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==Classical languages of India==
==Classical languages of India==
The Government of India has declared [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Kannada language|Kannada]], and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] to be classical languages of India<ref name="antiquity">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=44340|title=Declaration of Telugu and Kannada as classical languages|work=Press Information Bureau|Publisher=Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Government of India|accessdate=2008-10-31}}</ref> however, this classical status is not enshrined in the Constitution of India, and no constitutional amendment has been enacted in this regard.<ref>[http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf Constitution of India], page 330, EIGHTH SCHEDULE, Articles 344 (1) and 351]. Languages.</ref>In the mid-19th century, Indologists referred to [[Panini (grammarian)|Paninian]] [[Sanskrit]] as "classical Sanskrit," distinguishing it from the older Vedic language.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Whitney |first=William D. |year=1854 |title=On the History of the Vedic Texts |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=4 |pages=245–261 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%281854%294%3C245%3AOTHOTV%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H |doi=10.2307/592278}} at p. 259.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Whitney |first=William D. |year=1853 |title=On the Main Results of the Later Vedic Researches in Germany |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=3 |pages=289–328 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%281853%293%3C289%3AOTMROT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 |doi=10.2307/3217821}} at p. 296.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Prichard |first=James Cowles |year=1850 |title=Anniversary Address for 1848, to the Ethnological Society of London on the Recent Progress of Ethnology |journal=Journal of the Ethnological Society of London |volume=2 |pages=119–149 |url=htt368-0358%281850%292%3C119%3AAAF1TT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2 |doi=10.2307/3014119}} at p. 139.</ref> In the second half of the 20th century, academics began to suggest that the Old Tamil poems of the [[Sangam literature|Sangam anthologies]] were also "classical" in the sense that they shared many features with literatures commonly accepted as classical. This point, first made by [[Kamil Zvelebil]] in the 1970s,<ref>{{cite book |last=Zvelebil |first=Kamil |title=Tamil Literature |year=1975 |publisher=E.J. Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=9004041907 |pages=5-21, 50-53 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=}}</ref> has since been supported by a number of other scholars,<ref>{{cite book |last=Takahashi |first=Takanobu |title=Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics |series=Brill's Indological Library |year=1995 |publisher=E.J. Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=9004100423 |pages=2 |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ramanujan |first=A.K. |authorlink=A.K. Ramanujan |title=Poems of Love and War from the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil |series=UNESCO Collection of Representative Works |year=1985 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=0231051069 |pages=ix |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{citation |first=E. |last=Annamalai | first2= S.B. | last2 = Steever | editor-last = Steever | editor-first = Sanford B. | contribution = Modern Tamil |title=The Dravidian Languages |year=1998 |pages=pp. 100–128 | place = London |publisher=Routledge |id=ISBN 0415100232}} at p. 100.</ref> and the terminology "classical Tamil" is commonly used in historical literature to refer to texts from that period.<ref>See e.g. {{cite journal |last=Stein |first=Burton |year=1977 |title=Circulation and the Historical Geography of Tamil Country |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=37 |pages=7–261 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-9118%28197711%2937%3A1%3C7%3ACATHGO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O |issue=1 |doi=10.2307/2053325}} at p. 12; {{cite journal |last=Maloney |first=Clarence |year=1970 |title=The Beginnings of Civilization in South India |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=603–616 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-9118%28197005%2929%3A3%3C603%3ATBOCIS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H |doi=10.2307/2943246}} at p. 605.</ref>
The Government of India has declared [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Kannada language|Kannada]], and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] to be classical languages of India<ref name="antiquity">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=44340|title=Declaration of Telugu and Kannada as classical languages|work=Press Information Bureau|Publisher=Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Government of India|accessdate=2008-10-31}}</ref> In the mid-19th century, Indologists referred to [[Panini (grammarian)|Paninian]] [[Sanskrit]] as "classical Sanskrit," distinguishing it from the older Vedic language.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Whitney |first=William D. |year=1854 |title=On the History of the Vedic Texts |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=4 |pages=245–261 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%281854%294%3C245%3AOTHOTV%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H |doi=10.2307/592278}} at p. 259.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Whitney |first=William D. |year=1853 |title=On the Main Results of the Later Vedic Researches in Germany |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=3 |pages=289–328 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%281853%293%3C289%3AOTMROT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 |doi=10.2307/3217821}} at p. 296.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Prichard |first=James Cowles |year=1850 |title=Anniversary Address for 1848, to the Ethnological Society of London on the Recent Progress of Ethnology |journal=Journal of the Ethnological Society of London |volume=2 |pages=119–149 |url=htt368-0358%281850%292%3C119%3AAAF1TT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2 |doi=10.2307/3014119}} at p. 139.</ref> In the second half of the 20th century, academics began to suggest that the Old Tamil poems of the [[Sangam literature|Sangam anthologies]] were also "classical" in the sense that they shared many features with literatures commonly accepted as classical. This point, first made by [[Kamil Zvelebil]] in the 1970s,<ref>{{cite book |last=Zvelebil |first=Kamil |title=Tamil Literature |year=1975 |publisher=E.J. Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=9004041907 |pages=5-21, 50-53 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=}}</ref> has since been supported by a number of other scholars,<ref>{{cite book |last=Takahashi |first=Takanobu |title=Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics |series=Brill's Indological Library |year=1995 |publisher=E.J. Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=9004100423 |pages=2 |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ramanujan |first=A.K. |authorlink=A.K. Ramanujan |title=Poems of Love and War from the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil |series=UNESCO Collection of Representative Works |year=1985 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=0231051069 |pages=ix |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{citation |first=E. |last=Annamalai | first2= S.B. | last2 = Steever | editor-last = Steever | editor-first = Sanford B. | contribution = Modern Tamil |title=The Dravidian Languages |year=1998 |pages=pp. 100–128 | place = London |publisher=Routledge |id=ISBN 0415100232}} at p. 100.</ref> and the terminology "classical Tamil" is commonly used in historical literature to refer to texts from that period.<ref>See e.g. {{cite journal |last=Stein |first=Burton |year=1977 |title=Circulation and the Historical Geography of Tamil Country |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=37 |pages=7–261 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-9118%28197711%2937%3A1%3C7%3ACATHGO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O |issue=1 |doi=10.2307/2053325}} at p. 12; {{cite journal |last=Maloney |first=Clarence |year=1970 |title=The Beginnings of Civilization in South India |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=603–616 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-9118%28197005%2929%3A3%3C603%3ATBOCIS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H |doi=10.2307/2943246}} at p. 605.</ref>


