Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a set of techniques, axioms and beliefs, that adherents use primarily as an approach to personal development. It is based on the idea that mind, body and language interact to create an individual's perception of the world and that perceptions, and hence behaviors, can be changed by the application of a variety of techniques; in particular, "modeling" which involves the careful reproduction of the behaviors and beliefs of those who have achieved 'excellence', or of the more successful parts of oneself.

NLP is criticized in literature concerned with the spread of misconceptions about the brain and the adoption of dubious and pseudoscientific interventions in psychotherapy, popular psychology, and human resources management ^{[1][1][2][3][4]}.

General Description

NLP was influenced by the ideas of the New Age era as well as beliefs in human potential. The basic ideas of NLP were developed around 1973 by Richard Bandler, a student, and John Grinder, a professor of linguistics, in association with the social scientist Gregory Bateson. It is an eclectic field, and covers a wide array of aspects of personal development. The early focus of NLP was the study of the underlying patterns in the language and techniques of noted and successful therapists in hypnotherapy, gestalt therapy and family therapy. Although the underlying theoretical principles have not been supported by scientific research,^[5][6] a number of its techniques appear to have been based upon existing therapeutic techniques.^[5]

NLP continues to be used as an adjunct by some therapists in other therapeutic disciplines, and has also developed as a therapy in its own right based on the model created from the study of successful therapists. Subsequently techniques have been applied to a variety of fields, often in the form of group training or seminars in addition to individual client/practitioner based consultations. NLP practitioners deal with personal issues ranging from reframing negative beliefs, to dealing with stage fright and simple phobias, to self-help, depression, or addiction. More generally they deal with peak performance assistance in business or sports and communications and motivation. Professionals in other fields take up NLP as professional training for coaching, consulting, counseling and therapy.^[7] NLP and its techniques have been widely adopted for use in motivational seminars, adult learning, and management and sales training, often being mixed with pop psychology and other applications outside of mainstream, like seduction.

NLP has been criticised for lacking a defining and regulating body to impose standards and a professional ethical code. The quality and length of training and quality of practitioners varies widely.^[7]Despite its popularity^[8][9] NLP continues to be controversial, particularly for use in therapy, and after three decades of existence remains scientifically unvalidated.^[1]

Concepts and methods

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is based on the idea that with our senses we are only able to perceive a small part of the world. Our view of the world is filtered by our experience, beliefs, values and assumptions. We act and feel based on our perception of the world rather than the real world. NLP teaches that language and behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional) are highly structured, and that this structure can be 'modeled' or copied into a reproducible form.^[10] Using NLP a person can 'model' the more successful parts of their own behavior in order to reproduce it in areas where they are less successful or 'model' another person to effect belief and behavior changes to improve functioning. If someone excels in some activity, it can be learned how specifically they do it by observing certain important details of their behaviour.^[11] NLP embodies several techniques, including hypnotic techniques, which proponents claim can effect changes in the way people think, learn and communicate.^[12]

Internal 'maps' of the world

NLP calls each individual's perception of the world their 'map'. NLP teaches that our mind-body (neuro) and what we say (language) all interact together to form our perceptions of the world, or maps (programming). Each person's map of the world determines feelings and behavior. Therefore, impoverished - and unrealistic - maps can restrict choices and result in problems. As an approach to therapy it involves understanding that people create their own internal 'map' or world, recognizing unhelpful or destructive patterns of thinking based on impoverished maps of the world, then modifying or replacing these patterns with more useful or helpful ones. There is also an emphasis on ways to change internal representations or maps of the world in order to increase behavioral flexibility.^[10][13][11]

Modeling

"Modeling" in NLP is the process of adopting the behaviors, language, strategies and beliefs of another or understanding the pattern of one's own behaviors in order to model aspects of oneself. The founders, Bandler and Grindler started by analysing in detail and then searching for what made successful psychotherapists different from their peers. The patterns discovered were adapted for general communication and effecting change.^[10] As an approach to learning it can involve modeling exceptional people. NLP modeling methods are designed to unconsciously assimilate the tacit knowledge to learn what the master is doing of which the master is not aware.^[14] As Bandler and Grinder state "the function of NLP modeling is to arrive at descriptions which are useful."^[10] Einspruch & Forman 1985 state that "when modeling another person the modeler suspends his or her own beliefs and adopts the structure of the physiology, language, strategies, and beliefs of the person being modeled. After the modeler is capable of behaviorally reproducing the patterns (of behavior, communication, and behavioral outcomes) of the one being modeled, a process occurs in which the modeler modifies and readopts his or her own belief system while also integrating the beliefs of the one who was modeled."^[15]

