THC Science

Irish
Irish
Irish Gaelic; Gaelic;
Standard Irish: Gaeilge (na hÉireann)
Pronunciation	Connacht Irish: [ˈɡeːlʲɟə]; Munster Irish: [ˈɡeːl̪ˠən̠ʲ]; Ulster Irish: [ˈɡeːlʲəc]
Region	Ireland
Ethnicity	Irish people
Native speakers	L1: unknown; People aged 3+ stating they could speak Irish "very well":; (ROI, 2022) 195,029; Daily users outside education system:; (ROI, 2022) 71,968; (NI, 2021) 43,557; L2: unknown; People aged 3+ stating they could speak Irish:; (ROI, 2022) 1,873,997; (NI, 2021) 228,600
Language family	Indo-European Celtic Insular Celtic Goidelic Irish; ; ; ;
Early forms	Primitive Irish Old Irish Middle Irish Early Modern Irish ; ; ;
Standard forms	An Caighdeán Oifigiúil (written only)
Dialects	Connacht Irish; Leinster Irish †; Munster Irish; Newfoundland †; Ulster Irish;
Writing system	Latin (Irish alphabet); Ogham (historically); Irish Braille
Official status
Official language in	Ireland; Northern Ireland; European Union
Language codes
ISO 639-1	ga
ISO 639-2	gle
ISO 639-3	gle
Glottolog	iris1253
ELP	Irish
Linguasphere	50-AAA
	Proportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland censuses of 2011
	Irish is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (2010)
	This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Spoken Irish

The first chapter of Mo Sgéal Féin, read by native Irish speaker Mairéad Uí Lionáird in the Muskerry Gaeltacht

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Irish (Standard Irish: Gaeilge), also known as Irish Gaelic or simply Gaelic (/ˈɡeɪlɪk/ GAY-lik),^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8] is a Goidelic language of the Insular Celtic branch of the Celtic language group, which is a part of the Indo-European language family.^[7]^[4]^[9]^[10]^[6] Irish is indigenous to the island of Ireland^[11] and was the population's first language until the 19th century, when English gradually became dominant, particularly in the last decades of the century. Today, Irish is still commonly spoken as a first language in Ireland's Gaeltacht regions, in which 2% of Ireland's population lived in 2022.^[12]

The total number of people (aged 3 and over) in Ireland who claimed they could speak Irish in April 2022 was 1,873,997, representing 40% of respondents, but of these, 472,887 said they never spoke it and a further 551,993 said they only spoke it within the education system.^[12] Linguistic analyses of Irish speakers are therefore based primarily on the number of daily users in Ireland outside the education system, which in 2022 was 20,261 in the Gaeltacht and 51,707 outside it, totalling 71,968.^[12] In response to the 2021 census of Northern Ireland, 43,557 individuals stated they spoke Irish on a daily basis, 26,286 spoke it on a weekly basis, 47,153 spoke it less often than weekly, and 9,758 said they could speak Irish, but never spoke it.^[13] From 2006 to 2008, over 22,000 Irish Americans reported speaking Irish as their first language at home, with several times that number claiming "some knowledge" of the language.^[14]

For most of recorded Irish history, Irish was the dominant language of the Irish people, who took it with them to other regions, such as Scotland and the Isle of Man, where Middle Irish gave rise to Scottish Gaelic and Manx. It was also, for a period, spoken widely across Canada, with an estimated 200,000–250,000 daily Canadian speakers of Irish in 1890.^[15] On the island of Newfoundland, a unique dialect of Irish developed before falling out of use in the early 20th century.

With a writing system, Ogham, dating back to at least the 4th century AD, which was gradually replaced by Latin script since the 5th century AD, Irish has one of the oldest vernacular literatures in Western Europe. On the island, the language has three major dialects: Connacht, Munster and Ulster Irish. All three have distinctions in their speech and orthography. There is also An Caighdeán Oifigiúil, a standardised written form devised by a parliamentary commission in the 1950s. The traditional Irish alphabet, a variant of the Latin alphabet with 18 letters, has been succeeded by the standard Latin alphabet (albeit with 7–8 letters used primarily in loanwords).

Irish has constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland, and is also an official language of Northern Ireland and among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island. Irish has no regulatory body but An Caighdeán Oifigiúil, the standard written form, is guided by a parliamentary service and new vocabulary by a voluntary committee with university input.

Names

In Irish

In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil ("The Official [Written] Standard") the name of the language is Gaeilge, from the South Connacht form, spelled Gaedhilge prior the spelling reform of 1948, which was originally the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Gaelic.^[16] The modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent ⟨dh⟩ in Gaedhilge. Older spellings include Gaoidhealg [ˈɡeːʝəlˠɡ] in Classical Gaelic and Goídelc [ˈɡoiðelˠɡ] in Old Irish. Goidelic, used to refer to the language family, is derived from the Old Irish term.

Endonyms of the language in the various modern Irish dialects include: Gaeilge [ˈɡeːlʲɟə] in Galway, Gaeilg/Gaeilic/Gaeilig [ˈɡeːlʲəc] in Mayo and Ulster, Gaelainn/Gaoluinn [ˈɡeːl̪ˠən̠ʲ] in West/Cork, Kerry Munster, as well as Gaedhealaing in mid and East Kerry/Cork and Waterford Munster to reflect local pronunciation.^[17]^[18]

Gaeilge also has a wider meaning, including the Gaelic of Scotland and the Isle of Man, as well as of Ireland. When required by the context, these are distinguished as Gaeilge na hAlban, Gaeilge Mhanann and Gaeilge na hÉireann respectively.^[19]

In English

In English (including Hiberno-English), the language is usually referred to as Irish, as well as Gaelic and Irish Gaelic.^[20]^[21] The term Irish Gaelic may be seen when English speakers discuss the relationship between the three Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx).^[22] Gaelic is a collective term for the Goidelic languages,^[6]^[23]^[7]^[10]^[24] and when the context is clear it may be used without qualification to refer to each language individually. When the context is specific but unclear, the term may be qualified, as Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic or Manx Gaelic. Historically the name "Erse" (/ɜːrs/ URS) was also sometimes used in Scots and then in English to refer to Irish;^[25] as well as Scottish Gaelic.

History

Written Irish is first attested in Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century AD,^[26] a stage of the language known as Primitive Irish. These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish underwent a change into Old Irish through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the Latin alphabet and is attested primarily in marginalia to Latin manuscripts. During this time, the Irish language absorbed some Latin words, some via Old Welsh, including ecclesiastical terms: examples are easpag (bishop) from episcopus, and Domhnach (Sunday, from dominica).

By the 10th century, Old Irish had evolved into Middle Irish, which was spoken throughout Ireland, Isle of Man and parts of Scotland. It is the language of a large corpus of literature, including the Ulster Cycle. From the 12th century, Middle Irish began to evolve into modern Irish in Ireland, into Scottish Gaelic in Scotland, and into the Manx language in the Isle of Man.

Early Modern Irish, dating from the 13th century, was the basis of the literary language of both Ireland and Gaelic-speaking Scotland. Modern Irish, as attested in the work of such writers as Geoffrey Keating, may be said to date from the 17th century, and was the medium of popular literature from that time on.

From the 18th century on, the language lost ground in the east of the country. The reasons behind this shift were complex but came down to a number of factors:

Discouragement of its use by the Anglo-Irish administration.
The Catholic Church's support of English over Irish.
The spread of bilingualism from the 1750s onwards.^[27]

The distribution of the Irish language in 1871

The change was characterised by diglossia (two languages being used by the same community in different social and economic situations) and transitional bilingualism (monoglot Irish-speaking grandparents with bilingual children and monoglot English-speaking grandchildren). By the mid-18th century, English was becoming a language of the Catholic middle class, the Catholic Church and public intellectuals, especially in the east of the country. Increasingly, as the value of English became apparent, parents sanctioned the prohibition of Irish in schools.^[28] Increasing interest in emigrating to the United States and Canada was also a driver, as fluency in English allowed the new immigrants to get jobs in areas other than farming. An estimated one quarter to one third of US immigrants during the Great Famine were Irish speakers.^[29]

Irish was not marginal to Ireland's modernisation in the 19th century, as is often assumed. In the first half of the century there were still around three million people for whom Irish was the primary language, and their numbers alone made them a cultural and social force. Irish speakers often insisted on using the language in law courts (even when they knew English), and Irish was also common in commercial transactions. The language was heavily implicated in the "devotional revolution" which marked the standardisation of Catholic religious practice and was also widely used in a political context. Down to the time of the Great Famine and even afterwards, the language was in use by all classes, Irish being an urban as well as a rural language.^[30]

This linguistic dynamism was reflected in the efforts of certain public intellectuals to counter the decline of the language. At the end of the 19th century, they launched the Gaelic revival in an attempt to encourage the learning and use of Irish, although few adult learners mastered the language.^[31] The vehicle of the revival was the Gaelic League (Conradh na Gaeilge), and particular emphasis was placed on the folk tradition, which in Irish is particularly rich. Efforts were also made to develop journalism and a modern literature.

Although it has been noted that the Catholic Church played a role in the decline of the Irish language before the Gaelic Revival, the Protestant Church of Ireland also made only minor efforts to encourage use of Irish in a religious context. An Irish translation of the Old Testament by Leinsterman Muircheartach Ó Cíonga, commissioned by Bishop Bedell, was published after 1685 along with a translation of the New Testament. Otherwise, Anglicisation was seen as synonymous with 'civilising' the native Irish. Currently, modern day Irish speakers in the church are pushing for language revival.^[32]

It has been estimated that there were around 800,000 monoglot Irish speakers in 1800, which dropped to 320,000 by the end of the famine, and under 17,000 by 1911.^[33]

Status and policy

Ireland

Irish is recognised by the Constitution of Ireland as the national and first official language of Republic of Ireland (English being the other official language). Despite this, almost all government business and legislative debate is conducted in English.^[34]

In 1938, the founder of Conradh na Gaeilge (Gaelic League), Douglas Hyde, was inaugurated as the first President of Ireland. The record of his delivering his inaugural Declaration of Office in Roscommon Irish is one of only a few recordings of that dialect.^[35]^[36]^[37]^[38]

In the 2016 census, 10.5% of respondents stated that they spoke Irish, either daily or weekly, while over 70,000 people (4.2%) speak it as a habitual daily means of communication.^[39]

From the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922 (see History of the Republic of Ireland), new appointees to the Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland, including postal workers, tax collectors, agricultural inspectors, Garda Síochána (police), etc., were required to have some proficiency in Irish. By law, a Garda who was addressed in Irish had to respond in Irish as well.^[40]

In 1974, in part through the actions of protest organisations like the Language Freedom Movement, the requirement for entrance to the public service was changed to proficiency in just one official language.

Nevertheless, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools in the Republic of Ireland that receive public money (see Education in the Republic of Ireland). Teachers in primary schools must also pass a compulsory examination called Scrúdú Cáilíochta sa Ghaeilge. As of 2005, Garda Síochána recruits need a pass in Leaving Certificate Irish or English, and receive lessons in Irish during their two years of training. Official documents of the Irish government must be published in both Irish and English or Irish alone (in accordance with the Official Languages Act 2003, enforced by An Coimisinéir Teanga, the Irish language ombudsman).

The National University of Ireland requires all students wishing to embark on a degree course in the NUI federal system to pass the subject of Irish in the Leaving Certificate or GCE/GCSE examinations.^[41] Exemptions are made from this requirement for students who were born or completed primary education outside of Ireland, and students diagnosed with dyslexia.

NUI Galway is required to appoint people who are competent in the Irish language, as long as they are also competent in all other aspects of the vacancy to which they are appointed. This requirement is laid down by the University College Galway Act, 1929 (Section 3).^[42] In 2016, the university faced controversy when it announced the appointment of a president who did not speak Irish. Misneach^{[further explanation needed]} staged protests against this decision. The following year the university announced that Ciarán Ó hÓgartaigh, a fluent Irish speaker, would be its 13th president.^{[citation needed]}

For a number of years there has been vigorous debate in political, academic and other circles about the failure of most students in English-medium schools to achieve competence in Irish, even after fourteen years of teaching as one of the three main subjects.^[43]^[44]^[45] The concomitant decline in the number of traditional native speakers has also been a cause of great concern.^[46]^[47]^[48]^[49]

In 2007, filmmaker Manchán Magan found few Irish speakers in Dublin, and faced incredulity when trying to get by speaking only Irish in Dublin. He was unable to accomplish some everyday tasks, as portrayed in his documentary No Béarla.^[50]

There is, however, a growing body of Irish speakers in urban areas, particularly in Dublin. Many have been educated in schools in which Irish is the language of instruction. Such schools are known as Gaelscoileanna at primary level. These Irish-medium schools report some better outcomes for students than English-medium schools.^[51] In 2009, a paper suggested that within a generation, non-Gaeltacht habitual users of Irish might typically be members of an urban, middle class, and highly educated minority.^[52]

Parliamentary legislation is supposed to be available in both Irish and English but is frequently only available in English. This is notwithstanding that Article 25.4 of the Constitution of Ireland requires that an "official translation" of any law in one official language be provided immediately in the other official language, if not already passed in both official languages.^[1]

In November 2016, RTÉ reported that over 2.3 million people worldwide were learning Irish through the Duolingo app.^[53] Irish president Michael Higgins officially honoured several volunteer translators for developing the Irish edition, and said the push for Irish language rights remains an "unfinished project".^[54]

Gaeltacht

There are rural areas of Ireland where Irish is still spoken daily to some extent as a first language. These regions are known individually and collectively as the Gaeltacht (plural Gaeltachtaí). While the fluent Irish speakers of these areas, whose numbers have been estimated at 20–30,000,^[55] are a minority of the total number of fluent Irish speakers, they represent a higher concentration of Irish speakers than other parts of the country and it is only in Gaeltacht areas that Irish continues to be spoken as a community vernacular to some extent.

