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Category

The relationship between Islam and antisemitism has various dimensions. Some writers have perceived antisemitism to Islam and antisemitism considers antisemitism among Muslims; in the Qu'ran; in Islamic history; and in the modern world. The nature and extent of antisemitism among Muslims, and its relation to anti-Zionism, are important issues in contemporary Middle East politics and the relations of the state of Israel with its neighbors in the region.

Jews in the Qur'an

The Qur'an contains attacks on Jews^[1][2][3] for their refusal to recognize Muhammad as a prophet of God.^[1] The Muslim holy text defined the Arab and Muslim attitude towards Jews to this day, especially, in the periods when Islamic fundamentalism was on the rise.^[4]

The Qur'an states that Jews betrayed the teaching of their prophet Moses, and that if they were to uphold the teaching of Moses that they would be a saved nation. ^{[citation needed]}

The words "humility" and "humilitation" are used frequently in the Qur'an and later Muslim literature to describe the condition to which Jews must be reduced as a just punishment for their past rebelliousness, the punishment that shows itself in the defeat they suffered at the hands of Christians and Muslims.

The standard Quranic reference to Jews is the verse ^{[Quran 2:61]}.^[5] It says:

And abasement and poverty were pitched upon them, and they were laden with the burden of God's anger;that, because they had disbelieved the signs of God and slain the Prophets unrightfully; that, because they disobeyed, and were transgressors.^[6]

Cowardice, greed, and chicanery are a few of the characteristics that the Qur'an ascribes to the Jews.^[7] The Qur'an further associates Jews with interconfessional strife and rivalry (Qur'an ^{[Quran 2:113]}). It claims that Jews believe that they alone are beloved of God (Qur'an ^{[Quran 5:18]}), and that only they will achieve salvation (^{[Quran 2:111]}).

The Qur'an gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, " ... but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers."(Qur'an ^{[Quran 3:54]}) In the Muslim view, the crucifixion of Jesus was an illusion, and thus the Jewish plots against him ended in failure.^[8] In numerous verses (^{[Quran 3:63]}; ^{[Quran 3:71]}; ^{[Quran 4:46]}; ^{[Quran 4:160-161]}; ^{[Quran 5:41-44]}, ^{[Quran 5:63-64]}, ^{[Quran 5:82]}; ^{[Quran 6:92]})^[9] the Qur'an accuses Jews of obscuring and perverting the Scripture.^[10]

Muslim beliefs that certain Jews were transformed into apes and pigs

A number of verses in the Qur'an refer to Jews being transformed into apes or pigs, specifically Suras ^{[Quran 5:60]},^{[Quran 2:65]}, and ^{[Quran 7:166]}.^{[11][12][13][14][15]}

And well ye knew those amongst you who transgressed in the matter of the Sabbath: We said to them: "Be ye apes, despised and rejected. Qur'an ^{[Quran 2:65]}

Say: "Shall I point out to you something much worse than this, (as judged) by the treatment it received from Allah? those who incurred the curse of Allah and His wrath, those of whom some He transformed into apes and swine, those who worshipped evil;- these are (many times) worse in rank, and far more astray from the even path! Qur'an ^{[Quran 5:60]}

When in their insolence they transgressed (all) prohibitions, We said to them: "Be ye apes, despised and rejected. Qur'an|^{[Quran 7:166]}

According to Khaleel Mohammed: "many Muslim preachers use the verses in a manner that is totally wrong, demonizing all Jews."^[16]

Thus, Hamas says:

Allah did not mete out the punishment of transformation on any nation except the Jews. The significance of it is actual change in the appearance of the Jew and perfect transformation from human to bestial condition... from human appearance to the form of genuine apes, pigs, mice, and lizards....^[14]

In 888, in Palermo, Sicily, the Muslim Aghlabid dynasty (9th through 11th century, North Africa) issued an order that Jews wear a patch that had an image of a monkey, and affix the same image to their homes. For Christians, the image was that of a pig.^[17]

On the May 5, 2001, after Shimon Peres visited Egypt, the Egyptian al-Akhbar internet paper stated that: “lies and deceit are not foreign to Jews.... For this reason, Allah changed their shape and made them into monkeys and pigs.” ^[18]