Meta model

In NLP the Meta-model is a set of specifying questions or language patterns designed to challenge and expand the limits to a person's model or 'map' of the world. When a person speaks about a problem or situation their choice of words will distort, generalize, and delete portions of their experience. By listening to and responding to these language patterns the practitioner seeks to help the client to recover the information that is under the surface of the words. In business or therapy, this might be used to help a client elaborate the details of problems, proposals and objectives by asking about the important information that has been left out. For example, a person states that "we need to make a decision", a response could be to ask who will be actually be doing the deciding and how exactly the process of deciding (from decision) would take place. The word we does not specify who is doing the action. Also, the word 'decision' is a process which had been turned into a abstract noun. In that statement there was also an implied necessity (from need) which could also be challenged to find out if it really is a necessity.^[11]

Milton model

The milton model is a form of hypnotherapy based on the language patterns for hypnotic communication of Milton Erickson, a noted hypnotherapist.^[16] It has been described as "a way of using language to induce and maintain trance in order to contact the hidden resources of our personality".^[17] The milton model has three primary aspects: Firstly, to assist in building and maintaining rapport with the client. Secondly, to overload and distract the conscious mind so that unconscious communication can be cultivated. Thirdly, to allow for interpretation in the words offered to the client.^[18]

1. Rapport

The first aspect, building rapport,or empathy, is done to achieve better communication and responsiveness. NLP teaches 'mirroring' or matching body language, posture, breathing, predicates and voice tonality. Rapport is an aspect of 'pacing' or tuning into the client or learners world. Once pacing is established, the practitioner can 'lead' by changing their behavior or perception so the other follows. O'Connor & Seymour in "Introducing NLP" describe rapport as a 'harmonious dance', an extension of natural skills, but warn against mimicry.^[17] Singer gives examples of the pantomime effect of mere mimicry by some practitioners which does not create rapport.^[19]

2. Overloading conscious attention

The second aspect of the milton model is that it uses ambiguity in language and non-verbal communication. This might also be combined with vagueness, which arises when the boundaries of meaning are indistinct. The use of ambiguity and vagueness distracts the conscious mind as it tries to work out what is meant which gives the unconscious mind the opportunity to prosper.

3. Indirect communication

The third aspect of the milton model is that it is purposely vague and metaphoric for the purpose of accessing the unconscious mind. It is used to soften the meta model and make indirect suggestions.^[20] A direct suggestion merely states what is wanted, for example, "when you are in front of the audience you will not feel nervous". In contrast an indirect suggestion is less authoritative and leaves an opportunity for interpretation, for example, "When you are in front of the audience, you might find yourself feeling ever more confident". This example follows the indirect method leaving both the specific time and level of self-confidence unspecified. It might be made even more indirect by saying, "when you come to a decision to speak in public, you may find it appealing how your feelings have changed." The choice of speaking in front of the audience, the exact time and the likely responses to the whole process are framed but the imprecise language gives the client the opportunity to fill in the finer details.^[21]

Representational systems

In NLP, representational systems are seen as ways of perceiving the world through the senses and of storing the information from the senses in the mind. Memories are closely linked to sensory experience. When people are involved in tasks, such as making conversation, describing a problem in therapy, kicking a ball or riding a horse, their representational systems, consisting of images, sounds, feelings (and possibly smell and taste) are being activated at the same time.^[6] This can limit people's capacity or result in negative associations. Many NLP techniques rely on ascertaining and manipulating the sequences of representational systems.

Preferred representational systems

NLP teaches that each person has an internal preferred representational system (PRS) which a practitoner can ascertain from external cues such as the direction of eye movements, posture, breathing, voice tone and the use of sensory-based predicates. The practitioner is taught to 'mirror' these cues for better communication. For example when someone says, "I can't see a future for myself" then an NLP practitioner might respond using visual predicates to assist the speaker to build more positive visual representations. The existence of a preferred representational system indicated by external cues has been discounted by research.^[22][23][24]

Submodalities

Submodalities are the details of representational systems, such as size, brightness, volume, taste, proximity, intensity and other sensations.^[25] There is a variety of techniques for changing submodalities and the associated emotional state (or 'anchor'). For example someone may see their future as 'dark and cloudy' with associated emotions, but would seek through NLP to perceive, and feel it, as 'light and clear'.