According to data compiled by the Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media, only 1/4 of households in Gaeltacht areas are fluent in Irish. The author of a detailed analysis of the survey, Donncha Ó hÉallaithe of the Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology, described the Irish language policy followed by Irish governments as a "complete and absolute disaster". The Irish Times, referring to his analysis published in the Irish language newspaper Foinse, quoted him as follows: "It is an absolute indictment of successive Irish Governments that at the foundation of the Irish State there were 250,000 fluent Irish speakers living in Irish-speaking or semi Irish-speaking areas, but the number now is between 20,000 and 30,000."^[55]

In the 1920s, when the Irish Free State was founded, Irish was still a vernacular in some western coastal areas.^[56] In the 1930s, areas where more than 25% of the population spoke Irish were classified as Gaeltacht. Today, the strongest Gaeltacht areas, numerically and socially, are those of South Connemara, the west of the Dingle Peninsula, and northwest Donegal, where many residents still use Irish as their primary language. These areas are often referred to as the Fíor-Ghaeltacht (true Gaeltacht), a term originally officially applied to areas where over 50% of the population spoke Irish.

There are Gaeltacht regions in the following counties:^[57]^[58]

County Galway (Contae na Gaillimhe)
- Connemara (Conamara)
- Aran Islands (Oileáin Árann)
- Carraroe (An Cheathrú Rua)
- Spiddal (An Spidéal)
County Mayo (Contae Mhaigh Eo)
County Donegal (Contae Dhún na nGall)
County Kerry (Contae Chiarraí)
- Dingle Peninsula (Corca Dhuibhne)
- Iveragh Peninsula (Uibh Rathach)
County Cork (Contae Chorcaí)
County Waterford (Contae Phort Láirge)
County Meath (Contae na Mí)

Gweedore (Gaoth Dobhair), County Donegal, is the largest Gaeltacht parish in Ireland. Irish language summer colleges in the Gaeltacht are attended by tens of thousands of teenagers annually. Students live with Gaeltacht families, attend classes, participate in sports, go to céilithe and are obliged to speak Irish. All aspects of Irish culture and tradition are encouraged.

Policy

Official Languages Act 2003

The Act was passed 14 July 2003 with the main purpose of improving the amount and quality of public services delivered in Irish by the government and other public bodies.^[59] Compliance with the Act is monitored by the An Coimisinéir Teanga (Irish Language Commissioner) which was established in 2004^[60] and any complaints or concerns pertaining to the Act are brought to them.^[59] There are 35 sections included in the Act all detailing different aspects of the use of Irish in official documentation and communication. Included in these sections are subjects such as Irish language use in official courts, official publications, and placenames.^[61] The Act was recently amended in December 2019 in order to strengthen the already preexisting legislation.^[62] All changes made took into account data collected from online surveys and written submissions.^[63]

Official Languages Scheme 2019–2022

The Official Languages Scheme was enacted 1 July 2019 and is an 18-page document that adheres to the guidelines of the Official Languages Act 2003.^[64] The purpose of the Scheme is to provide services through the mediums of Irish and/or English. According to the Department of the Taoiseach, it is meant to "develop a sustainable economy and a successful society, to pursue Ireland's interests abroad, to implement the Government's Programme and to build a better future for Ireland and all her citizens."^[65]

20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010–2030

The Strategy was produced on 21 December 2010 and will stay in action until 2030; it aims to target language vitality and revitalization of the Irish language.^[66] The 30-page document published by the Government of Ireland details the objectives it plans to work towards in an attempt to preserve and promote both the Irish language and the Gaeltacht. It is divided into four separate phases with the intention of improving 9 main areas of action including:

"Education"
"The Gaeltacht"
"Family Transmission of the Language – Early Intervention"
"Administration, Services and Community"
"Media and Technology"
"Dictionaries"
"Legislation and Status"
"Economic Life"
"Cross-cutting Initiatives"^[67]

The general goal for this strategy was to increase the amount of daily speakers from 83,000 to 250,000 by the end of its run.^[68] By 2022, the number of such speakers had fallen to 71,968.^[69]

Northern Ireland

Before the partition of Ireland in 1921, Irish was recognised as a school subject and as "Celtic" in some third level institutions. Between 1921 and 1972, Northern Ireland had devolved government. During those years the political party holding power in the Stormont Parliament, the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), was hostile to the language. The context of this hostility was the use of the language by nationalists.^[70] In broadcasting, there was an exclusion on the reporting of minority cultural issues, and Irish was excluded from radio and television for almost the first fifty years of the previous devolved government.^[71] After the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, the language gradually received a degree of formal recognition in Northern Ireland from the United Kingdom,^[72] and then, in 2003, by the British government's ratification in respect of the language of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In the 2006 St Andrews Agreement the British government promised to enact legislation to promote the language^[73] and in 2022 it approved legislation to recognise Irish as an official language alongside English. The bill received royal assent on 6 December 2022.^[74]

The Irish language has often been used as a bargaining chip during government formation in Northern Ireland, prompting protests from organisations and groups such as An Dream Dearg.^[75]

European Parliament

Irish became an official language of the EU on 1 January 2007, meaning that MEPs with Irish fluency can now speak the language in the European Parliament and at committees, although in the case of the latter they have to give prior notice to a simultaneous interpreter in order to ensure that what they say can be interpreted into other languages.

While an official language of the European Union, only co-decision regulations were available until 2022, due to a five-year derogation, requested by the Irish Government when negotiating the language's new official status. The Irish government had committed itself to train the necessary number of translators and interpreters and to bear the related costs.^[76] This derogation ultimately came to an end on 1 January 2022, making Irish a fully recognised EU language for the first time in the state's history.^[77]

Before Irish became an official language it was afforded the status of treaty language and only the highest-level documents of the EU were made available in Irish.

Outside Ireland

The Irish language was carried abroad in the modern period by a vast diaspora, chiefly to Great Britain and North America, but also to Australia, New Zealand and Argentina. The first large movements began in the 17th century, largely as a result of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, which saw many Irish sent to the West Indies. Irish emigration to the United States was well established by the 18th century, and was reinforced in the 1840s by thousands fleeing from the Famine. This flight also affected Britain. Up until that time most emigrants spoke Irish as their first language, though English was establishing itself as the primary language. Irish speakers had first arrived in Australia in the late 18th century as convicts and soldiers, and many Irish-speaking settlers followed, particularly in the 1860s. New Zealand also received some of this influx. Argentina was the only non-English-speaking country to receive large numbers of Irish emigrants, and there were few Irish speakers among them.

Relatively few of the emigrants were literate in Irish, but manuscripts in the language were brought to both Australia and the United States, and it was in the United States that the first newspaper to make significant use of Irish was established: An Gaodhal. In Australia, too, the language found its way into print. The Gaelic revival, which started in Ireland in the 1890s, found a response abroad, with branches of Conradh na Gaeilge being established in all the countries to which Irish speakers had emigrated.

The decline of Irish in Ireland and a slowing of emigration helped to ensure a decline in the language abroad, along with natural attrition in the host countries. Despite this, small groups of enthusiasts continued to learn and cultivate Irish in diaspora countries and elsewhere, a trend which strengthened in the second half of the 20th century. Today the language is taught at tertiary level in North America, Australia and Europe, and Irish speakers outside Ireland contribute to journalism and literature in the language. There are significant Irish-speaking networks in the United States and Canada;^[78] figures released for the period 2006–2008 show that 22,279 Irish Americans claimed to speak Irish at home.^[14]

The Irish language is also one of the languages of the Celtic League, a non-governmental organisation that promotes self-determination, Celtic identity and culture in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall and the Isle of Man, known collectively as the Celtic nations.

Irish was spoken as a community language until the early 20th century on the island of Newfoundland, in a form known as Newfoundland Irish.^[79] Certain Irish vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation features are still used in modern Newfoundland English.^[80]

Usage

The 2016 census data shows:

The total number of people who answered 'yes' to being able to speak Irish in April 2016 was 1,761,420, a slight decrease (0.7 per cent) on the 2011 figure of 1,774,437. This represents 39.8 per cent of respondents compared with 41.4 in 2011... Of the 73,803 daily Irish speakers (outside the education system), 20,586 (27.9%) lived in Gaeltacht areas.^[81]

Daily Irish speakers in Gaeltacht areas between 2011 and 2016

Gaeltacht Area	2011	2016	Change 2011–2016
Gaeltacht Area	2011	2016	No.	%
County Cork	982	872	110	11.2%
County Donegal	7,047	5,929	1,118	15.9%
Galway City	636	647	11	1.6%
County Galway	10,085	9,445	640	6.3%
County Kerry	2,501	2,049	452	18.1%
County Mayo	1,172	895	277	23.6%
County Meath	314	283	31	9.9%
County Waterford	438	467	29	6.6%
All Gaeltacht Areas	23,175	20,586	2,589	11.2%
Source:^[82]

In 1996, the three electoral divisions in the State where Irish had the most daily speakers were An Turloch (91%+), Scainimh (89%+), Min an Chladaigh (88%+).^[83]

Dialects

Irish is represented by several traditional dialects and by various varieties of "urban" Irish. The latter have acquired lives of their own and a growing number of native speakers. Differences between the dialects make themselves felt in stress, intonation, vocabulary and structural features.

Roughly speaking, the three major dialect areas which survive coincide roughly with the provinces of Connacht (Cúige Chonnacht), Munster (Cúige Mumhan) and Ulster (Cúige Uladh). Records of some dialects of Leinster (Cúige Laighean) were made by the Irish Folklore Commission and others.^[84] Newfoundland, in eastern Canada, had a form of Irish derived from the Munster Irish of the later 18th century (see Newfoundland Irish).

Connacht

Historically, Connacht Irish represents the westernmost remnant of a dialect area which once stretched from east to west across the centre of Ireland. The strongest dialect of Connacht Irish is to be found in Connemara and the Aran Islands. Much closer to the larger Connacht Gaeltacht is the dialect spoken in the smaller region on the border between Galway (Gaillimh) and Mayo (Maigh Eo). There are a number of differences between the popular South Connemara form of Irish, the Mid-Connacht/Joyce Country form (on the border between Mayo and Galway) and the Achill and Erris forms in the north of the province.

Features in Connacht Irish differing from the official standard include a preference for verbal nouns ending in -achan, e.g. lagachan instead of lagú, "weakening". The non-standard pronunciation of Cois Fharraige with lengthened vowels and heavily reduced endings gives it a distinct sound. Distinguishing features of Connacht and Ulster dialect include the pronunciation of word-final /w/ as [w], rather than as [vˠ] in Munster. For example, sliabh ("mountain") is [ʃlʲiəw] in Connacht and Ulster as opposed to [ʃlʲiəβ] in the south. In addition Connacht and Ulster speakers tend to include the "we" pronoun rather than use the standard compound form used in Munster, e.g. bhí muid is used for "we were" instead of bhíomar.

As in Munster Irish, some short vowels are lengthened and others diphthongised before ⟨ll, m, nn, rr, rd⟩, in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant. This can be seen in ceann [cɑːn̪ˠ] "head", cam [kɑːmˠ] "crooked", gearr [ɟɑːɾˠ] "short", ord [ouɾˠd̪ˠ] "sledgehammer", gall [gɑːl̪ˠ] "foreigner, non-Gael", iontas [iːn̪ˠt̪ˠəsˠ] "a wonder, a marvel", etc. The form ⟨(a)ibh⟩, when occurring at the end of words like agaibh, tends to be pronounced as [iː].

In South Connemara, for example, there is a tendency to replace word-final /vʲ/ with /bʲ/, in word such as sibh, libh and dóibh (pronounced respectively as "shiv," "liv" and "dófa" in the other areas). This placing of the B-sound is also present at the end of words ending in vowels, such as acu ([ˈakəbˠ]) and 'leo ([lʲoːbˠ]). There is also a tendency to omit /g/ in agam, agat and againn, a characteristic also of other Connacht dialects. All these pronunciations are distinctively regional.

The pronunciation prevalent in the Joyce Country (the area around Lough Corrib and Lough Mask) is quite similar to that of South Connemara, with a similar approach to the words agam, agat and againn and a similar approach to pronunciation of vowels and consonants but there are noticeable differences in vocabulary, with certain words such as doiligh (difficult) and foscailte being preferred to the more usual deacair and oscailte. Another interesting aspect of this sub-dialect is that almost all vowels at the end of words tend to be pronounced as [iː]: eile (other), cosa (feet) and déanta (done) tend to be pronounced as eilí, cosaí and déantaí respectively.

The northern Mayo dialect of Erris (Iorras) and Achill (Acaill) is in grammar and morphology essentially a Connacht dialect but shows some similarities to Ulster Irish due to large-scale immigration of dispossessed people following the Plantation of Ulster. For example, words ending -⟨bh, mh⟩ have a much softer sound, with a tendency to terminate words such as leo and dóibh with ⟨f⟩, giving leofa and dófa respectively. In addition to a vocabulary typical of other area of Connacht, one also finds Ulster words like amharc (meaning "to look"), nimhneach (painful or sore), druid (close), mothaigh (hear), doiligh (difficult), úr (new), and tig le (to be able to – i.e. a form similar to féidir).