In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a 'classical language' in India.<ref name="bbcclassical">{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3667032.stm |publisher=BBC |title=India sets up classical languages |accessdate=2007-05-01 }}</ref> Tamil was the first language to be declared classical. Experts consulted by the government and the [[Sahitya Akademi]] (Literary Academy) of India, recommended against awarding the label to any language. In contrast, Dr. George Hart, a Professor of Tamil and Sanskrit at the University of California - Berkeley, supported classifying Tamil as a classical language; however, he stated that no other modern Indian language can be called classical, "To qualify as a classical tradition, a language must fit several criteria: it should be ancient, it should be an independent tradition that arose mostly on its own not as an offshoot of another tradition, and it must have a large and extremely rich body of ancient literature. Unlike the other modern languages of India, Tamil meets each of these requirements."[http://tamil.berkeley.edu/Tamil%20Chair/TamilClassicalLanguage/TamilClassicalLgeLtr.html]<ref name="telegraph1">
In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a 'classical language' in India.<ref name="bbcclassical">{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3667032.stm |publisher=BBC |title=India sets up classical languages |accessdate=2007-05-01 }}</ref> Tamil was the first language to be declared classical. Experts consulted by the government and the [[Sahitya Akademi]] (Literary Academy) of India, recommended against awarding the label to any language. In contrast, Dr. George Hart, a Professor of Tamil and Sanskrit at the University of California - Berkeley, supported classifying Tamil as a classical language; however, he stated that no other modern Indian language can be called classical, "To qualify as a classical tradition, a language must fit several criteria: it should be ancient, it should be an independent tradition that arose mostly on its own not as an offshoot of another tradition, and it must have a large and extremely rich body of ancient literature. Unlike the other modern languages of India, Tamil meets each of these requirements."[http://tamil.berkeley.edu/Tamil%20Chair/TamilClassicalLanguage/TamilClassicalLgeLtr.html]<ref name="telegraph1">

Revision as of 17:15, 4 November 2008

"Indian languages" redirects here. For languages of Americans, see Indigenous languages of the Americas.