Aphorisms

• The map is not the territory
• Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes
• Behind every behavior is a positive intention
• Rapport is necessary for effective communication
• There is no failure, only feedback
• Choice is better than no choice (and flexibility is the way one gets choice)
• The meaning of the communication is in the response
• People already have all the resources they need to succeed
• Multiple descriptions are better than one

Techniques

Anchoring

NLP teaches that we constantly make anchors (associations) between what we see, hear and feel and our emotional states. While in an emotional state if a person is exposed to a unique stimulus (sight, sound or touch) then a connection is made between the emotion and the unique stimulus. If the unique stimulus occurs again, the emotional state will then be triggered. NLP teaches that anchors (such as a particular touch associated with a memory or state) can be deliberately created and triggered to help people access 'resourceful' or other target states. ^[26] .

Swish

The standard swish pattern involves visualization of an unwanted behavior as small and dark and then switching the image with a larger, brighter version of more desirable behavior. For example switching a small dark, overflowing and disorganised in-tray for a large bright, completed, up-to-date in-tray. In addition to visualization, during the swish process auditory sound effects are often imagined to enhance the experience. ^[27]

Reframing

Another technique, reframing functions through "changing the way you perceive an event and so changing the meaning. When the meaning changes, responses and behaviours will also change. Reframing with language allows you to see the world in a different way and this changes the meaning. Reframing is the basis of jokes, myths, legends, fairy tales and most creative ways of thinking."^[28] There are examples in children's literature. Pollyanna would play The Glad Game whenever she felt down about life, to remind herself of the things that she could do, and not worry about the things she couldn't. Alice Mills also says that this occurs in Hans Christian Andersen's story where to the surprise of the ugly duckling, the beautiful creatures welcome and accept him; gazing at his reflection, he sees that he too is a swan.^[29]

Six step reframe

An example of reframing is found in the six-step reframe which involves distinguishing between an underlying intention and the consequent behaviors for the purpose of achieving the intention by different and more successful behaviours. It is based on the notion that there is a positive intention behind all behaviors, but that the behaviors themselves may be unwanted or counterproductive in other ways. NLP uses this staged process, to identify the intention and create alternative choices to satisfy that intention.

Parts integration

Parts Integration is based on the idea that different aspects of ourselves are in conflict due to different perceptions and beliefs. 'Parts integration' is the process of integrating the disparate aspects of the self by identifying and then negotiating with the separate parts to achieve resolution of internal conflict.

History and development

1970s: Founding and early development

NLP was co-founded and developed jointly by Richard Bandler and UCSC assistant professor of linguistics John Grinder under the tutelage of noted anthropologist Gregory Bateson, at the University of California, Santa Cruz, during the 1960s and 1970s. At that time the Californian human potential seminars were developing into a viable industry. Gregory Bateson (see Esalen Institute) was influenced by Alfred Korzybski particularly his ideas about human modeling and that 'the map is not the territory'. These ideas were adopted by Bandler and Grinder^[11]. From 1972, the co-founders of NLP had an interest in the exceptional communications skills of gestalt therapist Fritz Perls, family therapist Virginia Satir and founding president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis, Milton H. Erickson. Subsequently Structure of Magic Series (1975) and Patterns of Milton H. Erickson (1976, 1977) were published using those therapists as models. In the late 1970s, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon worked with the co-founders and separately to contribute to the development of NLP.

1980s: New developments and scientific assessment

In the 1980s, shortly after publishing Neuro-linguistic Programming Volume 1 ^[12] with Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier, Grinder and Bandler fell out. Amidst acrimony and intellectual property lawsuits, NLP started to be developed haphazardly by many individuals. During the 1980s John Grinder and Judith Delozier collaborated to develop a form of NLP called the New Code of NLP which attempted to restore a whole mind-body systemic approach to NLP. Richard Bandler also published new processes with submodalities and Ericksonian hypnosis as in Using Your Brain: For a Change (1984). Meanwhile Anthony Robbins who taught NLP in the late 1970s, began mass marketing products incorporating aspects of NLP (renamed as Neuro Associative Conditioning). Other practitioners and trainers modified, renamed and developed their own variations of NLP. Michael Hall offered NLP with a focus on what he termed meta-states (mentally stepping back and viewing the self from a larger perspective). Tad James developed a timeline therapy consulting technique ^{[citation needed]} where clients were encouraged to visualise, and perhaps also physically create the timeline of their life (or facets of it) and then alter and improve that timeline. NLP contributors Judith DeLozier, and Connirae and Steve Andreas also emerged during this time. Given the multiplicity of developers and trainers, there was to be no single definitive system of NLP.^[6]

In the late 1980s, Sharpley's (1984, 1987) research reviews in experimental counseling psychology and by the United States National Research Council gave NLP an overall negative assessment. Thereafter, except for sporadic articles on NLP in different fields, there was a marked decrease in NLP research.