Irish President Douglas Hyde was possibly one of the last speakers of the Roscommon dialect of Irish.^[36]

Munster

Munster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht areas of the counties of Cork (Contae Chorcaí), Kerry (Contae Chiarraí), and Waterford (Contae Phort Láirge). The Gaeltacht areas of Cork can be found in Cape Clear Island (Oileán Chléire) and Muskerry (Múscraí); those of Kerry lie in Corca Dhuibhne and Iveragh Peninsula; and those of Waterford in Ring (An Rinn) and Old Parish (An Sean Phobal), both of which together form Gaeltacht na nDéise. Of the three counties, the Irish spoken in Cork and Kerry is quite similar while that of Waterford is more distinct.

Some typical features of Munster Irish are:

The use of synthetic verbs in parallel with a pronominal subject system, thus "I must" is caithfead in Munster, while other dialects prefer caithfidh mé (mé means "I"). "I was" and "you were" are bhíos and bhís in Munster but more commonly bhí mé and bhí tú in other dialects. These are strong tendencies, and the personal forms bhíos etc. are used in the West and North, particularly when the words are last in the clause.
Use of independent/dependent forms of verbs that are not included in the Standard. For example, "I see" in Munster is chím, which is the independent form; Ulster Irish also uses a similar form, tchím, whereas "I do not see" is ní fheicim, feicim being the dependent form, which is used after particles such as ní ("not"). Chím is replaced by feicim in the Standard. Similarly, the traditional form preserved in Munster bheirim "I give"/ní thugaim is tugaim/ní thugaim in the Standard; gheibhim I get/ní bhfaighim is faighim/ní bhfaighim.
When before ⟨ll, m, nn, rr, rd⟩ and so on, in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant, some short vowels are lengthened while others are diphthongised, in ceann [cɑun̪ˠ] "head", cam [kɑumˠ] "crooked", gearr [ɟɑːɾˠ] "short", ord [oːɾˠd̪ˠ] "sledgehammer", gall [gɑul̪ˠ] "foreigner, non-Gael", iontas [uːn̪ˠt̪ˠəsˠ] "a wonder, a marvel", compánach [kəumˠˈpˠɑːnˠəx] "companion, mate", etc.
A copular construction involving ea "it" is frequently used. Thus "I am an Irish person" can be said is Éireannach mé and Éireannach is ea mé in Munster; there is a subtle difference in meaning, however, the first choice being a simple statement of fact, while the second brings emphasis onto the word Éireannach. In effect the construction is a type of "fronting".
Both masculine and feminine words are subject to lenition after insan (sa/san) "in the", den "of the", and don "to/for the": sa tsiopa "in the shop", compared to the Standard sa siopa (the Standard lenites only feminine nouns in the dative in these cases).
Eclipsis of ⟨f⟩ after sa: sa bhfeirm, "in the farm", instead of san fheirm.
Eclipsis of ⟨t⟩ and ⟨d⟩ after preposition + singular article, with all prepositions except after insan, den and don: ar an dtigh "on the house", ag an ndoras "at the door".
Stress is generally on the second syllable of a word when the first syllable contains a short vowel, and the second syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, or is -⟨(e)ach⟩, e.g. Ciarán is pronounced [[ciəˈɾˠaːn̪ˠ]] opposed to [ˈciəɾˠaːn̪ˠ] in Connacht and Ulster.

Ulster

Ulster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht regions of Donegal. These regions contain all of Ulster's communities where Irish has been spoken in an unbroken line back to when the language was the dominant language of Ireland. The Irish-speaking communities in other parts of Ulster are a result of language revival – English-speaking families deciding to learn Irish. Census data shows that 4,130 people speak it at home.

Linguistically, the most important of the Ulster dialects today is that which is spoken, with slight differences, in both Gweedore (Gaoth Dobhair = Inlet of Streaming Water) and The Rosses (na Rossa).

Ulster Irish sounds quite different from the other two main dialects. It shares several features with southern dialects of Scottish Gaelic and Manx, as well as having many characteristic words and shades of meanings. However, since the demise of those Irish dialects spoken natively in what is today Northern Ireland, it is probably an exaggeration to see present-day Ulster Irish as an intermediary form between Scottish Gaelic and the southern and western dialects of Irish. Northern Scottish Gaelic has many non-Ulster features in common with Munster Irish.

One noticeable trait of Ulster Irish, Scots Gaelic and Manx is the use of the negative particle cha(n) in place of the Munster and Connacht ní. Though southern Donegal Irish tends to use ní more than cha(n), cha(n) has almost ousted ní in northernmost dialects (e.g. Rosguill and Tory Island), though even in these areas níl "is not" is more common than chan fhuil or cha bhfuil.^[85]^[86] Another noticeable trait is the pronunciation of the first person singular verb ending -(a)im as -(e)am, also common to the Isle of Man and Scotland (Munster/Connacht siúlaim "I walk", Ulster siúlam).

Leinster

Down to the early 19th century and even later, Irish was spoken in all twelve counties of Leinster. The evidence furnished by placenames, literary sources and recorded speech indicates that there was no Leinster dialect as such. Instead, the main dialect used in the province was represented by a broad central belt stretching from west Connacht eastwards to the Liffey estuary and southwards to Wexford, though with many local variations. Two smaller dialects were represented by the Ulster speech of counties Meath and Louth, which extended as far south as the Boyne valley, and a Munster dialect found in Kilkenny and south Laois.

The main dialect had characteristics which survive today only in the Irish of Connacht. It typically placed the stress on the first syllable of a word, and showed a preference (found in placenames) for the pronunciation ⟨cr⟩ where the standard spelling is ⟨cn⟩. The word cnoc (hill) would therefore be pronounced croc. Examples are the placenames Crooksling (Cnoc Slinne) in County Dublin and Crukeen (Cnoicín) in Carlow. East Leinster showed the same diphthongisation or vowel lengthening as in Munster and Connacht Irish in words like poll (hole), cill (monastery), coill (wood), ceann (head), cam (crooked) and dream (crowd). A feature of the dialect was the pronunciation of ⟨ao⟩, which generally became [eː] in east Leinster (as in Munster), and [iː] in the west (as in Connacht).^[87]

Early evidence regarding colloquial Irish in east Leinster is found in The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge (1547), by the English physician and traveller Andrew Borde.^[88] The illustrative phrases he uses include the following:

English	Leinster Irish
English	Anglicised spelling	Irish spelling
How are you?	Kanys stato?	[Canas 'tá tú?]
I am well, thank you	Tam a goomah gramahagood.	[Tá mé go maith, go raibh maith agat.]
Sir, can you speak Irish?	Sor, woll galow oket?	[Sir, 'bhfuil Gaeilig [Gaela'] agat?]
Wife, give me bread!	Benytee, toor haran!	[A bhean an tí, tabhair arán!]
How far is it to Waterford?	Gath haad o showh go part laarg?.	[Gá fhad as [a] seo go Port Láirge?]
It is one a twenty mile.	Myle hewryht.	[Míle a haon ar fhichid.]
When shall I go to sleep, wife?	Gah hon rah moyd holow?	[Gathain a rachamaoid a chodladh?]

The Pale

The Pale (An Pháil) was an area around late medieval Dublin under the control of the English government. By the late 15th century it consisted of an area along the coast from Dalkey, south of Dublin, to the garrison town of Dundalk, with an inland boundary encompassing Naas and Leixlip in the Earldom of Kildare and Trim and Kells in County Meath to the north. In this area of "Englyshe tunge" English had never actually been a dominant language – and was moreover a relatively late comer; the first colonisers were Normans who spoke Norman French, and before these Norse. The Irish language had always been the language of the bulk of the population. An English official remarked of the Pale in 1515 that "all the common people of the said half counties that obeyeth the King's laws, for the most part be of Irish birth, of Irish habit and of Irish language".^[89]

With the strengthening of English cultural and political control, language change began to occur but this did not become clearly evident until the 18th century. Even then, in the decennial period 1771–81, the percentage of Irish speakers in Meath was at least 41%. By 1851 this had fallen to less than 3%.^[90]

General decline

English expanded strongly in Leinster in the 18th century but Irish speakers were still numerous. In the decennial period 1771–81 certain counties had estimated percentages of Irish speakers as follows (though the estimates are likely to be too low):^[90]

Kilkenny 57%

Louth 57%

Longford 22%

Westmeath 17%

The language saw its most rapid initial decline in counties Dublin, Kildare, Laois, Wexford, and Wicklow. In recent years, County Wicklow has been noted as having the lowest percentage of Irish speakers of any county in Ireland, with only 0.14% of its population claiming to have passable knowledge of the language.^[91] The proportion of Irish-speaking children in Leinster went down as follows: 17% in the 1700s, 11% in the 1800s, 3% in the 1830s, and virtually none in the 1860s.^[92] The Irish census of 1851 showed that there were still a number of older speakers in County Dublin.^[90] Sound recordings were made between 1928 and 1931 of some of the last speakers in Omeath, County Louth (now available in digital form).^[93] The last known traditional native speaker in Omeath, and in Leinster as a whole, was Annie O'Hanlon (née Dobbin), who died in 1960.^[28] Her dialect was, in fact, a branch of the Irish of south-east Ulster.^[94]

Urban use from the Middle Ages to the 19th century

Irish was spoken as a community language in Irish towns and cities down to the 19th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries it was widespread even in Dublin and the Pale. The English administrator William Gerard (1518–1581) commented as follows: "All English, and the most part with delight, even in Dublin, speak Irish,"^[95] while the Old English historian Richard Stanihurst (1547–1618) lamented that "When their posterity became not altogether so wary in keeping, as their ancestors were valiant in conquering, the Irish language was free dennized in the English Pale: this canker took such deep root, as the body that before was whole and sound, was by little and little festered, and in manner wholly putrified".^[96]

The Irish of Dublin, situated as it was between the east Ulster dialect of Meath and Louth to the north and the Leinster-Connacht dialect further south, may have reflected the characteristics of both in phonology and grammar. In County Dublin itself the general rule was to place the stress on the initial vowel of words. With time it appears that the forms of the dative case took over the other case endings in the plural (a tendency found to a lesser extent in other dialects). In a letter written in Dublin in 1691 we find such examples as the following: gnóthuimh (accusative case, the standard form being gnóthaí), tíorthuibh (accusative case, the standard form being tíortha) and leithscéalaibh (genitive case, the standard form being leithscéalta).^[97]

English authorities of the Cromwellian period, aware that Irish was widely spoken in Dublin, arranged for its official use. In 1655 several local dignitaries were ordered to oversee a lecture in Irish to be given in Dublin. In March 1656 a converted Catholic priest, Séamas Corcy, was appointed to preach in Irish at Bride's parish every Sunday, and was also ordered to preach at Drogheda and Athy.^[98] In 1657 the English colonists in Dublin presented a petition to the Municipal Council complaining that in Dublin itself "there is Irish commonly and usually spoken".^[99]

There is contemporary evidence of the use of Irish in other urban areas at the time. In 1657 it was found necessary to have an Oath of Abjuration (rejecting the authority of the Pope) read in Irish in Cork so that people could understand it.^[100]

Irish was sufficiently strong in early 18th century Dublin to be the language of a coterie of poets and scribes led by Seán and Tadhg Ó Neachtain, both poets of note.^[101] Scribal activity in Irish persisted in Dublin right through the 18th century. An outstanding example was Muiris Ó Gormáin (Maurice Gorman), a prolific producer of manuscripts who advertised his services (in English) in Faulkner's Dublin Journal.^[102] There were still an appreciable number of Irish speakers in County Dublin at the time of the 1851 census.^[103]

In other urban centres the descendants of medieval Anglo-Norman settlers, the so-called Old English, were Irish-speaking or bilingual by the 16th century.^[104] The English administrator and traveller Fynes Moryson, writing in the last years of the 16th century, said that "the English Irish and the very citizens (excepting those of Dublin where the lord deputy resides) though they could speak English as well as we, yet commonly speak Irish among themselves, and were hardly induced by our familiar conversation to speak English with us".^[105] In Galway, a city dominated by Old English merchants and loyal to the Crown up to the Irish Confederate Wars (1641–1653), the use of the Irish language had already provoked the passing of an Act of Henry VIII (1536), ordaining as follows:

Item, that every inhabitant within oure said towne [Galway] endeavour themselfes to speake English, and to use themselfes after the English facon; and, speciallye, that you, and every one of you, doe put your children to scole, to lerne to speke English...^[106]

The demise of native cultural institutions in the seventeenth century saw the social prestige of Irish diminish, and the gradual Anglicisation of the middle classes followed.^[107] The census of 1851 showed, however, that the towns and cities of Munster still had significant Irish-speaking populations. Much earlier, in 1819, James McQuige, a veteran Methodist lay preacher in Irish, wrote: "In some of the largest southern towns, Cork, Kinsale and even the Protestant town of Bandon, provisions are sold in the markets, and cried in the streets, in Irish".^[108] Irish speakers constituted over 40% of the population of Cork even in 1851.^[109]

Modern urban usage

The late 18th and 19th centuries saw a reduction in the number of Dublin's Irish speakers, in keeping with the trend elsewhere. This continued until the end of the 19th century, when the Gaelic revival saw the creation of a strong Irish–speaking network, typically united by various branches of the Conradh na Gaeilge, and accompanied by renewed literary activity.^[110] By the 1930s Dublin had a lively literary life in Irish.^[111]

Urban Irish has been the beneficiary, from the last decades of the 20th century, of a rapidly expanding system of Gaelscoileanna, teaching entirely through Irish. As of 2019 there are 37 such primary schools in Dublin alone.^[112]

It has been suggested that Ireland's towns and cities are acquiring a critical mass of Irish speakers, reflected in the expansion of Irish language media.^[113] Many are younger speakers who, after encountering Irish at school, made an effort to acquire fluency, while others have been educated through Irish and some have been raised with Irish. Those from an English-speaking background are now often described as nuachainteoirí ("new speakers") and use whatever opportunities are available (festivals, "pop-up" events) to practise or improve their Irish.^[114]

It has been suggested that the comparative standard is still the Irish of the Gaeltacht,^[115] but other evidence suggests that young urban speakers take pride in having their own distinctive variety of the language.^[116] A comparison of traditional Irish and urban Irish shows that the distinction between broad and slender consonants, which is fundamental to Irish phonology and grammar, is not fully or consistently observed in urban Irish. This and other changes make it possible that urban Irish will become a new dialect or even, over a long period, develop into a creole (i.e. a new language) distinct from Gaeltacht Irish.^[113] It has also been argued that there is a certain elitism among Irish speakers, with most respect being given to the Irish of native Gaeltacht speakers and with "Dublin" (i.e. urban) Irish being under-represented in the media.^[117] This, however, is paralleled by a failure among some urban Irish speakers to acknowledge grammatical and phonological features essential to the structure of the language.^[113]

Standardisation

There is no single official standard for pronouncing the Irish language. Certain dictionaries, such as Foclóir Póca, provide a single pronunciation. Online dictionaries such as Foclóir Béarla-Gaeilge^[118] provide audio files in the three major dialects. The differences between dialects are considerable, and have led to recurrent difficulties in conceptualising a "standard Irish." In recent decades contacts between speakers of different dialects have become more frequent and the differences between the dialects are less noticeable.^[119]

An Caighdeán Oifigiúil ("The Official Standard"), often shortened to An Caighdeán, is a standard for the spelling and grammar of written Irish, developed and used by the Irish government. Its rules are followed by most schools in Ireland, though schools in and near Irish-speaking regions also use the local dialect. It was published by the translation department of Dáil Éireann in 1953^[120] and updated in 2012^[121] and 2017.