In April 2002, Egyptian Sheikh Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy, Grand Imam of Al-Azhar Mosque and Grand Sheikh of Al-Azhar University, and "perhaps the foremost Sunni Arab authority",^[19] described Jews in his weekly sermon as "the enemies of Allah, descendants of apes and pigs." In one of his sermons, Saudi Sheikh Abd Al-Rahman Al-Sudayyis, Imam of the Masjid al-Haram – the most important mosque in Mecca – urged the Arabs to give up peace initiatives with the Jews, because they are “the scum of the human race, the rats of the world, the violators of pacts and agreements, the murderers of the prophets, and the offspring of apes and pigs.”^[20][21]

In another sermon, on April 19, 2002, he declared:

Read history and you will understand that the Jews of yesterday are the evil fathers of the Jews of today, who are evil offspring, infidels, distorters of [others'] words, calf-worshippers, prophet-murderers, prophecy-deniers... the scum of the human race whom Allah cursed and turned into apes and pigs...^[22]

On July 21, 2006 Syrian Deputy Minister of Religious Endowment Dr. Muhammad 'Abd Al-Sattar stated on Syrian TV.

The Koran used terms that are closer to animals than to humans only with regard to those people. Look at the bestiality they demonstrate in the destruction of the Arab, Lebanese, and Palestinian people. This is why the people who were given the Torah were likened to a donkey carrying books. They were also likened to apes and pigs, and they are, indeed, the descendants of apes and pigs, as the Koran teaches us.^[23]

This followed a broadcast on November 8, 2005 in which 'Abd Al-Sattar similarly referred to Jews as "those whom the Koran called the descendants of apes and pigs".^[23]

A May 2006 study of Saudi Arabia's revised schoolbook curriculum discovered that the eighth grade books included the following statements:

They are the people of the Sabbath, whose young people God turned into apes, and whose old people God turned into swine to punish them. As cited in Ibn Abbas: The apes are Jews, the keepers of the Sabbath; while the swine are the Christian infidels of the communion of Jesus.

Some of the people of the Sabbath were punished by being turned into apes and swine. Some of them were made to worship the devil, and not God, through consecration, sacrifice, prayer, appeals for help, and other types of worship. Some of the Jews worship the devil. Likewise, some members of this nation worship devil, and not God.^[24]

Jews in the hadith and biographies of Muhammad

See also Muhammad and the Jews of Medina

Muhammad's attitude towards Jews was shaped by his failure to convert them to the religion he preached. During his life, Jews lived in the Arabian Peninsula, especially in and around Medina. They refused to accept Muhammad's teachings, and eventually he fought them, defeated them, and most of them were killed.^[25] The traditional biographies of Muhammad describe the expulsion of the Banu Qaynuqa in the post Badr period, after a marketplace quarrel broke out between the Muslims and Jews in Medina^[26][27] and Muhammad's negotiations with the tribe failed.^[28] Following his defeat in the Battle of Uhud, Muhammad claimed to have received a divine revelation that the Jewish tribe of the Banu Nadir wanted to assassinate him. Muhammad besieged the Banu Nadir and expelled them from Medina.^[29] The men of the third tribe, the Banu Qurayza, were killed and the women and children were enslaved in accordance with a judgment made by Sa'd ibn Mua'dh and approved by Muhammad.^[30] Muhammad also a attacked the Jews of Khaybar oasis near Medina and defeated them, allowing them to stay in the oasis only on condition of delivering one-half of their annual produce to Muslims.

Just like the Qur'an, the hadith (recordings of deeds and sayings attributed to Muhammad) use both the terms Banu Israil and Yahud in relation to Jews, the latter term becoming ever more frequent and appearing mostly in negative context. The rabbis of Medina are singled out as "men whose malice and enmity was aimed at the Apostle of God [i.e., Muhammad]". Jews appear in the biographies of Muhammad not only as malicious, but also deceitful, cowardly, and totally lacking resolve. Their ignominy stands in marked contrast to Muslim heroism, and in general, conforms to the Quranic image of "wretchedness and baseness stamped upon them" (Qur'an 2:61).^[31]

The hadith continue the theme of the Jewish hostility toward Muslims. One hadith says: "A Jew will not be found alone with a Muslim without plotting to kill him."^[32] According to another hadith, Muhammad said: "The Hour will not be established until you fight with the Jews, and the stone behind which a Jew will be hiding will say. 'O Muslim! There is a Jew hiding behind me, so kill him.'" (Sahih Bukhari 4:52.177). This hadith has been quoted countless times, and it has become a part of the charter of Hamas.^[33]

