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*;''Alay'': Abode; from Sanskrit ā-laya. e.g. [[Meghalaya]], [[Himalaya]], Lokā-laya (settlement).
*;''Alay'': Abode; from Sanskrit ā-laya. e.g. [[Meghalaya]], [[Himalaya]], Lokā-laya (settlement).
*;''Desh'': village, land, country; from Sanskrit देश (desa) for "[[country]]"<ref name="auto3">{{cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra Nath |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1988 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA281 |publisher=New Age International |page=281 |isbn=978-81-224-1198-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNkBAAAAMAAJ&q=%22-desh%22+%22country%22+%22suffix%22 |title=Samagra Savarkar Wangmaya |last=Prantik |first=Maharashtra |publisher=Hindusabha |page=436 |year=1963 |access-date=21 July 2017 |via=Google Books}}</ref> &mdash; e.g. [[Bangladesh]]. In [[Indonesia]] it becomes [[Villages of Indonesia#Types of villages|''Desa'']] which is another [[bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]] word for "village".
*;''Desh'': village, land, country; from Sanskrit देश (desa) for "[[country]]"<ref name="auto3">{{cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra Nath |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1988 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA281 |publisher=New Age International |page=281 |isbn=978-81-224-1198-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNkBAAAAMAAJ&q=%22-desh%22+%22country%22+%22suffix%22 |title=Samagra Savarkar Wangmaya |last=Prantik |first=Maharashtra |publisher=Hindusabha |page=436 |year=1963 |access-date=21 July 2017 |via=Google Books}}</ref> &mdash; e.g. [[Bangladesh]]. In [[Indonesia]] it becomes [[Villages of Indonesia#Types of villages|''Desa'']] which is another [[bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]] word for "village".
⚫
*;''Garh'': [[fort]]ress{{sfn|Husain Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|pp=74&ndash;75}} &mdash; [[Chandigarh]], [[Panchgarh]], [[Ramgarh (disambiguation)|Ramgarh]]
*;''Nagar'': city, land, country, village;{{sfn|Husain Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}} from Sanskrit नगर (nagara) &mdash; e.g. [[Ahmednagar]], [[Biratnagar]]. In [[bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]], the word ''Negara'' means "[[country]]" and the word ''[[Nagari (settlement)|Nagari]]'' is a term used in [[West Sumatra]] referring to "village". Also used in [[Borneo island]], e.g. [[Negara Brunei Darussalam]]
*;''Nagar'': city, land, country, village;{{sfn|Husain Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}} from Sanskrit नगर (nagara) &mdash; e.g. [[Ahmednagar]], [[Biratnagar]]. In [[bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]], the word ''Negara'' means "[[country]]" and the word ''[[Nagari (settlement)|Nagari]]'' is a term used in [[West Sumatra]] referring to "village". Also used in [[Borneo island]], e.g. [[Negara Brunei Darussalam]]