Phonology

In pronunciation, Irish most closely resembles its nearest relatives, Scottish Gaelic and Manx. One notable feature is that consonants (except /h/) come in pairs, one "broad" (velarised, pronounced with the back of the tongue pulled back towards the soft palate) and one "slender" (palatalised, pronounced with the middle of the tongue pushed up towards the hard palate). While broad–slender pairs are not unique to Irish (being found, for example, in Russian), in Irish they have a grammatical function.

Consonant phonemes
		Labial		Coronal		Dorsal		Glottal
		broad	slender	broad	slender	broad	slender	Glottal
Stop	voiceless	pˠ	pʲ	t̪ˠ	tʲ	k	c
Stop	voiced	bˠ	bʲ	d̪ˠ	dʲ	ɡ	ɟ
Continuant	voiceless	fˠ	fʲ	sˠ	ʃ	x	ç	h
Continuant	voiced	w	vʲ	l̪ˠ	lʲ	ɣ	j
Nasal		mˠ	mʲ	n̪ˠ	nʲ	ŋ	ɲ
Tap				ɾˠ	ɾʲ

Vowel phonemes
	Front		Central	Back
	short	long	short	short	long
Close	ɪ	iː		ʊ	uː
Mid	ɛ	eː	ə	ɔ	oː
Open			a		ɑː

The diphthongs of Irish are /iə, uə, əi, əu/.

Syntax and morphology

Irish is a fusional, VSO, nominative-accusative language. It is neither verb nor satellite framed, and makes liberal use of deictic verbs.

Nouns decline for 3 numbers: singular, dual (only in conjunction with the number dhá "two"), plural; 2 genders: masculine, feminine; and 4 cases: nomino-accusative (ainmneach), vocative (gairmeach), genitive (ginideach), and prepositional-locative (tabharthach), with fossilised traces of the older accusative (cuspóireach). Adjectives agree with nouns in number, gender, and case. Adjectives generally follow nouns, though some precede or prefix nouns. Demonstrative adjectives have proximal, medial, and distal forms. The prepositional-locative case is called the dative by convention, though it originates in the Proto-Celtic ablative.

Verbs conjugate for 3 tenses: past, present, future; 2 aspects: perfective, imperfective; 2 numbers: singular, plural; 4 moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional, imperative; 2 relative forms, the present and future relative; and in some verbs, independent and dependent forms. Verbs conjugate for 3 persons and an impersonal form which is actor-free; the 3rd person singular acts as a person-free personal form that can be followed or otherwise refer to any person or number.

There are two verbs for "to be", one for inherent qualities with only two forms, is "present" and ba "past" and "conditional", and one for transient qualities, with a full complement of forms except for the verbal adjective. The two verbs share the one verbal noun.

Irish verb formation employs a mixed system during conjugation, with both analytic and synthetic methods employed depending on tense, number, mood and person. For example, in the official standard, present tense verbs have conjugated forms only in the 1st person and autonomous forms (i.e. molaim 'I praise', molaimid 'we praise', moltar 'is praised, one praises' ), whereas all other persons are conveyed analytically (i.e. molann sé 'he praises', molann sibh 'you pl. praise'). The ratio of analytic to synthetic forms in a given verb paradigm varies between the various tenses and moods. The conditional, imperative and past habitual forms prefer synthetic forms in most persons and numbers, whereas the subjunctive, past, future and present forms prefer mostly analytical forms.

The meaning of the passive voice is largely conveyed through the autonomous verb form, however there also exist other structures analogous to the passival and resultative constructions. There are also a number of preverbal particles marking the negative, interrogative, subjunctive, relative clauses, etc. There is a verbal noun and verbal adjective. Verb forms are highly regular, many grammars recognise only 11 irregular verbs.

Prepositions inflect for person and number. Different prepositions govern different cases. In Old and Middle Irish, prepositions governed different cases depending on intended semantics; this has disappeared in Modern Irish except in fossilised form.

Irish has no verb to express having; instead, the word ag ("at", etc.) is used in conjunction with the transient "be" verb bheith:

Tá leabhar agam. "I have a book." (Literally, "there is a book at me", cf. Russian У меня есть книга, Finnish minulla on kirja, French le livre est à moi)
Tá leabhar agat. "You (singular) have a book."
Tá leabhar aige. "He has a book."
Tá leabhar aici. "She has a book."
Tá leabhar againn. "We have a book."
Tá leabhar agaibh. "You (plural) have a book."
Tá leabhar acu. "They have a book."

Numerals have three forms: abstract, general and ordinal. The numbers from 2 to 10 (and these in combination with higher numbers) are rarely used for people, numeral nominals being used instead:

a dó "Two."
dhá leabhar "Two books."
beirt "Two people, a couple", beirt fhear "Two men", beirt bhan "Two women".
dara, tarna (free variation) "Second."

Irish has both decimal and vigesimal systems:

10: a deich

20: fiche

30: vigesimal – a deich is fiche; decimal – tríocha

40: v. daichead, dá fhichead; d. ceathracha

50: v. a deich is daichead; d. caoga (also: leathchéad "half-hundred")

60: v. trí fichid; d. seasca

70: v. a deich is trí fichid; d. seachtó

80: v. cheithre fichid; d. ochtó

90: v. a deich is cheithre fichid; d. nócha

100: v. cúig fichid; d. céad

A number such as 35 has various forms:

a cúigdéag is fichid "15 and 20"

a cúig is tríocha "5 and 30"

a cúigdéag ar fhichid "15 on 20"

a cúig ar thríochaid "5 on 30"

a cúigdéag fichead "15 of 20 (genitive)"

a cúig tríochad "5 of 30 (genitive)"

fiche 's a cúigdéag "20 and 15"

tríocha 's a cúig "30 and 5"

The latter is most commonly used in mathematics.

Initial mutations

In Irish, there are two classes of initial consonant mutations, which express grammatical relationship and meaning in verbs, nouns and adjectives:

Lenition (séimhiú) describes the change of stops into fricatives.^[122] Indicated in Gaelic type by an overdot (ponc séimhithe), it is shown in Roman type by adding an ⟨h⟩.
- caith! "throw!" – chaith mé "I threw" (lenition as a past-tense marker, caused by the particle do, now generally omitted)
- gá "requirement" – easpa an ghá "lack of the requirement" (lenition marking the genitive case of a masculine noun)
- Seán "John" – a Sheáin! "John!" (lenition as part of the vocative case, the vocative lenition being triggered by a, the vocative marker before Sheáin)
Eclipsis (urú) covers the voicing of voiceless stops, and nasalisation of voiced stops.
- Athair "Father" – ár nAthair "our Father"
- tús "start", ar dtús "at the start"
- Gaillimh "Galway" – i nGaillimh "in Galway"

Mutations are often the only way to distinguish grammatical forms. For example, the only non-contextual way to distinguish possessive pronouns "her", "his" and "their", is through initial mutations since all meanings are represented by the same word a.

his shoe – a bhróg (lenition)
their shoe – a mbróg (eclipsis)
her shoe – a bróg (unchanged)

Due to initial mutation, prefixes, clitics, suffixes, root inflection, ending morphology, elision, sandhi, epenthesis, and assimilation; the beginning, core, and end of words can each change radically and even simultaneously depending on context.

Orthography

A native writing system, Ogham, was used to write Primitive Irish and Old Irish until Latin script was introduced in the 5th century CE.^[123] Since the introduction of Latin script, the main typeface used to write Irish was Gaelic type until it was replaced by Roman type during the mid-20th century.

The traditional Irish alphabet (áibítir) consists of 18 letters: ⟨a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u⟩; it does not contain ⟨j, k, q, v, w, x, y, z⟩.^[124]^[125] However contemporary Irish uses the full Latin alphabet, with the previously unused letter used in modern loanwords; ⟨v⟩ occurs in a small number of (mainly onomatopoeic) native words and colloquialisms.

Vowels may be accented with an acute accent (⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩; Irish and Hiberno-English: (síneadh) fada "long (sign)"), but it is ignored for purposes of alphabetisation.^[126] It is used, among other conventions, to mark long vowels, e.g. ⟨e⟩ is /ɛ/ and ⟨é⟩ is /eː/.

The overdot (ponc séimhithe "dot of lenition") was used in traditional orthography to indicate lenition; An Caighdeán uses a following ⟨h⟩ for this purpose, i.e. the dotted letters (litreacha buailte "struck letters") ⟨ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ⟩ are equivalent to ⟨bh, ch, dh, fh, gh, mh, ph, sh, th⟩.

The use of Gaelic type and the overdot today is restricted to when a traditional style is consciously being used, e.g. Óglaiġ na h-Éireann on the Irish Defence Forces cap badge (see above). Extending the use of the overdot to Roman type would theoretically have the advantage of making Irish texts significantly shorter, e.g. gheobhaidh sibh "you (pl.) will get" would become ġeoḃaiḋ siḃ.

Spelling reform

Around the time of the Second World War, Séamas Daltún, in charge of Rannóg an Aistriúcháin [ga] (The Translation Department of the Irish government), issued his own guidelines about how to standardise Irish spelling and grammar. This de facto standard was subsequently approved by the State and developed into an Caighdeán Oifigiúil, which simplified and standardised the orthography and grammar by removing inter-dialectal silent letters and simplifying vowel combinations. Where multiple versions existed in different dialects for the same word, one was selected, for example:

beirbhiughadh → beiriú "cook"
biadh → bia "food"
Gaedhealg / Gaedhilg / Gaedhealaing / Gaeilic / Gaelainn / Gaoidhealg / Gaolainn → Gaeilge "Irish language"

An Caighdeán does not reflect all dialects to the same degree, e.g. cruaidh /kɾˠuəj/ "hard", leabaidh /ˈl̠ʲabˠəj/ "bed", and tráigh /t̪ˠɾˠaːj/ "beach" were standardised as crua, leaba, and trá despite the reformed spellings only reflecting South Connacht realisations [kɾˠuə], [ˈl̠ʲabˠə], and [t̪ˠɾˠaː], failing to represent the other dialectal realisations [kɾˠui], [ˈl̠ʲabˠi], and [t̪ˠɾˠaːi] (in Mayo and Ulster) or [kɾˠuəɟ], [ˈl̠ʲabˠəɟ], and [t̪ˠɾˠaːɟ] (in Munster), which were previously represented by the pre-reformed spellings.^[127] For this reason, the pre-reform spellings are used by some speakers to reflect the dialectal pronunciations.

Other examples include the genitive of bia "food" (/bʲiə/; pre-reform biadh) and saol "life, world" (/sˠeːlˠ/; pre-reform saoghal), realised [bʲiːɟ] and [sˠeːlʲ] in Munster, reflecting the pre-Caighdeán spellings bídh and saoghail, which were standardised as bia and saoil despite not representing the Munster pronunciations.^[128]^[129]

Sample text

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Irish:
Saolaítear gach duine den chine daonna saor agus comhionann i ndínit agus i gcearta. Tá bua an réasúin agus an choinsiasa acu agus ba cheart dóibh gníomhú i dtreo a chéile i spiorad an bhráithreachais.^[130]

English:
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.^[131]

Notes

^ Irish was the first official language of the Irish state.^[1] Irish is not widely used as an L2 in most of Ireland, but its use is encouraged by the government.