Antisemitism in pre-modern Islam

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Bernard Lewis opines that there is little sign of any deep-rooted emotional hostility directed against Jews, or any other group, such as the antisemitism of the Christian world. There were, however, clearly negative attitudes, which were in part the "normal" feelings of a dominant group towards subject groups (which exists in virtually any society). In part, more specifically, the contempt of the Muslim for non-believers who willfully choose to remain in their disbelief, while they had the opportunity to accept the truth; in part, certain specific prejudices directed against one or another group and not against the rest.^[34]

Lewis states that in contrast to Christian antisemitism, the attitude of Muslims toward non-Muslims is not one of hate, fear, or envy, but rather simply contempt. This contempt is expressed in various ways, such as abundance of polemic literature attacking the Christians and occasionally also the Jews. "The negative attributes ascribed to the subject religions and their followers are are usually expressed in religious and social terms, very rarely in ethnic or racial terms, though this does sometimes occur." The language of abuse is often quite strong. The conventional epithets are apes for Jews, and pigs for Christians. Lewis continues with several examples of regulations which were symbolizing the inferiority that non-Muslims living under Muslim rule had to live with, such as different formulae of greeting when addressing Jews and Christians than when addressing Muslims (both in conversations or correspondences), and forbidding Jews and Christians to choose names used by Muslims for their children by the Ottoman times.^[35]

Anti-Semitism has not historically been prevalent in the Islamic world, and at times Jews in Muslim countries were able to live in relative peace and thrive in the culture and economy. Although required to pay the Jizya, and viewed as degraded Dhimmi, Jewish communities were largely left to their own devices.^{[citation needed]}

As Dhimmis, they had to pay a poll tax, jizya, and the Koran (^{[Quran 9:29]}) insisted that the tax would be paid while they were humiliated. Also, Jews were prohibited from worship in temples higher than mosques, no new temples could be built, they were required to ride a donkey and not a horse, and men were required to sit sidesaddle, like a woman. Dhimmi women were not allowed to wear costly clothing. Dhimmis could not adopt Muslim names and were restricted in government service. Muslims legally married free dhimmi women, but dhimmi men could not marry Muslim women nor own a Muslim slave.^[36]

Whenever Jews were perceived as having achieved too comfortable a position in Islamic society, antisemitism surfaced.

In the 9th century, Jews in some Muslim areas had to wear on their shoulders a patch of white cloth that bore the image of an ape; Christians wore a pig image. Also, in the 9th century, the Caliph al-Mutawakkil designated a yellow badge for Jews. In the 11th century, in Spain, Jews were not to be met with the greeting, “Peace be upon you,” because they were not supposed to have any peace.

In the early 1000s CE, the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim "the Mad" in Egypt persecuted Christians and Jews.^[37] In 1007 he burned the entire Jewish quarter in Cairo.^[38]

In 1066 Granada massacre, a Muslim mob crucified the Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city. "More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day."^[39] The Jewish community of Granada had recovered over the years following 1066, but in 1090 it was attacked again at the hands of the Almoravides led by Ibn Iashufin, the event widely considered as the conclusion of the Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula.

Its successor and overthrower, the Almohad dynasty, offered Christians and Jews the choice of conversion or expulsion; in 1165, one of their rulers ordered that all Jews in the country convert on pain of death (forcing the Jewish rabbi, theologian, philosopher, and physician Maimonides to feign conversion to Islam before fleeing the country). In Egypt, Maimonides resumed practising Judaism openly only to be accused of apostasy. He was saved from death by Saladin's chief administrator, who held that conversion under coercion is invalid.^[40] This Almoravid policy was reversed by the succeeding Marinid dynasty in 1212.^{[citation needed]}

During his wanderings, Maimonides also wrote the The Yemen Epistle, a famous letter to the Jews of Yemen, who were then experiencing severe persecution at the hands of their Muslim rulers. In it, Maimonides describes his assessment of the treatment of the Jews at the hands of Muslims:

… on account of our sins God has cast us into the midst of this people, the nation of Ishmael [that is, Muslims], who persecute us severely, and who devise ways to harm us and to debase us…. No nation has ever done more harm to Israel. None has matched it in debasing and humiliating us. None has been able to reduce us as they have…. We have borne their imposed degradation, their lies, their absurdities, which are beyond human power to bear…. We have done as our sages of blessed memory have instructed us, bearing the lies and absurdities of Ishmael…. In spite of all this, we are not spared from the ferocity of their wickedness and their outbursts at any time. On the contrary, the more we suffer and choose to conciliate them, the more they choose to act belligerently toward us.^[41]

Mark Cohen quotes Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson, a specialist in medieval European Jewish history, who cautioned that Maimonides' condemnation of Islam should be understood "in the context of the harsh persections of the twelfth century and that furthermore one may say that he was insufficiently aware of the status of the Jews in Christian lands, or did not pay attention to this, when he wrote the letter." Cohen continues by quoting Ben-Sasson, who argues that Jews generally had a better legal and security situation in the Muslim countries than in Christendom.^[42]

In 1465, Arab mobs in Fez slaughtered thousands of Jews, leaving only 11 alive, after an accusation that a Jewish deputy vizier treated a Muslim woman in "an offensive manner." The killings touched off a wave of similar massacres throughout Morocco.^[43]

Decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Yemen in the middle ages. Jews were also forced to convert to Islam or face death in Yemen, Morocco, and Baghdad at certain times.^[44]

From the Middle Ages through the nineteenth century, Jews met significantly less official and popular anti-Semitism in Muslim countries than in Christian Europe. Jewish communities flourished in such places as Muslim-occupied Iberia, and when the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497, many sought refuge in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire, where they were welcomed by Sultan Beyazid II. Between 1504 and 1510, Barbarossa, on his voyages to Spain to rescue Muslims from the Inquisition, also evacuated a number of conversos who still practiced Judaism in secret. Later Ottoman Sultans also invited persecuted and legally disadvantaged Jews from Europe to settle in the Empire, particularly in Istanbul. Although in the seventeenth century, the reactionary Kadizadeli movement inspired some incidents of popular anti-Semitism, the Empire never adopted or endorsed anti-Semitic policies or practices, and by and large, protected the Jews from persecution.^{[citation needed]}

Mass murders and ethnic cleansing of Jews did, however, continue to occur in Arab lands throughout the centuries, especially in North Africa in Morocco, Libya, and Algeria, where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.^[45]

In the 19th century

British historian Martin Gilbert writes that in the 19th century the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries.

In 1839, in the eastern Persian city of Meshed, a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned the synagogue, and destroyed the Torah scrolls. It was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted.

In 1840, the Jews of Damascus were falsely accused of having murdered a Christian monk and his Muslim servant and of having used their blood to bake Passover bread. A Jewish barber was tortured until he "confessed"; two other Jews who were arrested died under torture, while a third converted to Islam to save his life.

Throughout the 1860s, the Jews of Libya were subjected to what Gilbert calls punitive taxation. In 1864, around 500 Jews were killed in Marrakech and Fez in Morroco. In 1869, 18 Jews were killed in Tunis, and an Arab mob looted Jewish homes and stores, and burned synagogues, on Jerba Island.

In 1875, 20 Jews were killed by a mob in Denmat, Morocco. Elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight.

In 1891, the leading Muslims in Jerusalem asked the Ottoman authorities in Constantinople to prohibit the entry of Jews arriving from Russia. In 1897, synagogues were ransacked and Jews were murdered in Tripolitania.

In 1903, 40 Jews were murdered in Taza, Morocco.

In 1905, old laws were revived in Yemen forbidding Jews to raise their voices in front of Muslims, to build their houses higher than those of Muslims, and to engage in any traditional Muslim trade or occupation.^[46]

Modern Muslim antisemitism

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After the establishment of the State of Israel, European antisemitic ideas, including those of the Nazis, were internalized and Islamized.^[47]

Standard antisemitic themes have become commonplace in the propaganda of Arab Islamic movements such as Hizbullah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah Partisi, the Turkish Islamic party whose head served as prime minister in 1996-97."^[47]

The language of abuse is often quite strong. For example, the conventional epithets for Jews and Christians are apes and pigs, respectively (See the section on the 'Muslim belief that certain Jews had been transformed into apes and pigs' below).^[48]

After a two-thirds majority international vote, the United Nations split the region of Palestine into a Jewish State and an Arab State; Jerusalem would be shared and controlled by the U.N. The Jewish leadership accepted the plan, but the Arab leadership rejected it.