Many modern names using ''nagar'' in full are relatively recent origin; older names with ''nagar'' have often been shortened to ''nār'' or ''ner''.<ref name="Sankalia 1949">{{cite book |last1=Sankalia |first1=Hasmukh Dhirajlal |author-link=Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia |title=Studies in the Historical and Cultural Geography and Ethnography of Gujarat |date=1949 |publisher=Deccan College |location=Pune |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.16229 |access-date=14 July 2023}}</ref>{{rp|73}}
*;''Patti'': From Hindi ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/पट्टी paṭṭī]'', meaning "strip", itself derived from Sanskrit ''paṭṭikā''. As a place name element, it is used in the sense of "a strip of land". In some cases it refers to a share of land held in joint tenure by a ''pattidar'' (literally "shareholder").{{sfn|Mohd Siddiqi|1982|p=334-5}}
*;''Patti'': From Hindi ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/पट्टी paṭṭī]'', meaning "strip", itself derived from Sanskrit ''paṭṭikā''. As a place name element, it is used in the sense of "a strip of land". In some cases it refers to a share of land held in joint tenure by a ''pattidar'' (literally "shareholder").{{sfn|Mohd Siddiqi|1982|p=334-5}}
⚫
*;''Pur'': village, town, state, country;{{sfn|Husain Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}} from Sanskrit [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/पुर#Sanskrit पुर] (''pura'') &mdash; e.g. [[Jamalpur, Bangladesh|Jamalpur]]; [[Kanpur]]; [[Khanpur, Rahim Yar Khan|Khanpur]]; [[Janakpur]], [[Jodhpur]], [[Jaipur]], [[Udaipur]]. In [[Southeast Asia]]n and some south Asian countries, it is known as ''pura'', e.g. [[Anuradhapura]], [[Singapore|Singapura]], and [[Indonesia]]n cities such as [[Jayapura]], [[Siak Sri Indrapura]], [[Amlapura]], [[Bawean|Sangkapura]], [[Semarapura]], etc. In Indonesia, ''[[Balinese temple|pura]]'' also refers to a Hindu temple.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/travel/2019/08/24/things-you-should-know-before-visiting-temples-in-bali.html|title=Things you should know before visiting temples in Bali|publisher=The Jakarta Post}}</ref>
*;''Pind'':literally "lump" or a small altar of sand{{sfn|Husain Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}}
*;''Pind'':literally "lump" or a small altar of sand{{sfn|Husain Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}}
⚫
*;''Pur'': village, town, state, country;{{sfn|Husain Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}} from Sanskrit [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/पुर#Sanskrit पुर] (''pura'') &mdash; e.g. [[Jamalpur, Bangladesh|Jamalpur]]; [[Kanpur]]; [[Khanpur, Rahim Yar Khan|Khanpur]]; [[Janakpur]], [[Jodhpur]], [[Jaipur]], [[Udaipur]]. In [[Southeast Asia]]n and some south Asian countries, it is known as ''pura'', e.g. [[Anuradhapura]], [[Singapore|Singapura]], and [[Indonesia]]n cities such as [[Jayapura]], [[Siak Sri Indrapura]], [[Amlapura]], [[Bawean|Sangkapura]], [[Semarapura]], etc. In Indonesia, ''[[Balinese temple|pura]]'' also refers to a Hindu temple.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/travel/2019/08/24/things-you-should-know-before-visiting-temples-in-bali.html|title=Things you should know before visiting temples in Bali|publisher=The Jakarta Post}}</ref>
⚫
*;''Garh'': [[fort]]ress{{sfn|Husain Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|pp=74&ndash;75}} &mdash; [[Chandigarh]], [[Panchgarh]], [[Ramgarh (disambiguation)|Ramgarh]]

In ancient times, the word ''pura'' strictly referred to a fort, but its meaning was gradually broadened to include any town regardless of its particular function.<!-- Thakur 1994, p. 68 --> By the early medieval period, ''pura'' was often used to denote a commercial centre – especially in southern India, where the typical form was ''puram''.<!-- Thakur 1994, p. 68-9 --><ref name="Thakur 1994">{{cite journal |last1=Thakur |first1=Renu |title=Urban hierarchies, typologies and classification in early medieval India: c. 750-1200 |journal=Urban History |date=1994 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=61-76 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44612629 |access-date=9 May 2023}}</ref>{{rp|68-9}}

In many cases, old names originally ending in ''-pura'' have become shortened to ''-or'' over the centuries.<!-- Sankalia 1949, p. 72-3 --> In the case of [[Mangrol, Gujarat|Mangrol]] (originally ''Maṅgalapura''), the suffix has become ''-rol'' instead.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|71-3}}

The variant ''purā'' often originally referred to a suburb, or to a Muslim colony.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|72}}
*;''Vasaṇa'': From Sanskrit, meaning "dwelling" or "residence" (of either an individual or a group).<!-- Sankalia 1949, p. 58, 70 --> This suffix is especially common in northern Gujarat.<!-- Sankalia 1949, p. 58, 70 --> Some places, such as [[Jetalvasana]], contain the entire suffix without any modification.<!-- Sankalia 1949, p. 70 --> Others, like [[Chadasana]], [[Jhulasan]], [[Lunasan]], [[Nandasan]], and [[Ranasan]] (all of which are mentioned in medieval inscriptions with the suffix ''-vasaṇa''), have had the suffix modified to ''-saṇ(ā)'' or ''-san(ā)'' over time.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|58, 69-70}}


*[[Persian language|Persian]] or [[Arabic language|Arabic]]:
*[[Persian language|Persian]] or [[Arabic language|Arabic]]:

Revision as of 20:00, 15 July 2023

Oikonyms in Western, Central, South, and Southeast Asia can be grouped according to various components, reflecting common linguistic and cultural histories.[1] Toponymic study is not as extensive as it is for placenames in Europe and Anglophone parts of the world, but the origins of many placenames can be determined with a fair degree of certainty.[2][3] One complexity to the study when discussing it in English is that the Romanization of names, during British rule and otherwise, from other languages has not been consistent.[2]

Common affixes

Common affixes used in South Asian oikonyms can be grouped based on their linguistic origin: (with examples from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, and elsewhere such as in Sanskrit-influenced Indonesia):

Many modern names using nagar in full are relatively recent origin; older names with nagar have often been shortened to nār or ner.[10]: 73 