References

Citations

^ ^a ^b "Constitution of Ireland". Government of Ireland. 1 July 1937. Archived from the original on 17 July 2009. Retrieved 19 June 2007.
^ Ainsworth, Paul (6 December 2022). "'Historic milestone' passed as Irish language legislation becomes law". The Irish News. Retrieved 7 December 2022.
^ "Our Role Supporting You". Foras na Gaeilge. Retrieved 8 January 2021. ... between Foras na Gaeilge and Bòrd na Gàidhlig, promoting the use of Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland and Scotland ...'
^ ^a ^b O'Gallagher, J. (1877). Sermons in Irish-Gaelic. Gill.
^ Ó Flannghaile, Tomás (1896). For the Tongue of the Gael: a Selection of Essays and Philological on Irish-Gaelic Subjects. Gill.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Gaelic definition and meaning". Collins English Dictionary.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Gaelic". Cambridge English Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
^ "Irish language". Britannica. 2021.
^ "Our Role Supporting You". Foras na Gaeilge. Retrieved 8 January 2021. ... between Foras na Gaeilge and Bòrd na Gàidhlig, promoting the use of Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland and Scotland ...'
^ ^a ^b "Gaelic: Definition of Gaelic by Merriam-Webster". Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.
^ ""Reawakening the Irish Language through the Irish Education System: Challenges and Priorities"" (PDF). International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Irish Language and the Gaeltacht – CSO – Central Statistics Office". www.cso.ie. 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
^ "Frequency of Speaking Irish". nisra.gov.uk. 21 March 2023.
^ ^a ^b "1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for the United States: 2006–2008", Language (table), Census, 2010
^ Doyle, Danny (2015). Míle Míle i gCéin: The Irish Language in Canada. Ottawa: Borealis Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-88887-631-7.
^ Dinneen, Patrick S. (1927). Foclóir Gaedhilge agus Béarla [Irish and English dictionary] (in Irish) (2d ed.). Dublin: Irish Texts Society. pp. 507 s.v. Gaedhealg. ISBN 1-870166-00-0.
^ Doyle, Aidan; Gussmann, Edmund (2005). An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego. Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. pp. 423k. ISBN 83-7363-275-1.
^ Dillon, Myles; Ó Cróinín, Donncha (1961). Teach Yourself Irish. London: English Universities Press. p. 227.
^ Ó Dónaill, Niall, ed. (1977). Foclóir Gaeilge–Béarla. p. 600 s.v. Gaeilge.
^ "Ireland speaks up loudly for Gaelic". The New York Times. 29 March 2005. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2017. An example of the use of the word "Gaelic" to describe the language, seen throughout the text of the article.
^ "Irish: Ethnologue". Ethnologue. Retrieved 22 December 2018. Alternate names: Erse, Gaelic Irish, Irish Gaelic
^ Dalton, Martha (July 2019). "Nuclear Accents in Four Irish (Gaelic) Dialects". International Conference of Phonetic Science. XVI. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.486.4615.
^ "Interinstitutional Style Guide: Section 7.2.4. Rules governing the languages of the institutions". European Union. 27 April 2016.
^ "Gaelic". The Free Dictionary.
^ "House of Commons, 1 August 1922: Ireland: Erse language (18)". Hansard. 157. London, UK: Houses of Parliament. 1240–1242. 1 August 1922. Sir CHARLES OMAN asked the Secretary of State for the Colonies whether he has protested against the recent attempt of the Provisional Government in Ireland to force compulsory Erse into all official correspondence, in spite of the agreement that Erse and English should be equally permissible .. MR CHURCHILL .. I do not anticipate that Irish Ministers will willingly incur the very great confusion which would inevitably result from the use of Irish for the material parts of their correspondence.
^ Irving, Jenni. "Ogham". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
^ De Fréine, Seán (1978). The Great Silence: The Study of a Relationship Between Language and Nationality. Irish Books & Media. ISBN 978-0-85342-516-8.
^ ^a ^b Ó Gráda 2013.
^ O'Reilly, Edward (17 March 2015). ""The unadulterated Irish language": Irish Speakers in Nineteenth Century New York". New-York Historical Society. Archived from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2017.
^ See the discussion in Wolf, Nicholas M. (2014). An Irish-Speaking Island: State, Religion, Community, and the Linguistic Landscape in Ireland, 1770–1870. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-30274-0.
^ McMahon 2008, pp. 130–131.
^ "The Irish language and the Church of Ireland". Church of Ireland. Archived from the original on 10 July 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2017.
^ Watson, Iarfhlaith; Nic Ghiolla Phádraig, Máire (September 2009). "Is there an educational advantage to speaking Irish? An investigation of the relationship between education and ability to speak Irish". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2009 (199): 143–156. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2009.039. hdl:10197/5649. S2CID 144222872.
^ "Ireland speaks up loudly for Gaelic". The New York Times. 29 March 2005. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
^ Murphy, Brian (25 January 2018). "Douglas Hyde's inauguration – a signal of a new Ireland". RTÉ. Archived from the original on 7 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
^ ^a ^b "Douglas Hyde Opens 2RN 1 January 1926". RTÉ News. 15 February 2012. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 8 May 2013.
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^ Donncha Ó hÉallaithe: "Litir oscailte chuig Enda Kenny": BEO.ie Archived 20 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine
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^ Hindley, Reg (1991). The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary. Taylor & Francis.
^ Magan, Manchán (9 January 2007). "Cá Bhfuil Na Gaeilg eoirí? *". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 29 January 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
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^ See the discussion and the conclusions reached in 'Language and Occupational Status: Linguistic Elitism in the Irish Labour Market,' The Economic and Social Review, Vol. 40, No. 4, Winter, 2009, pp. 435–460: Ideas.repec.org Archived 29 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
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^ ^a ^b Siggins, Lorna (6 January 2003). "Only 25% of Gaeltacht households fluent in Irish – survey". The Irish Times. p. 5.
^ Hindley 1991, Map 7: Irish speakers by towns and distinct electoral divisions, census 1926.
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^ ^a ^b Trinity College Dublin (5 November 2020). "Official Languages Act 2003".
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^ Government of Ireland (2010). 20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010–2030. p. 11.
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^ Boland, Lauren (31 December 2021). "Irish to be fully recognised as an official EU language from New Year's Day". TheJournal.ie. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
^ O Broin, Brian. "An Analysis of the Irish-Speaking Communities of North America: Who are they, what are their opinions, and what are their needs?". Academia (in Irish). Archived from the original on 10 May 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2012.
^ Mannion, John (February 2003). "The Irish in Newfoundland". Heritage: Newfoundland & Labrador.
^ Clarke, Sandra; Paddock, Harold; MacKenzie, Marguerite (1999). "Language". Heritage: Newfoundland and Labrador.
^ "7. Irish". Report of the 2016 Census of Ireland. Dublin, Ireland: Central Statistics Office. 2017. pp. 66, 69. Of the 1.76 million who said they could speak Irish, 73,803 said they speak it daily outside the education system, a fall of 3,382 on the 2011 figure. ... (421,274) said they never spoke Irish. ... Of the 73,803 daily Irish speakers (outside the education system), 20,586 (27.9%) lived in Gaeltacht areas. The total population of all Gaeltacht areas in April 2016 was 96,090
^ "Census 2016 Summary Results – Part 1 – CSO – Central Statistics Office". Cso.ie. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2017.
^ "Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media" (PDF). www.gov.ie.
^ "The Doegen Records Web Project". Archived from the original on 8 September 2018.
^ Hamilton, John Noel (1974). A Phonetic Study of the Irish of Tory Island, County Donegal. Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen's University of Belfast.
^ Lucas, Leslie W. (1979). Grammar of Ros Goill Irish, County Donegal. Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen's University of Belfast.
^ Williams 1994, pp. 467–478.
^ Borde, Andrew (1870). Furnivall, F.J. (ed.). "The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge". N. Trubner & Co. pp. 131–135.
^ "State of Ireland & Plan for its Reformation" in State Papers Ireland, Henry VIII, ii, 8.
^ ^a ^b ^c See Fitzgerald 1984.
^ "The Irish Language in Co. Wicklow". 27 June 2019.
^ Cited in Ó Gráda 2013.
^ "The Doegen Records Web Project | DHO". Dho.ie. 5 September 1928. Archived from the original on 19 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
^ "Cur síos ar an chainteoir ó dhúchas deireannach ón Ó Méith, Co Lú, Anna Uí AnnluainCur síos ar an chainteoir ó dhúchas deireannach ón Ó Méith, Co Lú, Anna Uí Annluain". RTÉ Archives. Retrieved 22 October 2022.
^ See "Tony Crowley, "The Politics of Language in Ireland 1366–1922: A Sourcebook" and Leerssen, Joep, Mere Irish and Fior-Ghael: Studies in the Idea of Irish Nationality, Its Development and Literary Expression Prior to the Nineteenth Century, University of Notre Dame Press 1997, p. 51. ISBN 978-0268014278
^ Ellis, Henry (ed.). The Description of Ireland, An Electronic Edition: Chapter 1 (The Names of Ireland, with the Compasse of the Same, also what Shires or Counties it Conteineth, the Diuision or Partition of the Land, and of the Language of the People)
^ See Ó hÓgáin 2011.
^ Berresford Ellis, Peter (1975). Hell or Connnaught! The Cromwellian Colonisation of Ireland 1652–1660, p. 156. Hamish Hamilton. SBN 241-89071-3.
^ Berresford Ellis 1975, p. 193.
^ Berresford Ellis 1975, p. 190.
^ Williams & Uí Mhuiríosa 1979, pp. 279 and 284.
^ Ní Mhunghaile 2010, pp. 239–276.
^ See Fitzgerald, 1984.
^ McCabe, p.31
^ Quoted in Graham Kew (ed.), The Irish Sections of Fynes Moryson's unpublished itinerary (IMC, Dublin, 1998), p. 50.
^ Quoted in Hardiman, James, The History of the Town and Country of the County of Galway. Dublin 1820: p. 80.
^ Ó Laoire 2007, p. 164.
^ Quoted in de Brún 2009, pp. 11–12.
^ Fitzgerald, Garrett, 'Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117-1781 to 1861–1871,' Volume 84, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 1984
^ Ó Conluain & Ó Céileachair 1976, pp. 148–153, 163–169, 210–215.
^ Máirín Ní Mhuiríosa, "Cumann na Scríbhneoirí: Memoir" in Scríobh 5, pp. 168–181, Seán Ó Mórdha (ed.), An Clóchomhar Tta 1981.
^ "Dublin : Gaelscoileanna – Irish Medium Education". Retrieved 8 April 2020.
^ ^a ^b ^c Ó Broin, Brian (16 January 2010). "Schism fears for Gaeilgeoirí". The Irish Times. Archived from the original on 16 February 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
^ Walsh, John; OʼRourke, Bernadette; Rowland, Hugh (October 2015). Research Report on New Speakers of Irish (PDF) (Report). Foras na Gaeilge. Retrieved 8 June 2023.
^ Seoighe, Stiofán (22 July 2019). "Gá le doirse a oscailt do nuachainteoirí na Gaeilge: Cén chaoi gur féidir cainteoirí gníomhacha, féinmhuiníneacha a dhéanamh astu seo a fhoghlaimíonn an Ghaeilge ar scoil?" [Need to open doors for new speakers of Irish: How can active, self-confident speakers be made from those who learn Irish at school?]. The Irish Times (in Irish). Retrieved 19 August 2019.
^ Nic Fhlannchadha, S.; Hickey, T.M. (12 January 2016). "Minority Language Ownership and Authority: Perspectives of Native Speakers and New Speakers". International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 21 (1): 38–53. doi:10.1080/13670050.2015.1127888. hdl:10197/7394. S2CID 67833553.
^ Ní Thuathaláin, Méabh (23 July 2019). "'I'm gonna speak Irish the way that's natural for me' – craoltóir buartha faoi éilíteachas shaol na Gaeilge". Tuairisc.ie. Archived from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 19 August 2019.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
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^ "III the morphonology of Irish". The Sound Structure of Modern Irish. De Gruyter Mouton. 11 April 2014. pp. 235–316. doi:10.1515/9783110226607.235. ISBN 978-3-11-022660-7.
^ "Celtic languages – Irish | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
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^ Doyle, Aidan; Gussmann, Edmund (2005). An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego. Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. p. 412. ISBN 83-7363-275-1.
^ Doyle, Aidan; Gussmann, Edmund (2005). An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego. Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. p. 432. ISBN 83-7363-275-1.
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Bibliography

McCabe, Richard A.. Spenser's Monstrous Regiment: Elizabethan Ireland and the Poetics of Difference. Oxford University Press 2002. ISBN 0-19-818734-3.
Hickey, Raymond. The Dialects of Irish: Study of a Changing Landscape. Walter de Gruyter, 2011. ISBN 3110238306.
Hickey, Raymond. The Sound Structure of Modern Irish. De Gruyter Mouton 2014. ISBN 978-3-11-022659-1.
De Brún, Pádraig. Scriptural Instruction in the Vernacular: The Irish Society and its Teachers 1818–1827. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 2009. ISBN 978-1-85500-212-8
Doyle, Aidan, A History of the Irish Language: From the Norman Invasion to Independence, Oxford, 2015.
Fitzgerald, Garrett, 'Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117–1781 to 1861–1871,' Volume 84, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 1984.
Garvin, Tom, Preventing the Future: Why was Ireland so poor for so long?, Gill and MacMillan, 2005.
Hindley, Reg (1991, new ed.). The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-4150-6481-1
McMahon, Timothy G.. Grand Opportunity: The Gaelic Revival and Irish Society, 1893–1910. Syracuse University Press 2008. ISBN 978-0-8156-3158-3
Ó Gráda, Cormac. 'Cé Fada le Fán' in Dublin Review of Books, Issue 34, 6 May 2013: "CÉ FADA LE FÁN". Drb.ie. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
Kelly, James & Mac Murchaidh, Ciarán (eds.). Irish and English: Essays on the Linguistic and Cultural Frontier 1600–1900. Four Courts Press 2012. ISBN 978-1846823404
Ní Mhunghaile, Lesa. 'An Eighteenth Century Irish scribe's private library: Muiris Ó Gormáin's books' in Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Volume 110C, 2010, pp. 239–276.
Ní Mhuiríosa, Máirín. 'Cumann na Scríbhneoirí: Memoir' in Scríobh 5, ed. Seán Ó Mórdha. Baile Átha Cliath: An Clóchomhar Tta 1981.
Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. Labhrann Laighnigh: Téacsanna agus Cainteanna ó Shean-Chúige Laighean. Coiscéim 2011.
Ó Laoire, Muiris. Language Use and Language Attitudes in Ireland in Multilingualism in European Bilingual Contexts : Language Use and Attitudes, ed. David Lasagabaster and Ángel Huguet. Multilingual Matters Ltd. 2007. ISBN 1-85359-929-8
Shibakov, Alexey. Irish Word Forms / Irische Wortformen. epubli 2017. ISBN 9783745066500
Williams, J. E. Caerwyn & Ní Mhuiríosa, Máirín (ed.). Traidisiún Liteartha na nGael. An Clóchomhar Tta 1979.
Williams, Nicholas. 'Na Canúintí a Theacht chun Solais' in Stair na Gaeilge, ed. Kim McCone and others. Maigh Nuad 1994. ISBN 0-901519-90-1

External links

Discover Irish
"Learning Irish?," BBC
Giotaí and Top 40 Offigiúla na hÉireann programmes
Irish Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)

Grammar and pronunciation

Learn Irish Grammar with audio and pronunciation
An Gael Magazine – Irish Gaelic Arts, Culture, And History Alive Worldwide Today
Trinity College Dublin The Irish Language Synthesiser

Dictionaries

[2] Irish was the first official language of the Irish state.^[1] Irish is not widely used as an L2 in most of Ireland, but its use is encouraged by the government.