On May 15, 1947, Azzam Pasha called for "jihad", saying: "This will be a war of

extermination and a momentous massacre which will be spoken of like the Mongolian massacres and the Crusades." Mohammad Amin al-Husayni, the Mufti of Jerusalem, announced:

"I declare a holy war, my Muslim brothers! Murder the Jews! Murder them all!"^{[citation needed]}

In 1944, Mohammad Amin al-Husayni said on Radio Berlin:

"Arabs, rise as one man and fight for your sacred rights. Kill the Jews wherever you find them. This pleases God, history, and religion. This saves your honor. God is with you"^[49]

These incitements sparked anti-Jewish riots, which triggered the Jewish exodus from Arab lands^{[citation needed]}.

A Palestinian, Dr. Ahmad Abu Halabiya, has stated, "O brother believers, the criminals, the terrorists - are the Jews… They are the ones who must be butchered and killed, as Allah the Almighty said: 'Fight them: Allah will torture them at your hands, and will humiliate them and will help you to overcome them… The Jews are like a [gas] pedal - as long as you step on it with your foot, it doesn't move, but if you lift your foot from it, it hurts you and punishes you. This is the case of the Jews."^[50]

Professor Khaleel Mohammed, Assistant Professor at the Department of Religious Studies at San Diego State University who specializes in Islam, and a Moslem himself, has estimated that 95% of contemporary Muslims are exposed to anti-Semitic teachings, beginning between the ages of 5 and 8, "and we know that things learned at this stage of life become ingrained, almost to the point of being in one's DNA."[5]

Palestinian sermons

Palestinian preacher Ibrahim Madhi said in a sermon: "Palestine will be, as it was in the past, a graveyard for the invaders - just as it was a graveyard for the Tatars and to the Crusader invaders, [and for the invaders] of the old and new colonialism… A reliable Hadith [tradition] says: 'The Jews will fight you, but you will be set to rule over them.' What could be more beautiful than this tradition? 'The Jews will fight you' - that is, the Jews have begun to fight us. 'You will be set to rule over them' - Who will set the Muslim to rule over the Jew? Allah… Until the Jew hides behind the rock and the tree. But the rock and tree will say: 'Oh Muslim, oh servant of Allah, a Jew hides behind me, come and kill him.' Except for the Gharqad tree, which is the tree of the Jews. We believe in this Hadith. We are convinced also that this Hadith heralds the spread of Islam and its rule over all the land… Oh Allah, accept our martyrs in the highest heavens… Oh Allah, show the Jews a black day… Oh Allah, annihilate the Jews and their supporters… Oh Allah, raise the flag of Jihad across the land… Oh Allah, forgive our sins…"^[51]

In sermons, Jews are commonly referred to as the descendants of pigs and apes, and as calf-worshippers. As Ibrahim Madhi stated, "All spears should be directed at the Jews, at the enemies of Allah, the nation that was cursed in Allah's book. Allah has described them as apes and pigs, the calf-worshipers, idol-worshipers… Whoever can fight them with his weapons, should go out [to the battle]; whoever can fight them with a machinegun, should go out; whoever can fight them with a sword or a knife, should go out; whoever can fight them with his hands, should go out; This is our destiny… The Jews have exposed their fangs. Nothing will deter them, except the color of their filthy people's blood; nothing will deter them except for us voluntarily detonating ourselves in their midst. They have nuclear power, but we have the power of the belief in Allah… We blow them up in Hadera, we blow them up in Tel Aviv and in Netanya."[21]

On another occasion, Sheikh Madhi added: "Oh beloved of Allah… One of the Jews' evil deeds is what has come to be called 'the Holocaust,' that is, the slaughter of the Jews by Nazism. However, revisionist [historians] have proven that this crime, carried out against some of the Jews, was planned by the Jews' leaders, and was part of their policy… These are the Jews against whom we fight, oh beloved of Allah. On the other hand, [what is our belief] about the Jews? Allah has described them as donkeys."^[52]