In ancient times, the word pura strictly referred to a fort, but its meaning was gradually broadened to include any town regardless of its particular function. By the early medieval period, pura was often used to denote a commercial centre – especially in southern India, where the typical form was puram.[13]: 68–9 

In many cases, old names originally ending in -pura have become shortened to -or over the centuries. In the case of Mangrol (originally Maṅgalapura), the suffix has become -rol instead.[10]: 71–3 

The variant purā often originally referred to a suburb, or to a Muslim colony.[10]: 72 

  • Vasaṇa
    From Sanskrit, meaning "dwelling" or "residence" (of either an individual or a group). This suffix is especially common in northern Gujarat. Some places, such as Jetalvasana, contain the entire suffix without any modification. Others, like Chadasana, Jhulasan, Lunasan, Nandasan, and Ranasan (all of which are mentioned in medieval inscriptions with the suffix -vasaṇa), have had the suffix modified to -saṇ(ā) or -san(ā) over time.[10]: 58, 69–70 
  • Persian or Arabic:
    Abad (آباد)
    "dwelling of" or "town of", combined with a person's or group's name (usually the founder or primary inhabitant(s))[5][14] — e.g. Ahmedabad; Hyderabad; Ordubad;Agrabad; Shirabad; Islamabad; Khorramabad; Mirza Abad; Ashgabad; Jalalabad; Jalal-Abad; Leninabad; Kirovabad; Vagharshapat; Sardarabad; Sardarapat . Being a generic and an ambiguous term referring to small isolated farms, village (but not city) on one hand, and towns and cities, on the other hand.[15][16][17] See also abadi (settlement).
    Bandar
    port (wikt:بندر) — e.g. Bandar Abbas; see All pages with titles containing Bandar
    Dasht
    field, desert (wikt:دشت) — e.g. Hulandasht; see All pages with titles containing dasht
    Ihtimali and Ghair Ihtimali
    From Perso-Arabic iḥtimāl, meaning "probability". In historical South Asian revenue terminology, Ihtimali referred to flood-prone lands along river banks or in low-lying areas. Ghair Ihtimali meant the opposite, i.e. not liable to flooding during the rainy season. These were used in place names to distinguish two villages with the same name, such as Todarpur Ihtimali and Todarpur Ghair Ihtimali in present-day Aligarh district, India.[18]
    Khas
    From Arabic khāṣṣ, meaning "selected" or "private". In India, it was historically used to refer to a place managed directly by the government or by a jagirdar, without any intermediaries. For example, Jamal Mohd Siddiqi identifies six places with "khās" in their name in present-day Aligarh district, India. All six were founded by Rajput chiefs during the Mughal period, and they all occupy a prominent position on high ground. Khās is also sometimes used in cases where there are two villages with the same name; in this case, khās is affixed to the older and/or larger one.[19]
    Kuy
    neighborhood (wikt:کوی) — e.g. Kordkuy; see All pages with titles containing kuy
    Mazar
    (in various languages) shrine, grave, tomb, etc. (from wikt:مزار), cf. "Mazar (mausoleum)". The placename usually refers to a grave of a saint, ruler, etc.: Mazar-i-Sharif; see All pages with titles containing Mazar
    Mazra or Majra
    Derived from Arabic mazraʕ, which originally refers to a farm field. In parts of India, though, the term refers to a hamlet or cluster of houses that is separate from, but subordinate to, a larger village. (The reason for the hamlet's separation is so that farmers can be closer to their crops.) Places with Majra in their name typically originated in this manner and later became independent villages of their own.[20]
    Milk
    Derived from Arabic milk, meaning "possession" or "property". Like chak, it was historically used to designate a rent-free piece of land. Milk in particular usually designated land held by Muslim zamindars.[21]
    Munzabtah
    Derived from Perso-Arabic munzabt, meaning "confiscated". For example, the village of Raipur Munzabtah in Aligarh district got its name because it was confiscated by the British government after its pattidar participated in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.[21]
    Mutafarriqat
    From Arabic mutafarriqāt, literally meaning "miscellaneous". This was used historically to denote a fiscal or administrative unit consisting of various scattered pieces of land. Villages called "mutafarriqat" are so named because they belonged to such a unit.[19]
    Nisfi
    Derived from Arabic niṣf, meaning "half". For example, the village of Marhauli Nisfi Ashrafabad in present-day Aligarh district was formed by taking out a half portion from Ashrafabad.[21]
    Raiyyat
    From Perso-Arabic ra'iyyat, meaning "subjects, peasants, cultivators". It is used, for example, in the name of Lalpur Raiyyatpur in present-day Aligarh district, which likely originated as a settlement of peasants under the zamindar of nearby Lalpur.[22]
    Shahr, shehr
    city[5] — e.g. Bulandshahr
    Kale, Kaleh, Qala, Qalat, Qila
    fort, fortres, castle;[5] see also "Qalat (fortress)"
    Ganj, gunj, gunge
    Persian-Urdu, taken to mean neighborhood in Indian context. For example, Daryaganj, Sunamganj
    Basti
    a granted habitat, also sanctuary from the Persian suffix, bastī[23]— e.g. Basti Maluk, Azam Basti,
    Nahri
    (irrigation) canal[5]
    Nahr
    wikt:نهر, river, e.g., Nahr-e Mian; see All pages with titles containing Nahr-e
    Dera
    tent[24] — e.g. Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan
    Gerd or Gerad' گرد یا جرد': گرد Belgrad Stalingerad دارابگرد دستجرد