[constitution-1] "Constitution of Ireland". Government of Ireland. 1 July 1937. Archived from the original on 17 July 2009. Retrieved 19 June 2007.

[3] Ainsworth, Paul (6 December 2022). "'Historic milestone' passed as Irish language legislation becomes law". The Irish News. Retrieved 7 December 2022.

[FnG_212-4] "Our Role Supporting You". Foras na Gaeilge. Retrieved 8 January 2021. ... between Foras na Gaeilge and Bòrd na Gàidhlig, promoting the use of Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland and Scotland ...'

[OG_18772-5] O'Gallagher, J. (1877). Sermons in Irish-Gaelic. Gill.

[6] Ó Flannghaile, Tomás (1896). For the Tongue of the Gael: a Selection of Essays and Philological on Irish-Gaelic Subjects. Gill.

[auto1-7] "Gaelic definition and meaning". Collins English Dictionary.

[Cambridge_University_Press-8] "Gaelic". Cambridge English Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 22 December 2018.

[9] "Irish language". Britannica. 2021.

[FnG_21-10] "Our Role Supporting You". Foras na Gaeilge. Retrieved 8 January 2021. ... between Foras na Gaeilge and Bòrd na Gàidhlig, promoting the use of Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland and Scotland ...'

[:0-11] "Gaelic: Definition of Gaelic by Merriam-Webster". Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.

[12] ""Reawakening the Irish Language through the Irish Education System: Challenges and Priorities"" (PDF). International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education.

[ROI_census_2023-13] "Irish Language and the Gaeltacht – CSO – Central Statistics Office". www.cso.ie. 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2024.

[14] "Frequency of Speaking Irish". nisra.gov.uk. 21 March 2023.

[USA-15] "1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for the United States: 2006–2008", Language (table), Census, 2010

[16] Doyle, Danny (2015). Míle Míle i gCéin: The Irish Language in Canada. Ottawa: Borealis Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-88887-631-7.

[17] Dinneen, Patrick S. (1927). Foclóir Gaedhilge agus Béarla [Irish and English dictionary] (in Irish) (2d ed.). Dublin: Irish Texts Society. pp. 507 s.v. Gaedhealg. ISBN 1-870166-00-0.

[18] Doyle, Aidan; Gussmann, Edmund (2005). An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego. Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. pp. 423k. ISBN 83-7363-275-1.

[19] Dillon, Myles; Ó Cróinín, Donncha (1961). Teach Yourself Irish. London: English Universities Press. p. 227.

[20] Ó Dónaill, Niall, ed. (1977). Foclóir Gaeilge–Béarla. p. 600 s.v. Gaeilge.

[21] "Ireland speaks up loudly for Gaelic". The New York Times. 29 March 2005. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2017. An example of the use of the word "Gaelic" to describe the language, seen throughout the text of the article.

[22] "Irish: Ethnologue". Ethnologue. Retrieved 22 December 2018. Alternate names: Erse, Gaelic Irish, Irish Gaelic

[23] Dalton, Martha (July 2019). "Nuclear Accents in Four Irish (Gaelic) Dialects". International Conference of Phonetic Science. XVI. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.486.4615.

[:1-24] "Interinstitutional Style Guide: Section 7.2.4. Rules governing the languages of the institutions". European Union. 27 April 2016.

[25] "Gaelic". The Free Dictionary.

[Erse_cite-26] "House of Commons, 1 August 1922: Ireland: Erse language (18)". Hansard. 157. London, UK: Houses of Parliament. 1240–1242. 1 August 1922. Sir CHARLES OMAN asked the Secretary of State for the Colonies whether he has protested against the recent attempt of the Provisional Government in Ireland to force compulsory Erse into all official correspondence, in spite of the agreement that Erse and English should be equally permissible .. MR CHURCHILL .. I do not anticipate that Irish Ministers will willingly incur the very great confusion which would inevitably result from the use of Irish for the material parts of their correspondence.

[27] Irving, Jenni. "Ogham". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 27 March 2024.

[28] De Fréine, Seán (1978). The Great Silence: The Study of a Relationship Between Language and Nationality. Irish Books & Media. ISBN 978-0-85342-516-8.

[Ó_Gráda-29] Ó Gráda 2013.

[30] O'Reilly, Edward (17 March 2015). ""The unadulterated Irish language": Irish Speakers in Nineteenth Century New York". New-York Historical Society. Archived from the original on 29 July 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2017.

[31] See the discussion in Wolf, Nicholas M. (2014). An Irish-Speaking Island: State, Religion, Community, and the Linguistic Landscape in Ireland, 1770–1870. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-30274-0.

[32] McMahon 2008, pp. 130–131.

[33] "The Irish language and the Church of Ireland". Church of Ireland. Archived from the original on 10 July 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2017.

[34] Watson, Iarfhlaith; Nic Ghiolla Phádraig, Máire (September 2009). "Is there an educational advantage to speaking Irish? An investigation of the relationship between education and ability to speak Irish". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2009 (199): 143–156. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2009.039. hdl:10197/5649. S2CID 144222872.

[35] "Ireland speaks up loudly for Gaelic". The New York Times. 29 March 2005. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2017.

[36] Murphy, Brian (25 January 2018). "Douglas Hyde's inauguration – a signal of a new Ireland". RTÉ. Archived from the original on 7 September 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.

[auto-37] "Douglas Hyde Opens 2RN 1 January 1926". RTÉ News. 15 February 2012. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 8 May 2013.

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[Fitzgerald-91] See Fitzgerald 1984.

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[93] Cited in Ó Gráda 2013.

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[95] "Cur síos ar an chainteoir ó dhúchas deireannach ón Ó Méith, Co Lú, Anna Uí AnnluainCur síos ar an chainteoir ó dhúchas deireannach ón Ó Méith, Co Lú, Anna Uí Annluain". RTÉ Archives. Retrieved 22 October 2022.

[96] See "Tony Crowley, "The Politics of Language in Ireland 1366–1922: A Sourcebook" and Leerssen, Joep, Mere Irish and Fior-Ghael: Studies in the Idea of Irish Nationality, Its Development and Literary Expression Prior to the Nineteenth Century, University of Notre Dame Press 1997, p. 51. ISBN 978-0268014278

[97] Ellis, Henry (ed.). The Description of Ireland, An Electronic Edition: Chapter 1 (The Names of Ireland, with the Compasse of the Same, also what Shires or Counties it Conteineth, the Diuision or Partition of the Land, and of the Language of the People)

[98] See Ó hÓgáin 2011.

[99] Berresford Ellis, Peter (1975). Hell or Connnaught! The Cromwellian Colonisation of Ireland 1652–1660, p. 156. Hamish Hamilton. SBN 241-89071-3.

[100] Berresford Ellis 1975, p. 193.

[101] Berresford Ellis 1975, p. 190.

[102] Williams & Uí Mhuiríosa 1979, pp. 279 and 284.

[103] Ní Mhunghaile 2010, pp. 239–276.

[104] See Fitzgerald, 1984.

[105] McCabe, p.31

[106] Quoted in Graham Kew (ed.), The Irish Sections of Fynes Moryson's unpublished itinerary (IMC, Dublin, 1998), p. 50.

[107] Quoted in Hardiman, James, The History of the Town and Country of the County of Galway. Dublin 1820: p. 80.

[108] Ó Laoire 2007, p. 164.

[109] Quoted in de Brún 2009, pp. 11–12.

[110] Fitzgerald, Garrett, 'Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117-1781 to 1861–1871,' Volume 84, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 1984

[111] Ó Conluain & Ó Céileachair 1976, pp. 148–153, 163–169, 210–215.

[112] Máirín Ní Mhuiríosa, "Cumann na Scríbhneoirí: Memoir" in Scríobh 5, pp. 168–181, Seán Ó Mórdha (ed.), An Clóchomhar Tta 1981.

[113] "Dublin : Gaelscoileanna – Irish Medium Education". Retrieved 8 April 2020.

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[Seoighe-116] Seoighe, Stiofán (22 July 2019). "Gá le doirse a oscailt do nuachainteoirí na Gaeilge: Cén chaoi gur féidir cainteoirí gníomhacha, féinmhuiníneacha a dhéanamh astu seo a fhoghlaimíonn an Ghaeilge ar scoil?" [Need to open doors for new speakers of Irish: How can active, self-confident speakers be made from those who learn Irish at school?]. The Irish Times (in Irish). Retrieved 19 August 2019.

[117] Nic Fhlannchadha, S.; Hickey, T.M. (12 January 2016). "Minority Language Ownership and Authority: Perspectives of Native Speakers and New Speakers". International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 21 (1): 38–53. doi:10.1080/13670050.2015.1127888. hdl:10197/7394. S2CID 67833553.

[Nic_Mhuiris-118] Ní Thuathaláin, Méabh (23 July 2019). "'I'm gonna speak Irish the way that's natural for me' – craoltóir buartha faoi éilíteachas shaol na Gaeilge". Tuairisc.ie. Archived from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 19 August 2019.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)