The languages of India primarily belong to two major linguistic families, Indo-European, whose branch Indo-Aryan is spoken by about 70% of the population of India and that includes the Dardic languages; secondly, the Dravidian family (spoken by about 22%). Other languages spoken in India come mainly from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families; in addition there are a few language isolates.[1]

Individual mother tongues in India number several hundred[2]; the 1961 census recognized 1,652[3] (SIL Ethnologue lists 415). According to Census of India of 2001, 29 languages are spoken by more than a million native speakers, 122 by more than 10,000. Three millennia of language contact has led to significant mutual influence among the four language families in India and South Asia. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English.[4]

History

Main article: Linguistic history of India
A bazaar in Andhra Pradesh with signs, from left to right, in Urdu, Hindi, Arabic, and English.
Language families in South Asia

The northern Indian languages from the Indo-European family evolved from Old Indo-Aryan such as Sanskrit, by way of the Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit languages and Apabhramsha of the Middle Ages. There is no consensus for a specific time where the modern north Indian languages such as Gujarati Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, Sindhi, Bengali and Oriya emerged, but AD 1000 is commonly accepted.[5] Each language had different influences, with Hindi/Urdu and closely related languages being strongly influenced by Persian. The South Indian (Dravidian) languages had a history independent of Sanskrit. However in later stages all the Dravidian languages had been heavily influenced by Sanskrit. The major Dravidian languages are Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu,

Language families

The languages of India may be grouped by major language families. The largest of these in terms of speakers is the Indo-European family, predominantly represented in its Indo-Aryan branch (accounting for some 700 million speakers), but also including minority languages such as Persian, Portuguese or French, and English as lingua franca. The second largest is the Dravidian family, accounting for some 200 million speakers. Minor linguistic families include the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman families (with some 10 and 6 million speakers, respectively). Kashmiri, considered a Dardic language, has some 4.6 million speakers in India. There is also a language isolate, the Nihali language.

Classical languages of India

The Government of India has declared Tamil, Sanskrit, Kannada, and Telugu to be classical languages of India[6] In the mid-19th century, Indologists referred to Paninian Sanskrit as "classical Sanskrit," distinguishing it from the older Vedic language.[7][8][9] In the second half of the 20th century, academics began to suggest that the Old Tamil poems of the Sangam anthologies were also "classical" in the sense that they shared many features with literatures commonly accepted as classical. This point, first made by Kamil Zvelebil in the 1970s,[10] has since been supported by a number of other scholars,[11][12][13] and the terminology "classical Tamil" is commonly used in historical literature to refer to texts from that period.[14]

In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a 'classical language' in India.[15] Tamil was the first language to be declared classical. Experts consulted by the government and the Sahitya Akademi (Literary Academy) of India, recommended against awarding the label to any language. In contrast, Dr. George Hart, a Professor of Tamil and Sanskrit at the University of California - Berkeley, supported classifying Tamil as a classical language; however, he stated that no other modern Indian language can be called classical, "To qualify as a classical tradition, a language must fit several criteria: it should be ancient, it should be an independent tradition that arose mostly on its own not as an offshoot of another tradition, and it must have a large and extremely rich body of ancient literature. Unlike the other modern languages of India, Tamil meets each of these requirements."[2][16]

In 2005, Sanskrit, which already had special status in Article 351 of the Constitution of India as the main source language for the development of Hindi, was also declared to be a classical language; this was followed by similar declarations for Kannada and Telegu in 2008.[17]