1990s: Controversy, division, and marketing

In July of 1996 after many years of legal controversy, Bandler filed a lawsuit against John Grinder et al, claiming retrospective sole ownership of NLP, and the sole right to use the term under trademark.^[30][31] Contemporaneous with Bandler's suits in the Supreme Court of the United States^{[citation needed]}, Tony Clarkson (a UK practitioner) successfully asked the UK High Court to revoke Bandler's UK registered trademark of "NLP", in order to clarify legally that 'NLP' was a generic term rather than intellectual property. ^[32] Due to the fragmentation of NLP practice and the lack of a defining and regulating structure to oversee the rapidly growing field, it seemed for a time that NLP could be (and was) promoted as the "latest thing", a panacea, or universal miracle solution.^[33][34] Dubious models and practices burgeoned, in parallel with bona fide. For a number of these new practices, profit, marketability or New Age appeal proved a stronger motive than realism or ethics.^{[citation needed]}Despite the NLP community being splintered, most NLP material acknowledges the early work of the co-founders, Bandler and Grinder, and the development group that surrounded them in the 1970s.

2000s: Legal settlement and government regulation

In 2001, the law suits were settled with Bandler and Grinder agreeing to be known as co-founders of NLP. Since 1978, a 20 day NLP practitioner certification program had been in existence for training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In the 1990's, following attempts to put NLP on a more formally regulated footing in the UK, other governments began certifying NLP courses and providers, such as in Australia for example, where a graduate certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming is accredited under the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF).^[35] However, NLP continues to be an open field of training with no 'official' best practice. With different authors, individual trainers and practitioners having developed their own methods, concepts and labels, often branding them as "NLP":^[36], the training standards and quality differ greatly.^[37] In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. The multiplicity and general lack of controls has led to difficulty discerning the comparative level competence, skill and attitude in different NLP trainings. According to Peter Schütz the length of training in Europe varies from 2-3 days, for the hobbyist, to 35-40 days over at least nine months to achieve a professional level of competence.^[37]

Classifying NLP

Science and pseudoscience

Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier claim "NLP is rooted in the synthesis of three areas of modern science: neurophysiology, linguistics and cybernetics (computer programming)." ^[38] Grinder & Bostic St Clair (2001) make suggestions about what needs to be done next to "improve the practice [of NLP] and take its rightful place as a scientifically based endeavor with its precise focus on one of the extremes of human behavior: excellence and the high performers who actually do it."^[39] They ask those interested to work with researchers in cognitive linguistics and neuroscience to begin to improve the relationship with those fields. O'Connor and Seymour, in "Introducing NLP" (2002), originally published in 1990 and endorsed by both Dilts and Grinder, state "NLP is the art and science of personal excellence.... Science because there is a method and process for discovering the patterns used by outstanding individuals in any field to achieve outstanding results. This process is called modelling,...".^[17] However, psycholinguist Willem Levelt (1996) states "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises."... "NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming".^[40][41] Cognitive neuroscience researcher Michael C Corballis (1999) agrees and says that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability."^[42] Drenth (2003) uses the "movement known by the name NLP" to illustrate his descriptions of pseudoscience, stating "Unlike diagnosis, prediction of human performance or behavior, and assessment, therapy is not an (applied) scientific activity. Criteria for therapeutic activity is effectiveness, not verity;" ... "But what brings some of these therapeutic approaches into the category of pseudoscience is the claim that their presumptions are predicated on scientific understanding and scientific evidence." ^{[40] [43]} Psychologist Margaret Singer (1996) criticizes NLP promoters and advertisers for continuing to "call the originators 'scientists' and to use such terms a 'science', 'technology' and 'hi-tech psychology' in describing NLP"(p.172).^[19]

Research reviews

Main articles: NLP and science, List of studies on Neuro-linguistic programming

Peer-reviewed psychological and experimental literature in NLP has been sporadic.