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[125] Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostai. L. A. Ó hAnluain, Christian Brothers (Eagrán nua ed.). Baile Átha Cliath: An Gúm. 1999. ISBN 1-85791-327-2. OCLC 46449130.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Celtic language native to Ireland}}
 {{other uses}}
-{{redirect|Gaoidhealg|the shared literary form that was in use from the 13th century to the 16th-18th centuries|Classical Gaelic}}
+{{redirect|Gaoidhealg|the shared literary form that was in use from the 13th to the 16th–18th century|Classical Gaelic}}
-{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
+{{Use Hiberno-English|date=September 2013}}
-{{Use Irish English|date=September 2013}}
+{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
-{{short description|Goidelic language spoken in Ireland and by Irish people}}
 {{Infobox language
+| name             = Irish
-| name             = Irish<ref name="OG_1877">O'Gallagher, J. ''Sermons in Irish-Gaelic'' (1877) Gill</ref><ref>Ó Flannghaile, Tomás ''For the Tongue of the Gael: a Selection of Essays and Philological on Irish-Gaelic Subjects'' (1896) Gill</ref><ref name="FnG_21">{{cite web |url=https://www.forasnagaeilge.ie/about/supporting-you/?lang=en |title=Our Role Supporting You |website=Foras na Gaeilge |date= |access-date=8 January 2021|quote=...&nbsp; between Foras na Gaeilge and Bòrd na Gàidhlig, promoting the use of Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland and Scotland&nbsp;...'}}</ref>
-| nativename       = [[Standard Irish]]: {{lang|ga|Gaeilge}}
+| altname          = {{hlist|Irish Gaelic|Gaelic}}
+| nativename       = [[Standard Irish]]: {{lang|ga|Gaeilge (na hÉireann)}}
-| pronunciation    = {{IPA-ga|ˈɡeːlʲɟə|}}
+| pronunciation    = Connacht Irish: {{IPA|ga|ˈɡeːlʲɟə|}}<br />Munster Irish: {{IPA|ga|ˈɡeːl̪ˠən̠ʲ|}}<br />Ulster Irish: {{IPA|ga|ˈɡeːlʲəc|}}
-| states           = [[Ireland]]
-| region           =
+| states           =
-| ethnicity        = [[Irish people|Irish]]
+| region           = [[Ireland]]
+| ethnicity        = [[Irish people]]
-| speakers         = [[First language|L1]] speakers: 170,000 (daily usage outside education: 73,000)
-| date             = 2019
+| speakers         = [[First language|L1]]: unknown
-| ref              = e22
+| date             =
+| ref              =
-| speakers2        = [[Second language|L2]] speakers: unknown (total number of persons (aged 3 and over) who claimed they could speak Irish in April 2016 was 1,761,420)<br />According to the 2001 Census, 658,103 people (36% of the population) had "some knowledge of Irish"  in Northern Ireland<br />18,815 in the United States
+| speakers2        = People aged 3+ stating they could speak Irish "very well":<br />(ROI, 2022) 195,029<br />Daily users outside education system:<br />(ROI, 2022) 71,968<br />(NI, 2021) 43,557<br />[[Second language|L2]]: unknown<br />People aged 3+ stating they could speak Irish:<br />(ROI, 2022) 1,873,997<br />(NI, 2021) 228,600
 | familycolor      = Indo-European
 | fam2             = [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
@@ Line 23: / Line 24: @@
 | ancestor3        = [[Middle Irish]]
 | ancestor4        = [[Early Modern Irish]]
-| dia1             = [[Munster Irish]]
+| dia1             = [[Connacht Irish]]
-| dia2             = [[Connacht Irish]]
+| dia2             = Leinster Irish {{Extinct}}
-| dia3             = [[Ulster Irish]] (West and East sub-dialects)
+| dia3             = [[Munster Irish]]
+| dia4             = [[Irish language in Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] {{Extinct}}
+| dia5             = [[Ulster Irish]]
 | standards        = {{lang|ga|[[An Caighdeán Oifigiúil]]|italic=no}} (written only)
-| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Irish orthography|Irish alphabet]])<br />[[Irish Braille]]
+| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Irish alphabet]])<br />[[Ogham]] (historically)<br />[[Irish Braille]]
-| nation           = {{flag|Ireland}}{{efn|Irish was the first official language of the Irish state (1937, Constitution, Article 8(1)). Irish is not widely used as an [[second language|L2]] in most of [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], but its use is encouraged by the government.}}<br/>{{flag|European Union}}
+| nation           = [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]{{efn|Irish was the first official language of the Irish state.<ref name="constitution"/> Irish is not widely used as an [[second language|L2]] in most of [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], but its use is encouraged by the government.}}<br>[[Northern Ireland]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ainsworth |first=Paul |date=6 December 2022 |title='Historic milestone' passed as Irish language legislation becomes law |url=https://www.irishnews.com/news/2022/12/06/news/_historic_milestone_passed_as_irish_language_legislation_becomes_law-2932333/ |access-date=7 December 2022 |website=The Irish News |language=en}}</ref><br>[[European Union]]
-| minority         = {{flag|United Kingdom}}
+| minority         =
 | iso1             = ga
 | iso2             = gle
@@ Line 39: / Line 42: @@
 | glotto           = iris1253
 | glottorefname    = Irish
+| map2             = Lang Status 60-DE.svg
+| mapcaption2      = {{center|{{small|Irish is classified as Definitely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]] (2010)}}}}
 }}
+{{listen |filename=MSF_chapter_1.ogg  |title=Spoken Irish |description=The first chapter of Mo Sgéal Féin, read by native Irish speaker Mairéad Uí Lionáird in the Muskerry Gaeltacht}}
+'''Irish''' ([[Standard Irish]]: {{lang|ga|Gaeilge}}), also known as '''Irish Gaelic''' or simply '''Gaelic''' ({{IPAc-en|'|g|ei|l|I|k}} {{respell|GAY|lik}}),<ref name="FnG_212">{{cite web |title=Our Role Supporting You |url=https://www.forasnagaeilge.ie/about/supporting-you/?lang=en |access-date=8 January 2021 |website=Foras na Gaeilge |quote=...&nbsp; between Foras na Gaeilge and Bòrd na Gàidhlig, promoting the use of Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland and Scotland&nbsp;...'}}</ref><ref name="OG_18772">{{cite book |last=O'Gallagher |first=J. |title=Sermons in Irish-Gaelic |date=1877 |publisher=Gill}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ó Flannghaile |first=Tomás |title=For the Tongue of the Gael: a Selection of Essays and Philological on Irish-Gaelic Subjects |date=1896 |publisher=Gill}}</ref><ref name="auto1"/><ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite web |title=Gaelic |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/gaelic?q=Gaelic |website=Cambridge English Dictionary |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |access-date=22 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Irish language |website=Britannica  |year=2021 |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Irish-language}}</ref> is a [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic language]] of the [[Insular Celtic]] branch of the [[Celtic language family|Celtic language group]], which is a part of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]].<ref name="Cambridge University Press"/><ref name="OG_18772" /><ref name="FnG_21">{{cite web |url=https://www.forasnagaeilge.ie/about/supporting-you/?lang=en |title=Our Role Supporting You |website=Foras na Gaeilge |access-date=8 January 2021 | quote=...&nbsp; between Foras na Gaeilge and Bòrd na Gàidhlig, promoting the use of Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic in Ireland and Scotland&nbsp;...'}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/gaelic |title=Gaelic definition and meaning |website=Collins English Dictionary }}</ref> Irish is [[indigenous language|indigenous]] to the island of [[Ireland]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1085869.pdf |title="Reawakening the Irish Language through the Irish Education System: Challenges and Priorities" |publisher=International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education}}</ref> and was the population's [[first language]] until the 19th century, when [[English (language)|English]] gradually became [[Linguistic imperialism|dominant]], particularly in the last decades of the century.
-'''Irish''' ({{lang|ga|{{linktext|Gaeilge}}}} in [[an Caighdeán Oifigiúil|Standard Irish]]) is a [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic language]] of the [[Insular Celtic]] branch of the [[Celtic language family]], which is a part of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Gaelic: meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/gaelic?q=Gaelic |website=cambridge.org |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=22 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="OG_1877"/><ref name="FnG_21"/><ref name=":0" /><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/gaelic|title=Gaelic definition and meaning &#124; Collins English Dictionary|website=www.collinsdictionary.com}}</ref> Irish originated on the [[Ireland|island of Ireland]] and was the population's [[first language]] until the late 18th century. Although [[English (language)|English]] has been the first language of most residents of the island since the early 19th century, Irish is spoken as a first language in broad areas of counties [[County Cork|Cork]], [[County Donegal|Donegal]], [[County Galway|Galway]], and [[County Kerry|Kerry]], as well as smaller areas of counties [[County Mayo|Mayo]], [[County Meath|Meath]], and [[County Waterford|Waterford]]. It is also spoken by a larger group of habitual but non-traditional speakers, mostly in urban areas where the majority are [[Second language|second-language]] speakers. Daily users in the Republic of Ireland outside the education system number around 73,000 (1.5%), and the total number of persons (aged 3 and over) who claimed they could speak Irish in April 2016 was 1,761,420, representing 39.8 per cent of respondents.
+Today, Irish is still commonly spoken as a first language in Ireland's [[Gaeltacht]] regions, in which 2% of Ireland's population lived in 2022.<ref name="ROI census 2023">{{Cite web |date=2023-12-19 |title=Irish Language and the Gaeltacht – CSO – Central Statistics Office |url=https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cpp8/census2022profile8-theirishlanguageandeducation/irishlanguageandthegaeltacht/ |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=www.cso.ie}}</ref>
+The total number of people (aged 3 and over) in Ireland who claimed they could speak Irish in April 2022 was 1,873,997, representing 40% of respondents, but of these, 472,887 said they never spoke it and a further 551,993 said they only spoke it within the education system.<ref name="ROI census 2023"/> Linguistic analyses of Irish speakers are therefore based primarily on the number of daily users in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] outside the education system, which in 2022 was 20,261 in the [[Gaeltacht]] and 51,707 outside it, totalling 71,968.<ref name="ROI census 2023"/> In response to the 2021 census of [[Northern Ireland]], 43,557 individuals stated they spoke Irish on a daily basis, 26,286 spoke it on a weekly basis, 47,153 spoke it less often than weekly, and 9,758 said they could speak Irish, but never spoke it.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2023 |title=Frequency of Speaking Irish |url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b07.xlsx |website=nisra.gov.uk}}</ref> From 2006 to 2008, over 22,000 [[Irish Americans]] reported speaking Irish as their first language at home, with several times that number claiming "some knowledge" of the language.<ref name="USA">{{Citation |type=table |contribution=1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for the United States: 2006–2008 |year=2010 |title=Language |contribution-url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/ |publisher=Census}}</ref>
-For most of recorded Irish history, Irish was the dominant language of the [[Irish people]], who took it with them to other regions such as [[Scotland]] and the [[Isle of Man]], where [[Middle Irish]] gave rise to [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Manx language|Manx]]. It was also for a period spoken widely across [[Canada]], with an estimated 200,000-250,000 daily Canadian speakers of Irish in 1890.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Míle Míle i gCéin: The Irish Language in Canada |author-last1=Doyle |author-first1=Danny |year=2015 |location=Ottawa |publisher=Borealis Press | isbn=978-0-88887-631-7 |page=196}}</ref> On the island of [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]], a [[Newfoundland Irish|unique dialect]] of Irish developed. With a basic written form known as Ogham dating back to at least the 4th century AD and written Irish in a Latin script since the 5th century AD, Irish has [[Early Irish literature|the oldest vernacular literature]] in [[Western Europe]]. On the island, the language has three major dialects: Munster, Connacht and Ulster. All three have distinctions in their speech and [[orthography]]. There is also a "standard written form" devised by a parliamentary commission in the 1950s. The distinct Irish alphabet, a variant of the Latin alphabet with 18 letters, has been succeeded by the standard Latin alphabet (albeit with 7-8 letters used primarily in [[loanwords]]).
+For most of recorded [[History of Ireland|Irish history]], Irish was the dominant language of the [[Irish people]], who [[Irish diaspora|took it with them to other regions]], such as [[Scotland]] and the [[Isle of Man]], where [[Middle Irish]] gave rise to [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Manx language|Manx]]. It was also, for a period, spoken widely across [[Canada]], with an estimated 200,000–250,000 daily Canadian speakers of Irish in 1890.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Míle Míle i gCéin: The Irish Language in Canada |author-last1=Doyle |author-first1=Danny |year=2015 |location=Ottawa |publisher=Borealis Press |isbn=978-0-88887-631-7 |page=196}}</ref> On the island of [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]], a [[Newfoundland Irish|unique dialect]] of Irish developed before falling out of use in the early 20th century.
-Irish has [[Constitution of Ireland|constitutional]] status as the [[Languages of Ireland|national and first official language]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]] and is an officially recognised [[Languages of Northern Ireland|minority language in Northern Ireland]]. It is also among the official [[languages of the European Union]]. The public body ''[[Foras na Gaeilge]]'' is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island. Irish has no regulatory body but the standard modern written form is guided by a parliamentary service and new vocabulary by a voluntary committee with university input. The modern-day areas of Ireland where Irish is still spoken daily as a first language are collectively known as the ''[[Gaeltacht]]''.
+With a [[writing system]], [[Ogham]], dating back to at least the 4th century AD, which was gradually replaced by [[Latin script]] since the 5th century AD, Irish has [[early Irish literature|one of the oldest vernacular literatures]] in [[Western Europe]]. On the island, the language has three major dialects: [[Connacht Irish|Connacht]], [[Munster Irish|Munster]] and [[Ulster Irish]]. All three have distinctions in their [[speech]] and [[orthography]]. There is also {{lang|ga|[[An Caighdeán Oifigiúil]]}}, a [[standard language|standardised]] written form devised by a parliamentary commission in the 1950s. The traditional [[Irish alphabet]], a variant of the [[Latin alphabet]] with 18 [[Letter (alphabet)|letters]], has been succeeded by the [[ISO basic Latin alphabet|standard Latin alphabet]] (albeit with 7–8 letters used primarily in [[loanwords]]).
-==Names==
+Irish has [[constitution of Ireland|constitutional]] status as the [[languages of Ireland|national and first official language]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]], and is also an official language of [[Languages of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]] and among the official [[languages of the European Union]]. The public body [[Foras na Gaeilge]] is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island. Irish has no regulatory body but {{lang|ga|An Caighdeán Oifigiúil}}, the standard written form, is guided by a parliamentary service and new vocabulary by a voluntary committee with university input.
