistan officially today as Dari) was more widely used in government institutions while Pashto was spoken by the Pashtun tribes as their native tongue. In 1936, Pashto was made the national language of Afghanistan by a royal decree.[15][23] In this regard the Center for Applied Linguistics states:

Pashto was designated a national language of Afghanistan by the Pashtuns in the various constitutions, and in the period of modernization, all non-Pashto-speaking government workers were required to learn the language. It was by no means a popular activity: those who took such Pashto classes allege that the Pashtun teachers made the language more difficult than it needed to be. Pashto was also required as a subject in elementary schools where the medium of instruction was Dari. The language served as a national symbol since it is primarily a language associated with Afghanistan, though around half its speakers live in Pakistan. Even so, Pashto has never had the status of Dari, which has a vast cultural and literary tradition.[24]

In the 1930s, a movement began to take hold to promote Pashto as a language of government, administration and art[23] with the establishment of a Pashto Society in 1931 and the inauguration of the Kabul University in 1932 as well as the formation of the Pashto Academy Pashto Tolana in 1937.[25] In 1936, Pashto was granted the status of an official language[26] with full rights to usage in all aspects of government and education by royal decree despite the fact that the ethnically Pashtun rulers and bureaucrates spoke Persian at home and work.[25] The status of official language was reaffirmed in 1964 by the constitutional assembly when Afghan Persian was officially renamed to Dari.[27][28] In Pakistan, Pashto is the official language of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (formerly North-West Frontier Province) and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas.[citation needed]

Grammar

Main article: Pashto grammar

Pashto is an SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) language with split ergativity. Adjectives come before nouns. Nouns and adjectives are inflected for two genders (masc./fem.),[29] two numbers (sing./plur.), and four cases (direct, oblique I, oblique II and vocative). The verb system is very intricate with the following tenses: present, simple past, past progressive, present perfect and past perfect. There is also an inflection for the subjunctive mood.In any of the past tenses (simple past, past progressive, present perfect and past perfect), Pashto is an ergative language; i.e., transitive verbs in any of the past tenses agree with the object of the sentence.

Phonology

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e ə o
Open a ɑ

Pashto also has the diphthongs /ai/, /əi/, /ɑw/, /aw/.

Consonants

Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Post-
alveolar 		Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ɳ
Plosive p b t̪ d̪ ʈ ɖ k ɡ q ʔ
Affricate t͡s d͡z t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
Fricative f s z ʂ ʐ ʃ ʒ ç ʝ x ɣ h
Approximant l j w
Rhotic r ɺ̢

The phonemes /q/, /f/ tend to be replaced by [k], [p].

The retroflex lateral flap /ɺ̢/ (//) is pronounced as retroflex approximant [ɻ] when final.

The retroflex fricatives /ʂ/, /ʐ/ that are preserved in southern dialects are replaced by palatal fricatives [ç], [ʝ] in west-central dialects, velars [x], [ɣ] in northern dialects, and postalveolars [ʃ], [ʒ] in southeastern dialects.[30]

The velars /k/, /ɡ/, /x/, /ɣ/ followed by the close back rounded vowel /u/ assimilate into the labialized velars [kʷ], [ɡʷ], [xʷ], [ɣʷ].

Vocabulary

In Pashto, most of the native elements of the lexicon are related to other Eastern Iranian languages; those words can be easily compared to those known from Avestan, Ossetic and Pamir languages. However, a remarkably large number of words are special to Pashto.[31] Post-7th century borrowings came primarily from the Arabic, Persian and Hindustani languages,[32][33] with the modern educated speech borrowing words from English,[2] French,[2] and German.[2]

Writing system

Main article: Pashto alphabet

Pashto employs the Pashto alphabet, a modified form of the Persian alphabet which on its part is derived from the Arabic alphabet. It has extra letters for Pashto-specific sounds. Since the 17th century Pashto has been primarily written in the Naskh script, rather than the Nasta'liq script used for neighboring Persian and Urdu languages. The Pashto alphabet consists of 45 letters, and 4 diacritic marks. The following table gives the letters' isolated forms, along with IPA values for the letters' typical sounds:

ا
/ɑ, ʔ/		 ب
/b/		 پ
/p/		 ت
/t̪/		 ټ
/ʈ/		 ث
/s/		 ج
/d͡ʒ/		 ځ
/d͡z/		 چ
/t͡ʃ/		 څ
/t͡s/		 ح
/h/		 خ
/x/
د
/d̪/		 ډ
/ɖ/		 ﺫ
/z/		 ﺭ
/r/		 ړ
/ɺ̢, ɻ/		 ﺯ
/z/		 ژ
/ʒ/		 ږ
/ʐ, ʝ, ɡ/		 س
/s/		 ش
/ʃ/		 ښ
/ʂ, ç, x/
ص
/s/		 ض
/z/		 ط
/t̪/		 ظ
/z/		 ع
/ʔ/		 غ
/ɣ/		 ف
/f/		 ق
/q/		 ك / ک
/k/		 ګ
/ɡ/		 ل
/l/
م
/m/		 ن
/n/		 ڼ
/ɳ/		 و
/w, u, o/		 ه
/h, a, ə/		 ۀ
/ə/		 ي
/j, i/		 ې
/e/		 ى
/ai, j/		 ۍ
/əi/		 ئ
/əi/

Pashto is written from right to left.

Dialects

Main article: Pashto dialects

Pashto has two main dialects: a softer dialect spoken in the south, and a harder dialect in the north. It is dominated by the geographical spread of the shift in the pronunciation of these five consonants:

Southwest [ʂ] [ʐ] [ts] [dz] [ʒ]
Southeast [ʃ] [ʒ] [ts] [dz] [ʒ]
Northwest [ç] [ʝ] [ts] [z] [ʒ]
Northeast [x] [ɡ] [s] [z] [dʒ]