Sharpley (1987), stated that the techniques and underlying theory of NLP, as a counseling tool, were both empirically unvalidated and unsupported.^[5] A literature review by Sharpley (1984) found "little research evidence supporting its usefulness as an effective counseling tool"^[44] and no reproducible support for preferred representational systems (PRS) and predicate matching.^[22] Sharpley (1987) states "there are conclusive data from the research on NLP, and the conclusion is that the principles and procedures of NLP have failed to be supported by those data".

Einspruch and Forman (1985) broadly agreed with Sharpley but disputed the conclusions identifying a failure to address methodological errors in the research reviewed. They stated "NLP is far more complex than presumed by researchers, and thus, the data are not true evaluations of NLP" adding that NLP is difficult to test under the traditional counseling framework. Moreover the research lacked a necessary understanding of pattern recognition as part of advanced NLP training and furthermore, that there was inadequate control of context, an unfamiliarity with NLP as an approach to therapy, inadequate definitions of rapport and numerous logical mistakes in the research methodology.^[15]

Sharpley (1987) responded with more studies on the basic tenets of NLP stating "certainly research data do not support the rather extreme claims that proponents of NLP have made as to the validity of its principles or the novelty of its procedures." and also that NLP may be untestable stating "perhaps NLP principles are not amenable to research evaluation. This does not necessarily reduce NLP to worthlessness for counseling practice. Rather, it puts NLP in the same category as psychoanalysis, that is, with principles not easily demonstrated in laboratory settings but, nevertheless, strongly supported by clinicians in the field." ^[5]

Druckman and Swets (1988) NRC found that "studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique". They also concluded matching representational systems to gain rapport was ineffective, however the idea of modeling of expert performance "merits further consideration" ^[6]. In a follow up study on modeling (amongst other matters) by Swets and Bjork (1991) NLP was not included except by way of acknowledgment for the idea.^[45]

Michael Heap (1988), a researcher in hypnosis, asserted that "the effectiveness of NLP therapy undertaken in authentic clinical contexts of trained practitioners has not yet been properly investigated." and further that "there is not, and never has been, any substance to the conjecture that people represent their world internally in a preferred mode which may be inferred from their choice of predicates and from their eye movements."^[23]

Efran and Lukens (1990) stated that the "original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy".^[46]

Barry Beyerstein (1990) asserts that "though it claims neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of the relationship between cognitive style and brain function ultimately boils down to crude analogies."^[4] With reference to all the 'neuromythologies' covered in his article, including NLP, he states "In the long run perhaps the heaviest cost extracted by neuromythologists is the one common to all pseudosciences—deterioration in the already low levels of scientific literacy and critical thinking in society. "^[4]

Von Bergen et al (1997) state NLP was dropped from the experimental psychology research stream. They stated that "in relation to current understanding of neurology and perception, NLP is in error" and that "NLP does not stand up to scientific scrutiny" ^[3].

Carbonell and Figley at Florida State University, Traumatology have published an exploratory study on V/KD, a component of NLP, and three other novel treatments for trauma (Thought Field Therapy, Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing and Traumatic Incident Reduction). The active ingredient for V/KD, was in deliberately creating a temporary state of dissociation from the traumatic event. However, this study was not designed as an outcome study, thus no conclusions can be drawn about the efficacy of these techniques from that study.^[47][48][49] With reference to this exploratory study (including NLP) John Wilson states that while it is "adequately descriptive of the clinical procedures, there is little, if any, empirically validated dated outcome studies to substantiate a theory driven and research informed brief treatment (p. 173–207)."^[50]

Donald Eisner (2000) in The Death of Psychotherapy, states that "There is only one problem with the claims made by NLP and the IDEA Seminars: not one iota of clinical research supports any of the claims. Apparently, no peer-reviewed research has been published for over a decade. Moreover, there has been virtually no comparative research recently that assesses NLP's effectiveness. Word of mouth, reputation, charisma and neatly packaged seminars seem to constitute proof of NLP's favorable outcome. If such incredible results had truly been achieved, why haven't they been documented and presented to the scientific community and the general public".^[2]

Lilienfield et al (2002), describe NLP as "a scientifically unsubstantiated therapeutic method that purports to "program" brain functioning through a variety of techniques, including mirroring the postures and nonverbal behaviors of clients" and include it in their description "(Quick Fix + Pseudoscientific Gloss) x Credulous Public = High Income".^[51].