See also

References

  1. ^ Husain Siddiqi & Bastian 1985, p. 65.
  2. ^ a b Husain Siddiqi & Bastian 1985, p. 67.
  3. ^ Mohd Siddiqi 1982, p. 332.
  4. ^ a b Southworth 1995, p. 271.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Husain Siddiqi & Bastian 1985, p. 74.
  6. ^ Christie 1887, p. 153, PATAM.
  7. ^ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999) [First published 1988]. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 281. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
  8. ^ Prantik, Maharashtra (1963). Samagra Savarkar Wangmaya. Hindusabha. p. 436. Retrieved 21 July 2017 – via Google Books.
  9. ^ Husain Siddiqi & Bastian 1985, pp. 74–75.
  10. ^ a b c d Sankalia, Hasmukh Dhirajlal (1949). Studies in the Historical and Cultural Geography and Ethnography of Gujarat. Pune: Deccan College. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
  11. ^ Mohd Siddiqi 1982, p. 334-5.
  12. ^ "Things you should know before visiting temples in Bali". The Jakarta Post.
  13. ^ Thakur, Renu (1994). "Urban hierarchies, typologies and classification in early medieval India: c. 750-1200". Urban History. 21 (1): 61–76. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
  14. ^ Christie 1887, p. 2, ABAD.
  15. ^ Balland, Daniel; Bazin, Marcel (2020-08-30). "DEH". Encyclopaedia Iranica Online.
  16. ^ "۱۷۰۰ روستای خراسان جنوبی خالی از سکنه شده‌اند". Deutsche Welle (in Persian). 2020-06-20. Archived from the original on 21 June 2020.
  17. ^ Manual for Census Takers [Râhnamây-e Ma'mur-e Saršomâri] (PDF). Tehran: Statistical center of Iran. 2006. pp. 59–65.
  18. ^ Mohd Siddiqi 1982, p. 338.
  19. ^ a b Mohd Siddiqi 1982, p. 336.
  20. ^ Mohd Siddiqi 1982, p. 335.
  21. ^ a b c Mohd Siddiqi 1982, p. 337.
  22. ^ Mohd Siddiqi 1982, p. 338-9.
  23. ^ "BASTI English Definition and Meaning | Lexico.com". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on March 27, 2022. Retrieved 2022-03-27.
  24. ^ Husain Siddiqi & Bastian 1985, p. 75.
  25. ^ Hayyim, Sulayman (1892), "ستان", New Persian-English Dictionary, vol. 2, Tehran: Librairie imprimerie Béroukhim, p. 30 Quote= ستان (p. V2-0030) ستان (۲) Suffix meaning 'a place abounding in'. Ex. گلستان a flower or rose-garden. Syn. زار See گازار Note. This suffix is pronounced stan or setan after a vowel, as in بوستان boostan, a garden, and هندوستان hendoostan, India; and estan after a consonant. Ex. گلستان golestan, and ترکستان torkestan. However, for poetic license, after a consonant also, it may be pronounced setan. Ex. گلستان golsetan

Sources

  • Blackie, Christina (1887). Geographical Etymology: A Dictionary of Place-names Giving Their Derivations (3rd ed.). John Murray.
  • Siddiqi, Akhtar Husain; Bastian, Robert W. (1985). "Urban Place Names in Pakistan: A Reflection of Cultural Characteristics". Names. 29 (1): 65–84. OCLC 500207327.
  • Siddiqi, Jamal Mohd (1982). Significance of technical terms in place names—a case-study of Aligarh District. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 43. pp. 332–341. JSTOR 44141245.
  • Southworth, Franklin C. (1995). "Reconstructing social context from language: Indo-Aryan and Dravidian pre-history". In Erdosy, George (ed.). The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity. Indian philology and South Asian studies. Vol. 1. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110144475. ISSN 0948-1923.

Further reading

source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oikonyms_in_Western_and_South_Asia&diff=prev&oldid=1165534118

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