The morphological differences between the most extreme north-eastern and south-western dialects are comparatively few and unimportant, and the criteria of dialect differentiation in Pashto are primarily phonological.[34]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ a b c "Pashto, Northern". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. June 2010. Retrieved 2010-09-18. Ethnic population: 49,529,000 possibly total Pashto in all countries.
  2. ^ a b c d e Penzl, Herbert (2009). A Grammar of Pashto a Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar, Afghanistan. Ishi Press International. p. 210. ISBN 0923891722, 9780923891725. Retrieved 2010-10-25. Estimates of the number of Pashto speakers range from 40 million to 60 million... {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Penzl" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  3. ^ a b c "Pashto". Omniglot.com. Retrieved 2010-10-25. The exact number of Pashto speakers is not known for sure, but most estimates range from 45 million to 55 million.
  4. ^ a b Quiles, Carlos (2009). A Grammar of Modern Indo-European, Second Edition: Language and Culture, Writing System and Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Texts and Dictionary. European Union: Indo-European Association. p. 84. ISBN 1448682061, 9781448682065. Retrieved 2010-10-25. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ a b Thomson, Gale (2007). Countries of the World & Their Leaders Yearbook 08. Vol. 2. European Union: Indo-European Association. p. 84. ISBN 0787681083, 9780787681081. Retrieved 2010-10-25. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  6. ^ Dictionary.com, "Afghani," in The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Source location: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Afghani. Accessed: July 14, 2010.
  7. ^ a b "The Afghans - Language and Literacy". United States: Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL). June 30, 2002. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
  8. ^ Nicholas Sims-Williams, Eastern Iranian languages, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, 2010. "The Modern Eastern Iranian languages are even more numerous and varied. Most of them are classified as North-Eastern: Ossetic; Yaghnobi (which derives from a dialect closely related to Sogdian); the Shughni group (Shughni, Roshani, Khufi, Bartangi, Roshorvi, Sarikoli), with which Yaz-1ghulami (Sokolova 1967) and the now extinct Wanji (J. Payne in Schmitt, p. 420) are closely linked; Ishkashmi, Sanglichi, and Zebaki; Wakhi; Munji and Yidgha; and Pashto."
  9. ^ Pashto Family Tree. SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World.
  10. ^ Constitution of Afghanistan - Chapter 1 The State, Article 16 (Languages) and Article 20 (Anthem)
  11. ^ Banting, Erinn (2003). Afghanistan: The land. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 4. ISBN 0778793354. Retrieved 2010-08-22. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
  12. ^ "General Information About Afghanistan". Abdullah Qazi. Afghanistan Online. Retrieved 2010-09-27.
  13. ^ "Languages: Afghanistan". Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2010-09-18. Afghan Persian or Dari (official) 50%, Pashto (official) 35%...
  14. ^ "Pashto, Southern: a language of Afghanistan". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Retrieved 2010-09-18. ...35% to 50% of the population (1996).
  15. ^ a b "AFGHANISTAN v. Languages". Ch. M. Kieffer. Encyclopædia Iranica Online Version. Retrieved 2010-10-10. A. Official languages. Paṧtō (1) is the native tongue of 50 to 55 percent of Afghans...
  16. ^ Brown, Keith (2009). Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. Elsevie. p. 845. ISBN 0080877745, 9780080877747. Retrieved 2010-09-24. Pashto, which is mainly spoken south of the mountain range of the Hindu Kush, is reportedly the mother tongue of 60% of the Afghan population. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Government of Pakistan: Population by Mother Tongue
  18. ^ "Languages of Iran". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Retrieved 2010-09-27.
  19. ^ Walter R Lawrence, Imperial Gazetteer of India. Provincial Series, pg 36-37, Link
  20. ^ "Study of the Pathan Communities in four States of India". Khyber.org. Retrieved 2009-06-07.
  21. ^ "Phonemic Inventory of Pashto" (PDF). CRULP. Retrieved 2007-06-07.
  22. ^ a b "Languages of United Arab Emirates". SIL International. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Retrieved 2010-09-27. Cite error: The named reference "Ethnologue-UAE" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  23. ^ a b Modarresi, Yahya: Iran, Afghanistan and Tadjikistan". 1911 - 1916. In: Sociolinguistics, Vol. 3, Part. 3. Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill (eds.). Berlin, De Gryuter: 2006. p. 1915.
  24. ^ "The Afghans - Language Use". United States: Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL). June 30, 2002. Retrieved 2010-10-24.
  25. ^ a b Hussain, Rizwan. Pakistan and the emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan. Burlington, Ashgate: 2005. p. 63.
  26. ^ Campbell, George L.: Concise compendium of the world's languages. London: Routledge 1999.
  27. ^ Dupree, Louis: Language and Politics in Afghanistan. In: Contributions to Asian Studies. Vol. 11/1978. p. 131 - 141. E. J. Brill, Leiden 1978. p. 131.
  28. ^ Spooner, Bryan: "Are we teaching Persian?". In: Persian studies in North America: studies in honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery. Mehdi Marashi (ed.). Bethesda, Iranbooks: 1994. p. 1983.
  29. ^ Emeneau, M. B. (1962) "Bilingualism and Structural Borrowing" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106(5): pp. 430-442, p. 441
  30. ^ Michael M.T. Henderson, Four Varieties of Pashto
  31. ^ "AFGHANISTAN vi. Paṧto". G. Morgenstierne. Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Version. Retrieved 2010-10-10.
  32. ^ Vladimir Kushev (1997). "Areal Lexical Contacts of the Afghan (Pashto) Language (Based on the Texts of the XVI-XVIII Centuries)". Iran and the Caucasus. 1. Brill: 159–166. Retrieved 2009-06-07.
  33. ^ "Census of India, 1931, Volume 17, Part 2". Times of India. 1937. Retrieved 2009-06-07. At the same time Pashto has borrowed largely from Persian and Hindustani, and through those languages from Arabic. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  34. ^ D. N. MacKenzie, "A Standard Pashto", Khyber.org

Bibliography

  • Schmidt, Rüdiger (ed.) (1989). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum. Wiesbaden: Reichert. ISBN 3-88226-413-6. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  • Gusain, Lakhan (2008??) " A Grammar of Pashto". Ann Arbor, MI: Northside Publishers. ISBN ??
  • Georg Morgenstierne (1926) Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan. Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Serie C I-2. Oslo. ISBN 0-923891-09-9
  • Herbert Penzl A Grammar of Pashto A Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar, Afghanistan ISBN 0923891722
  • Herbert Penzl A Reader of Pashto ISBN 0923891714

External links

source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pashto_language&diff=next&oldid=400637732

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