Devilly (2005) states that "at the time of its introduction, NLP was heralded as a breakthrough in therapy and advertisements for training workshops, videos and books began to appears in trade magazines. The workshops provided certification... However, controlled studies shed such a poor light on the practice, and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that researchers began to question the wisdom of researching the area further and even suggested that NLP was an untestable theory"..."NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets of the human resource community. The science has come and gone, yet the belief still remains".^[1]

Humanistic psychology

Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s and has continued as a reaction to positivist and scientific approaches to the mind. It views the usage of quantitative research methods ('conclusive') in the study of the human mind and behaviour as misguided and advises qualitative research methods ('exploratory'). It stresses a phenomenological view of human experience and seeks to understand human beings and their behavior by conducting qualitative research methods.

Grinder and Delozier (1984) argue that the epistemology of Gregory Bateson (and NLP) attempts to synthesize the overdrawn positions of empiricists and idealists.^[52]

Jaap Hollander (1999) in making a number of recommendations for the field of NLP to develop better relationships with science, states that "qualitative scientific inquiry bears a striking resemblance with the process of modelling in NLP. So, NLP, after all, may not be as unscientific as it is often made out to be. Modelling, like qualitative research, uses data from naturalistic settings. Modeling also uses inductive analysis of the data. Rather than testing for the presence of predetermined patterns, the modeller looks for patterns in the observations of the expert, patterns that he or she had not consciously formulated beforehand."^[53] The humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist and phenomenological philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence.

Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier (2000) say "In considering NLP as a science however, it is important to recognise that the epistemology of NLP is more 'subjective' and 'systematically' oriented than many 'hard' sciences, which tend to be more 'objective' and 'deterministic'. That is the patterns explored and identified by NLP are often necessarily contextual and influenced by the perceptual filters of the observer." ... "As a scientific approach, then, NLP tends to be more 'qualitative' than 'quantitative' and more 'structuralist' than 'materialistic'" ... ^[38]

In the introduction to The Structure of Magic Series, Gregory Bateson says that Bandler and Grinder "create the beginnings of an appropriate theoretical base for the describing of human interaction." Bateson goes on to say that "The behavioral sciences, and especially psychiatry, have always avoided theory, and it is easy to make a list of the various maneuvers whereby theory could be avoided". Grinder and Bandler "have succeeded in making linguistics into a base for theory and simultaneously into a tool for therapy." ... "We already knew that most of the premises of individual psychology were useless, and we knew that we ought to classify modes of communicating." ... "Grinder and Bandler have succeeded in making explicit the syntax of how people avoid change and, therefore, how to assist them in changing. Here they focus on verbal communication" ... and "develop a general model of communication and change involving the other modes of communication which human beings use to represent and communicate their experience."^[11]

Technology

NLP critic Margaret Singer quotes Bandler as saying the term NLP was "phrased on the fly from several book titles on the floor of his car one night when a policeman asked his occupation." (p169). She also quotes Bandler as saying "it wasn't my job to do theory" and Tony Robbins as saying" NLP is heavily pragmatic: if a tool works, it's included in the model, even if there's no theory to back it up....None of the current NLP developers have done any research to prove their models correct. The party line is 'pretend it works, try it, and notice the results you get. If you don't get the result you want, try something else'"(p.172)."^[9]

Labouchere (2004) states that there are multiple definitons of NLP. Bandler defines NLP as "an attitude and a methodology which leaves behind a trail of techniques" whereas Grinder defines NLP as "the study of excellence and how to reproduce it"^[54] Labouchere states that "NLP has a very pragmatic, applied focus on what is helpful, what works and how to replicate it (Bandler & Grinder, 1990). While it draws on and shares common ground with ‘mainstream’ cognitive psychology, from its inception in the 1970s it has continued to develop, refine, and apply its own unique range of concepts, models and techniques."

Sharpley (1987) states that a number of NLP techniques are worthwhile or beneficial in counselling, citing predicate matching, mirroring clients behaviors, moving sensory modalities, reframing, anchoring and changing history, but that none of these techniques originated within NLP, saying "NLP may be seen as a partial compendium of rather than as an original contribution to counseling practice and, thereby, has a value distinct from the lack of research data supporting the underlying principles that Bandler and Grinder posited to present NLP as a new and magical theory".^[5]

NLP teaches that each learner is a unique individual with unique needs and backgrounds and encourages students take responsibility for their own states, and learning experience.^[55]. According to Craft, "Neuro-linguistic Programming is best understood as a strategy which at first sight appears to draw on constructivist theories of learning. However, I have raised some problems in both the strategy itself (first), the lack of awareness of learning and performance styles, in that although it comes from the perspective that individuals respond uniquely to the world, it nevertheless offers an experiential approach to learning"^[55]