Official languages

Main article: Official languages of India

The Constitution of India has recognised 22 different languages that are prevalent in the country, out of which, Hindi is the official language and is spoken in most of the urban cities of India. Other than these 22 languages, there are hundreds of dialects that add to the multilingual nature of the country. Article 343 of the Indian Constitution recognises Hindi in Devanāgarī script as the official language of the Union. The states have their own official languages, depending on their linguistic demographics. For example, the state of Tamil Nadu has Tamil as its sole official language, while the state of Jammu and Kashmir has Kashmiri, Urdu and Dogri as its official languages. The Constitution also allows for the continuation of use of the English language for official purposes. Article 345 provides constitutional recognition to "official languages" of the union to include any one or more of the languages in use in the state or Hindi language adopted by a state legislature as the official language of that state. Until the Twenty-First Amendment of the Constitution in 1967, the country recognised 14 official regional languages. The Eighth Schedule and the Seventy-First Amendment provided for the inclusion of Sindhi, Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali, thereby increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18[18]. Individual states, whose borders are mostly drawn on socio-linguistic lines, are free to decide their own language for internal administration and education. The Constitution of India recognises 22 languages, spoken in different parts the country, namely:

  1. Assamese
  2. Bengali
  3. Bodo
  4. Dogri
  5. Gujarati
  6. Hindi
  7. Kannada
  8. Kashmiri
  9. Konkani
  10. Maithili
  11. Malayalam
  12. Manipuri
  13. Marathi
  14. Nepali
  15. Oriya
  16. Punjabi
  17. Sanskrit
  18. Santhali
  19. Sindhi
  20. Tamil
  21. Telugu
  22. Urdu

Hindi is an official language of the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and the National Capital, the Territory of Delhi. Bengali is the official language of West Bengal and certain parts of the North-east. Marathi is the official language of Maharashtra. Punjabi is the official language of Punjab, Haryana. Gujarati is the official language of Gujarat. Tamil is the official language of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Malayalam is the official language of Kerala and Lakshadweep. Kannada is the official language of Karnataka. Telugu is the official language of Andhra Pradesh. Oriya is the official language of Orissa. Assamese is the official language of Assam; it's spoken widely in many of the seven northeastern states. English is the co-official language of the Indian Union, and each of the several states mentioned above may also have another co-official language.

Writing systems

Main articles: Indic scripts and Nasta'liq script

Indian languages have corresponding distinct alphabets. The two major families are those of the Dravidian languages and those of the Indo-Aryan languages, the former largely confined to the south and the latter to the north. Urdu and sometimes Kashmiri, Sindhi and Panjabi are written in modified versions of the Arabic script. Except for these languages, the alphabets of Indian languages are native to India. Most scholars consider these Indic scripts a distant offshoot of the Aramaic alphabet[citation needed], although there are differing opinions.

Romanization

Main articles: ISO 15919 and National Library at Kolkata romanization
unvoiced consonants voiced consonants nasals
unaspirated aspirated unaspirated aspirated
velar plosives k kh g gh ṅ
palatal affricates c ch j jh ñ
retroflex plosives ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ
dental plosives t th d dh n
bilabial plosives p ph b bh m
glides and approximants y r l v
fricatives ś ṣ s h

Inventories

Main articles: Official languages of India and List of Indian languages by total speakers

Linguists generally distinguish the terms "language" and "dialects" on the basis of 'mutual comprehension'. The Indian census uses two specific classifications in its own unique way: (1)'language' and (2) 'mother tongue'. The 'mother tongues' are grouped within each 'language'. Many 'mother tongues' so defined would be considered a language rather than a dialect by linguistic standards. This is especially so for many 'mother tongues' with tens of millions of speakers that is officially grouped under the 'language' Hindi.

The Indian census of 1961 recognised 1,652 different languages in India (including languages not native to the subcontinent). The 1991 census recognizes 1,576 classified "mother tongues"[19] SIL Ethnologue lists 415 living "Languages of India" (out of 6,912 worldwide).

According to the 1991 census, 22 'languages' had more than a million native speakers, 50 had more than 100,000 and 114 had more than 10,000 native speakers. The remaining accounted for a total of 566,000 native speakers (out of a total of 838 million Indians in 1991).[20]

According to the most recent census of 2001, 29 'languages' have more than a million native speakers, 60 have more than 100,000 and 122 have more than 10,000 native speakers.