Saudi sermons

Abdul Rahman Al-Sudais is the leading imam of the Grand mosque located in the Islamic holy city of Mecca, Saudi Arabia. BBC aired a Panorama episode, entitled A Question of Leadership, which reported that al-Sudais referred to Jews as "the scum of the human race" and "offspring of apes and pigs", and stated, "the worst ... of the enemies of Islam are those ... whom he ... made monkeys and pigs, the aggressive Jews and oppressive Zionists and those that follow them: the callers of the trinity and the cross worshippers ... those influenced by the rottenness of their ideas, and the poison of their cultures the followers of secularism...Monkeys and pigs and worshippers of false Gods who are the Jews and the Zionists."^[53]

Islamic extremist groups

Many Islamic extremist groups seeking to eliminate the State of Israel, which they regard as occupied Muslim land, have openly expressed anti-Semitic views. This is especially true of Al Qaeda, Hamas, and Hezbollah.

Lashkar-e-Toiba's propaganda arm has declared the Jews to be "Enemies of Islam," and Israel to be the "Enemy of Pakistan".^[54]

Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, a Shiite scholar and assistant professor at the Lebanese American University, indicates that Hezbollah is not Anti-Zionist, but rather Anti-Jewish. She quotes Hassan Nasrallah as saying: "If we searched the entire world for a person more cowardly, despicable, weak and feeble in psyche, mind, ideology and religion, we would not find anyone like the Jew. Notice, I do not say the Israeli."^[55] Regarding the official public stance of Hezbollah as a whole, she indicates that while Hezbollah, "tries to mask its anti-Judaism for public-relations reasons ... a study of its language, spoken and written, reveals an underlying truth." In her book, Hezbollah: Politics & Religion, she explores the anti-Jewish roots of Hezbollah ideology, arguing that Hezbollah "believes that Jews, by the nature of Judaism, possess fatal character flaws." Saad-Ghorayeb also indicates that "Hezbollah's Quranic reading of Jewish history has led its leaders to believe that Jewish theology is evil."^[56]

Statistics

According to the Pew Global Attitudes Project released on August 14, 2005, high percentages of the populations of six Muslim-majority countries have negative views of Jews. To a questionnaire asking respondents to give their views of members of various religions along a spectrum from "very favorable" to "very unfavorable," 60% of Turks, 74% of Pakistanis, 76% of Indonesians, 88% of Moroccans, 99% of Lebanese Muslims and 100% of Jordanians checked either "somewhat unfavorable" or "very unfavorable" for Jews.^[57]

See also

• Arabs and antisemitism
• Christianity and antisemitism
• Holocaust denial in the Muslim world
• Islamism
• Jihad
• New antisemitism
• Red-green-brown alliance
• Religious intolerance
• Criticism of Islam
• Jewish exodus from Arab lands

Notes

References

• Arberry, Arthur J. (1955). The Koran Interpreted. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.
• Bodansky, Yossef (1999). Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument. Freeman Center For Strategic Studies
• Cohen, Mark (1995). Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01082-X
• Cohen, Mark (2002), The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies, Chapter 9, Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-199-28032-0
• Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5577-4
• Gerber, Jane S. (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism, ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. ISBN 0-8276-0267-7
• Laqueur, Walter. The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day. Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 0-19-530429-2
• Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8
• Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7
• Maududi, Sayyid Abul Ala (1967). The Meaning of the Quran. Lahore: Islamic Publications Limited.
• Poliakov, Leon (1997). "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8
• Qutb, Sayyid (2002). In the Shade of the Qur'an. Leicester: The Islamic foundation.Translated by Adil Salahi.
• Rodinson, Maxime (1971). Mohammed. Great Britain: Allen Lane the Penguin Press. Translated by Anne Carter.
• Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0
• Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
• Viré, F. (2006) "Kird". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
• Watt, Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford:University Press.
• Anti-Semitism in the 21st Century: The Resurgence Documentary film directed by Andrew Goldberg and hosted by Judy Woodruff

External links

• Middle East Research Institute Videos on Antisemitism in Muslim media
• "My fellow Muslims, we must fight anti-Semitism" 2002 interview with Tariq Ramadan in Haaretz
• Islamic Antisemitism And Its Nazi Roots
• The Anti-Semitic Disease - an analysis by Paul Johnson in Commentary
• A history of Muslim antisemitism and anti-Zionism
• Jews in the Koran and Early Islamic Traditions by Dr. Leah Kinberg