In response to Craft, NLP academics Tosey and Mathison (2003) expressed NLP in terms of the cybernetic epistemology of Gregory Bateson stating, "Early statements from the originators of NLP dismissed interest in articulating or acquiring theory, for example; `We have no idea about the "real" nature of things, and we're not particularly interested in what's "true". The function of modeling is to arrive at descriptions which are useful.' (Bandler and Grinder 1979 p.7). Bandler and Grinder's intent, perhaps, was to stay close to experience and avoid abstract discussion about truths of human experience. It seems that this stance has persisted, even if it is not shared by all leading NLP practitioners. We suggest that NLP may be regarded as a transdisciplinary (Gibbons et al 1994), in the sense that it draws on sources from academe and from elsewhere, and has been generated through application more than being deduced from axioms." They go on to state "It seems unarguable that to become regarded as academically credible there is a need for NLP to be more thoroughly theorised, particularly to consider how it relates to and differs from existing theoretical perspectives such as semiotics, phenomenology, discourse analysis, and more." Paul Tosey, University of Surrey, is the director of research project into the theory and application of NLP in teaching theory. Furthermore Mathison and Tosey (2002) add that this approach to learning and development appears similar in theory to Lev Vygotsky and constructivist learning theory and unrelated to computer programming or neuroscience.^[25]

Religiosity and spirituality

Sociologist and Christian scholar, Stephen J. Hunt states that NLP "is a technique rather than an organised religion and is used by several different human potential movements" yet that it has an "implied religiosity".(p.195).^[56] Skeptics have described NLP as simply a "New Age" development citing the USNRC study which found no hard empirical evidence for its efficacy.^[4] Regarding spiritual practices, Dilts states that John Grinder was influenced by Carlos Castaneda's Don Juan in developing the double hypnotic induction, perceptual positions and rechanneling of attention and energy to more appropriate contexts.^[38] At the same time Grinder contends that any venture into personal beliefs of "spirituality" in psychotherapy or NLP would be an ethical violation. ^[39]

David V. Barrett (2001) in his work The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions^[57], describes NLP as a technique or series of techniques, or a process, and notes it is sometimes used by some religious sects. He states that while "the brief biographies of NLP Trainers usually give the names of the people they have trained under... could be seen as similar to new eastern origin religions tracing themselves back through a progression of gurus", and that NLP as a philosophy does exhibit some characteristics which are sometimes found in some religions, "overall the balance comes down against it being labeled as a religion."^[57]

Reception

Mental health practice

NLP has been coordinated within some industry associations, psychotherapy associations, and has been used or suggested as an approach by some mental health bodies.^[58] Labouchere et al (2002) incorporated a number of NLP behaviour change techniques (anchoring, isomorphic metaphor, goal setting) into a program for learning about and preventing the spread of AIDS. They recommended that these tools be promoted and adopted internationally.^[59] In an empirical study using a heuristic qualitative methodology the submodality change process was tested for treating grief and mourning. The study suggested that manipulating certain submodalities can help the subject shift into more resourceful state and speed the healing process. ^[60]

NLP has remained an eclectic field with no inherent controls over training or a professional code of ethics. According to Schutz in his guide to NLP training, training varies from very short, esoteric or hyped-up power courses at one extreme to 9 months of professional training under licensed psychotherapists or the equivalent. He advises caution in selection.^[7][33] According to Eisner, NLP is based on some of Freud's most flawed thinking, and continues "There was great initial enthusiasm, but as time passed, it appears the so-called effective results have diminished or disappeared" ^{[2][dubious – discuss]} Clinical psychologists have identified characteristics that help to separate unvalidated or scientifically unsupported approaches to psychotherapy from those based on the scientific method. Opining that proof of the validity of new practices falls on the proponents of these practices, ^[61]evidence-based psychologist Lilienfield expresses concern that largely untested treatments, amongst which he includes NLP, comprise a major proportion of the interventions delivered by mental health professionals. He raises concerns about the public's overconfidence in mental health professions and the lack of scientific foundation for these professions.^[61] Evidence-based psychologist Beyerstein has expressed concern about the spread of misconceptions about how the mind works.^[4] Elich et al (1985) tested the model that proposed a relationship between eye movements, spoken predicates, and internal imagery, and found no support for this model. He added "NLP has achieved something akin to cult status when it may be nothing more than a psychological fad" (p625)". ^[24] Others raise concerned about the use of scientific-sounding language, exaggerated claims, a lack of peer-reviewed literature and an over-reliance on anecdotal evidence.^{[need quotation to verify][62]}

Human resources

NLP has influenced some corporate executive coaches,^[63] who provide one-on-one training and collaborative relationships to executive interested in developement skills in career or business and may help resolve related personal issues.^{[citation needed]}

Skinner and Stephens (2003) explored the use the model of representational systems in television marketing and communications.^[64]

Human resource professional Von Bergen considers NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training ^{[3][65][citation needed]}.