Government of India has given 22 "languages of the 8th Schedule" the status of official language. The number of languages given this status has increased through the political process. Some languages with a large number of speakers still do not have this status, the largest of these being Bhili/Bhiladi with some 9.6 million native speakers (ranked 14th), followed by Santali with 6.5 million speakers (ranked 15th), Gondi with 2.7 million speakers(ranked 18th) and Khandesi with 2.1 million speakers (ranked 22nd). On the other hand, 2 languages with fewer than 2 million native speakers have recently been included in the 8th Schedule for mostly political reasons: Manipuri/Maithei with 1.5 million speakers (ranked 25th) and Bodo with 1.4 million speakers (ranked 26th). For cultural/historical reason Sanskrit is on the official schedule though only 14 thousand people claim it to be their language, but many more study it in school as the classical language of India.

Footnotes and References

  1. ^ see: Nihali language, Burushaski language, Andamanese languages
  2. ^ More than a thousand including major dialects. The 1991 census recognized "1576 rationalized mother tongues" which were further grouped into language categories (Indian Census)
  3. ^ [1]
  4. ^ Bhatia, Tej K and William C. Ritchie. (2006) Bilingualism in South Asia. In: Handbook of Bilingualism, pp. 780-807. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
  5. ^ Shapiro, M: Hindi.
  6. ^ "Declaration of Telugu and Kannada as classical languages". Press Information Bureau. Retrieved 2008-10-31. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Whitney, William D. (1854). "On the History of the Vedic Texts". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 4: 245–261. doi:10.2307/592278. at p. 259.
  8. ^ Whitney, William D. (1853). "On the Main Results of the Later Vedic Researches in Germany". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 3: 289–328. doi:10.2307/3217821. at p. 296.
  9. ^ Prichard, James Cowles (1850). [htt368-0358%281850%292%3C119%3AAAF1TT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2 "Anniversary Address for 1848, to the Ethnological Society of London on the Recent Progress of Ethnology"]. Journal of the Ethnological Society of London. 2: 119–149. doi:10.2307/3014119. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help) at p. 139.
  10. ^ Zvelebil, Kamil (1975). Tamil Literature. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 5–21, 50–53. ISBN 9004041907. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
  11. ^ Takahashi, Takanobu (1995). Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics. Brill's Indological Library. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 2. ISBN 9004100423.
  12. ^ Ramanujan, A.K. (1985). Poems of Love and War from the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil. UNESCO Collection of Representative Works. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. ix. ISBN 0231051069.
  13. ^ Annamalai, E.; Steever, S.B. (1998), "Modern Tamil", in Steever, Sanford B. (ed.), The Dravidian Languages, London: Routledge, pp. pp. 100–128, ISBN 0415100232 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help) at p. 100.
  14. ^ See e.g. Stein, Burton (1977). "Circulation and the Historical Geography of Tamil Country". The Journal of Asian Studies. 37 (1): 7–261. doi:10.2307/2053325. at p. 12; Maloney, Clarence (1970). "The Beginnings of Civilization in South India". The Journal of Asian Studies. 29 (3): 603–616. doi:10.2307/2943246. at p. 605.
  15. ^ "India sets up classical languages". BBC. Retrieved 2007-05-01.
  16. ^ "Classic case of politics of language". The Telegraph (Kolkata)The Telegraph. Retrieved 2007-04-20. ...The government has declared Tamil a classical language despite the objections of experts it consulted and after a committee it had appointed refused to recommend it....The Sahitya Akademi office bearers wrote a second time. In essence, they repeated that it was not the government's business to declare a language classical. It is a classically foolish move, a source said....
  17. ^ Classical Languages
  18. ^ "Legislation: Legislation dealing with the use of languages". Constitution of India. Articles 29, 30, 120, 210, 343-351 as amended in the 21st and 71st Amendments.
  19. ^ Indian Census
  20. ^ Indian Census

See also

External links

source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Languages_of_India&diff=prev&oldid=249674453

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