Commercialization, manipulation and persuasion

Pieter Drenth (1999) having put NLP in the category of pseudo science states "Partly it is a shrewd commercial formula, and the marketing. Just take the name. Why not PQR or BYG (believe in your own goal) or something like that?" and goes on to say "but even for new theories and hypothetical frameworks, the requirement still holds that they should be scrutinized and tested on logical grounds and, in the case of empirical or experimental science, on the basis of empirical or experimental evidence".^[40]

In his book 'Recovery from Cults' Michael Langone states "We know that NLP is also used by some very aggressive cults because the NLP method can be used by such groups to instill a reliance upon the cult, and provides a conditioning method to further induce compliance." He describes NLP as "a tool for generating change for changes sake" . ^[66]

Freelance writer Steve Salerno states that Anthony Robbins "made NLP his own, refining it and personalizing it into what he christened "neuroassociative conditioning" (NAC). Salerno goes on to claim of Robbins (and other lifestyle trainers or systems) that he "actually fans the fires of discontent, making people feel impaired or somehow deficient as a prelude to (supposedly) curing them."^[67]. O'Connor and Seymour in "Introducing NLP" state NAC is "...not strictly NLP.".^[17].

Popular culture and media

In 2003 English psychological illusionist Derren Brown performed a stunt on national TV where he played Russian Roulette with 5 other players. Some suggested the stunt's success was due to Brown using NLP techniques in order manipulate the outcome.^[68] Derren Brown (2000) says "Having trained with the highly likeable founder of NLP, I find it a mixture of sensible and appealing methods for dealing with low-level pathologies such as phobias and fears on the one hand, and sheer daft nonsense and massive rhetoric on the other... There is no doubt that, to a point, much of this is well observed... But the idea triggered in me an interest in exploring these kinds of signals, and now I am pushing my performance closer into these areas."^[69]

In 2005, celebrity hypnotist and television personality Paul McKenna was shown applying neuro-linguistic programming and other techniques on his Sky One show, 'I Can Change Your Life' to assist people with phobias, such as agoraphobia and addictions to gambling and shopping. In 2006, another Sky One programme, 'I Can Make You Thin', featured Richard Bandler and used NLP among other techniques to help people lose weight. [2]

Journalist Satham Sanghera wrote in a 2005 in a Financial Times news column that while some "believe that the continuing popularity of NLP... is an indication of its effectiveness" and ability to help in a wide spectrum of areas, he noted others think the success of NLP is "an example of mumbo jumbo triumphing over science" and that "critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions"^[8]{{dubious}

Notes and references

Further reading

• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1979) Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Real People Press. 149 pages. ISBN 0911226192
• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1975) The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy Science and Behavior Books. 198 pages. ISBN 0831400447
• O'Connor, J., Seymour, J. Dilts, R. (foreword), Grinder, J. (preface) (1995) Introducing Neuro-linguistic Programming: The New Psychology of Personal Excellence Aquarian Press. 224 pages. ISBN 1852740736
• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1981) Reframing: Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning Real People Press. ISBN 0911226257
• Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson
• Dilts, R. (1990) Changing belief systems with NLP Meta Publications. ISBN 0916990249
• Bandler, R., Andreas, S. (ed) and Andreas, C. (ed) (1985) Using Your Brain-for a Change
• Grinder, M. (1991) Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt
• Laborde, G. (1987) Influencing with Integrity: Management Skills for Communication and Negotiation
• Dilts, R., Hallbom, T., Smith, S. (1990) Beliefs: Pathways to Health & Well-being
• Satir, V., Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Changing with Families: A Book about Further Education for Being Human Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 083140051X

External links

Skeptics

• Carroll, Robert T. "The Skeptic's Dictionary".

See also

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• Gestalt therapy
• Hypnotherapy
• Family systems therapy
• The map is not the territory
• Provocative therapy
• Cognitive science
• Persuasion
• Large Group Awareness Training
• Ross Jeffries