+== Names ==
 === In Irish ===
-In {{lang|ga|[[An Caighdeán Oifigiúil]]}} (the official written standard) the name of the language – in the Irish language – is '''{{lang|ga|Gaeilge}}''' ({{IPA-ga|ˈɡeːlʲɟə|pron}}), this being the south Connacht form. The form used in [[Classical Gaelic]] and generally up to the spelling reform of 1948 was {{lang|ga|Gaedhealg}}.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dinneen |first=Patrick S. |author-link=Patrick S. Dinneen |title=Foclóir Gaedhilge agus Béarla |edition=2d |year=1927 |location=Dublin |publisher=Irish Texts Society |pages=507 s.v. ''Gaedhealg'' |isbn=1-870166-00-0}}</ref>  {{lang|ga|Gaeilge}}, spelled {{lang|ga|Gaedhilge}} before the reform, was originally the [[genitive case|genitive]] of {{lang|ga|Gaedhealg}}. Older spellings include {{lang|mga|Gaoidhealg}} {{IPA-mga|ˈɡeːʝəlˠɡ|}} in Classical Gaelic and {{lang|sga|Goídelc}} {{IPA-sga|ˈɡoiðelˠɡ|}} in [[Old Irish]]. The modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent ''dh'' in the middle of ''Gaedhilge'', whereas [[Goidelic]], used to refer to the language family including Irish, is derived from the Old Irish term.
+In {{lang|ga|[[An Caighdeán Oifigiúil]]}} ("The Official [Written] [[Standard language|Standard]]") the name of the language is '''{{lang|ga|Gaeilge}}''', from the South [[Connacht]] form, spelled {{lang|ga|Gaedhilge}} prior the spelling reform of 1948, which was originally the [[Genitive case|genitive]] of {{lang|ga|Gaedhealg}}, the form used in [[Classical Gaelic]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dinneen |first=Patrick S. |author-link=Patrick S. Dinneen |title=Foclóir Gaedhilge agus Béarla |trans-title=Irish and English dictionary |language=Irish |edition=2d |year=1927 |location=Dublin |publisher=Irish Texts Society |pages=507 s.v. ''Gaedhealg'' |isbn=1-870166-00-0}}</ref> The modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent {{vr|dh}} in {{lang|ga|Gaedhilge}}. Older spellings include {{lang|mga|Gaoidhealg}} {{IPA|mga|ˈɡeːʝəlˠɡ|}} in Classical Gaelic and {{lang|sga|Goídelc}} {{IPA|sga|ˈɡoiðelˠɡ|}} in [[Old Irish]]. [[Goidelic]], used to refer to the language family, is derived from the Old Irish term.
-Other forms of the name found in the various modern Irish dialects (in addition to south Connacht {{lang|ga|Gaeilge}} above) include {{lang|ga|Gaedhilic}}/{{lang|ga|Gaeilic}}/{{lang|ga|Gaeilig}} {{IPA-ga|ˈɡeːlʲɪc|}} or {{lang|ga|Gaedhlag}} {{IPA-ga|ˈɡeːlˠəɡ|}} in [[Ulster Irish]] and northern Connacht Irish and {{lang|ga|Gaedhealaing}} {{IPA-ga|ˈɡeːl̪ˠɪɲ|}} or {{lang|ga|Gaoluinn}}/{{lang|ga|Gaelainn}} {{IPA-ga|ˈɡeːl̪ˠɪn̠ʲ|}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego |last1=Doyle |first1=Aidan |last2=Gussmann |first2=Edmund  |year=2005 |isbn=83-7363-275-1 |pages=423k}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Teach Yourself Irish |last1=Dillon |first1=Myles |last2=Ó Cróinín |first2=Donncha |year=1961 |isbn=0-340-27841-2 |pages=227 |author-link2=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín}}</ref> in [[Munster Irish]].
+[[Endonym and exonym|Endonyms]] of the language in the various modern Irish dialects include: '''{{lang|ga|Gaeilge}}''' {{IPA|ga|ˈɡeːlʲɟə|}} in Galway, '''{{lang|ga|Gaeilg}}'''/'''{{lang|ga|Gaeilic}}'''/'''{{lang|ga|Gaeilig}}''' {{IPA|ga|ˈɡeːlʲəc|}} in Mayo and [[Ulster Irish|Ulster]], '''{{lang|ga|Gaelainn}}'''/'''{{lang|ga|Gaoluinn}}''' {{IPA|ga|ˈɡeːl̪ˠən̠ʲ|}} in West/Cork, Kerry [[Munster Irish|Munster]], as well as '''{{lang|ga|Gaedhealaing}}''' in mid and East Kerry/Cork and Waterford [[Munster Irish|Munster]] to reflect local pronunciation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Doyle |first1=Aidan |title=An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego |last2=Gussmann |first2=Edmund |author-link2=Edmund Gussmann |year=2005 |isbn=83-7363-275-1 |pages=423k|publisher=Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dillon |first1=Myles |url=https://archive.org/details/TeachYourselfIrish |title=Teach Yourself Irish |last2=Ó Cróinín |first2=Donncha |date=1961 |publisher=[[English Universities Press]] |location=London |page=227 |author-link1=Myles Dillon |author-link2=Donncha Ó Cróinín}}</ref>
-{{lang|ga|Gaeilge}} also has a wider meaning, which includes the Gaelic of Scotland and the Isle of Man, as well as of Ireland.  When required by the context, these are distinguished as {{lang|gd|Gaeilge na hAlban}}, {{lang|gv|Gaeilge Mhanann}} and {{lang|ga|Gaeilge na hÉireann}} respectively.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Foclóir Gaeilge–Béarla |editor-last1=Ó Dónaill |editor-first1=Niall |year=1977 |page=600 s.v. ''Gaeilge''}}</ref>
+{{lang|ga|Gaeilge}} also has a wider meaning, including the [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic of Scotland]] and the [[Manx language|Isle of Man]], as well as of Ireland. When required by the context, these are distinguished as {{lang|gd|Gaeilge na hAlban}}, {{lang|gv|Gaeilge Mhanann}} and {{lang|ga|Gaeilge na hÉireann}} respectively.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Foclóir Gaeilge–Béarla |editor-last1=Ó Dónaill |editor-first1=Niall |year=1977 |page=600 s.v. ''Gaeilge''}}</ref>
 === In English ===
+In English (including [[Hiberno-English]]), the language is usually referred to as ''Irish'', as well as ''Gaelic'' and ''Irish Gaelic''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/28iht-irish.html|title=Ireland speaks up loudly for Gaelic|work=The New York Times|date=29 March 2005|access-date=19 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108141042/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/28iht-irish.html|archive-date=8 January 2014|url-status=live}} An example of the use of the word "Gaelic" to describe the language, seen throughout the text of the article.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Irish: Ethnologue |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gle |website=Ethnologue |access-date=22 December 2018 |quote=Alternate names: Erse, Gaelic Irish, Irish Gaelic}}</ref> The term ''Irish Gaelic'' may be seen when English speakers discuss the relationship between the three Goidelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dalton |first=Martha |date=July 2019 |title=Nuclear Accents in Four Irish (Gaelic) Dialects |journal=International Conference of Phonetic Science |volume=XVI |citeseerx=10.1.1.486.4615}}</ref> ''Gaelic'' is a collective term for the Goidelic languages,<ref name="auto1" /><ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://publications.europa.eu/code/en/en-370204.htm |title=Interinstitutional Style Guide: Section 7.2.4. Rules governing the languages of the institutions |publisher=[[European Union]] |date=27 April 2016}}</ref><ref name="Cambridge University Press" /><ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Gaelic: Definition of Gaelic by Merriam-Webster |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gaelic |website=Merriam-Webster.com |publisher=Merriam-Webster, Incorporated}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Gaelic |title=Gaelic |website=The Free Dictionary}}</ref> and when the context is clear it may be used without qualification to refer to each language individually. When the context is specific but unclear, the term may be qualified, as Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic or Manx Gaelic. Historically the name "Erse" ({{IPAc-en|3:r|s}} {{Respell|URS}}) was also sometimes used in Scots and then in English to refer to Irish;<ref name="Erse_cite">{{cite journal |date=1 August 1922 |title=House of Commons, 1 August 1922: Ireland: Erse language (18) |journal=Hansard |location=London, UK |publisher=[[Houses of Parliament]] |volume=157 |at=1240–1242 |quote=Sir CHARLES OMAN asked the Secretary of State for the Colonies whether he has protested against the recent attempt of the Provisional Government in Ireland to force compulsory Erse into all official correspondence, in spite of the agreement that Erse and English should be equally permissible .. MR CHURCHILL .. I do not anticipate that Irish Ministers will willingly incur the very great confusion which would inevitably result from the use of Irish for the material parts of their correspondence.}}</ref> as well as Scottish Gaelic.
-In English in Ireland the language is normally referred to as "Irish", but also sometimes as "Gaelic".
-Gaelic is a collective term for the closely-related native Celtic speech of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.,<ref name="auto1"/><ref name=":1">[http://publications.europa.eu/code/en/en-370204.htm Interinstitutional Style Guide: Section 7.2.4. Rules governing the languages of the institutions] European Union, 27 April 2016.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gaelic: meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/gaelic?q=Gaelic |website=cambridge.org |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=22 December 2018}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Gaelic: Definition of Gaelic by Merriam-Webster |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gaelic |website=Merriam-Webster.com |publisher=Merriam-Webster, Incorporated}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Gaelic|title=Gaelic|via=The Free Dictionary}}</ref> and when the context is clear it may be used without qualification for the Gaelic of an individual region. When the context is specific but unclear, the term may be qualified: Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, Manx Gaelic.
-Many Irish people object to the use of the word ''Gaelic'' to describe the language, referring to it only as Gaeilge or Irish. [[Alan Titley]], an Irish translator and Emeritus Professor of Modern Irish at [[University College Cork]], expresses the opinion that it is incorrect to refer to it as Gaelic:
-{{quote|"Irish" is sometimes erroneously referred to as "Gaelic." The Irish language should never be referred to as "Gaelic" because doing so is historically, socially, formally, and linguistically wrong. "Gaelic" is now correctly applied to the principal historic language of Scotland, although it also was referred to (in English) as "Irish" for most of its history. The distinction is not subtle: "Irish" refers to the native language of Ireland, and "Gaelic" refers to the major native language of Scotland, although the term came into common usage only in the past two hundred years, or less.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ó Cadhain |first1=Máirtín |translator-last1=Titley |translator-first1=Alan |year=2015 |title=The Dirty Dust (translation of ''Cré na Cille'' [1949]) |language=en |location=New Haven and London |publisher=Yale University Press |publication-date=2015 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dirtydustcrnacil0000cadh/page/ viii] |isbn=978-0-300-19849-2 }}</ref><ref>[https://www.johnbanville.eu/translator/alan-titley Alan Titley] European Federation of Associations and Centres of Irish Studies (EFACIS), 2015.</ref> |author=Alan Titley |source=in the translator's introduction of ''The Dirty Dust'' (2015), p. viii.}}
-Others prefer to follow the practice of the language itself and to use the mother-term Gaelic even when speaking only of the language as used in Ireland.  In doing this they acknowledge the continuity of Gaelic throughout its past and present geographical range.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ó Baoill |first1=Colm |date=2000 |title="The Gaelic Continuum" |journal=Éigse |volume=32 |pages=121–134}}</ref>
-"Goidelic" is a synonym of Gaelic, used mainly in linguistic typology and historical linguistics.  Goidelic and Brittonic together constitute the Insular Celtic languages.
-In the past, the name "Erse" was also sometimes used in Scots and then in English to refer to Irish;<ref name="Erse_cite">{{cite journal |title=House of Commons, 1 August 1922: Ireland: Erse language (18) |journal=Hansard |date=1 August 1922 |volume=157 |at=1240-1242 |publisher=Houses of Parliament |location=London, UK |quote=Sir CHARLES OMAN asked the Secretary of State for the Colonies whether he has protested against the recent attempt of the Provisional Government in Ireland to force compulsory Erse into all official correspondence, in spite of the agreement that Erse and English should be equally permissible .. MR CHURCHILL .. I do not anticipate that Irish Ministers will willingly incur the very great confusion which would inevitably result from the use of Irish for the material parts of their correspondence.}}</ref> this name was also used for Scottish Gaelic for several centuries.
 ==History==
 {{Main|History of the Irish language}}
-Written Irish is first attested in {{lang|ga|[[Ogham]]}} inscriptions from the 4th century AD, a stage of the language known as [[Primitive Irish]]. These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish transitioned into [[Old Irish]] through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the [[Latin alphabet]] and is attested primarily in [[marginalia]] to Latin manuscripts. During this time, the Irish language absorbed some [[Latin]] words, some via [[Old Welsh]], including ecclesiastical terms: examples are {{lang|ga|easpag}} (bishop) from {{lang|la|episcopus}}, and {{lang|ga|Domhnach}} (Sunday, from {{lang|la|dominica}}).
+Written Irish is first attested in {{lang|ga|[[Ogham]]}} inscriptions from the 4th century AD,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Irving |first=Jenni |title=Ogham |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Ogham/ |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref> a stage of the language known as [[Primitive Irish]]. These writings have been found throughout Ireland and the west coast of Great Britain. Primitive Irish underwent a change into [[Old Irish]] through the 5th century. Old Irish, dating from the 6th century, used the [[Latin alphabet]] and is attested primarily in [[marginalia]] to Latin manuscripts. During this time, the Irish language absorbed some [[Latin]] words, some via [[Old Welsh]], including [[Ecclesiastical|ecclesiastical terms]]: examples are {{lang|ga|easpag}} (bishop) from {{lang|la|episcopus}}, and {{lang|ga|Domhnach}} (Sunday, from {{lang|la|dominica}}).
 By the 10th century, Old Irish had evolved into [[Middle Irish]], which was spoken throughout Ireland, [[Isle of Man]] and parts of [[Scotland]]. It is the language of a large corpus of literature, including the [[Ulster Cycle]]. From the 12th century, Middle Irish began to evolve into modern Irish in Ireland, into [[Scottish Gaelic]] in Scotland, and into the [[Manx language]] in the [[Isle of Man]].
@@ Line 80: / Line 79: @@
 From the 18th century on, the language lost ground in the east of the country. The reasons behind this [[language shift|shift]] were complex but came down to a number of factors:
-* discouragement of its use by Anglo-British administrations.
+* Discouragement of its use by the Anglo-Irish administration.
-* the Catholic church supported the use of English over Irish.
+* The [[Catholic Church]]'s support of English over Irish.
-* the spread of bilingualism from the 1750s onwards.<ref>{{cite book |last=De Fréine |first=Seán |title=The Great Silence: The Study of a Relationship Between Language and Nationality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2NiAAAAMAAJ |year=1978 |publisher=Irish Books & Media |isbn=978-0-85342-516-8 }}</ref>
+* The spread of bilingualism from the 1750s onwards.<ref>{{cite book |last=De Fréine |first=Seán |title=The Great Silence: The Study of a Relationship Between Language and Nationality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2NiAAAAMAAJ |year=1978 |publisher=Irish Books & Media |isbn=978-0-85342-516-8 }}</ref>
-[[File:Irishin1871.jpg|thumb|200px|The distribution of the Irish language in 1871]]
+[[File:Irishin1871.jpg|thumb|The distribution of the Irish language in 1871]]
-The change was characterised by [[diglossia]] (two languages being used by the same community in different social and economic situations) and transitional bilingualism (monoglot Irish-speaking grandparents with bilingual children and monoglot English-speaking grandchildren). By the mid-18th century, English was becoming a language of the Catholic middle class, the Catholic Church and public intellectuals, especially in the east of the country. Increasingly, as the value of English became apparent, the prohibition on Irish in schools had the sanction of parents.<ref name="Ó Gráda">Ó Gráda 2013.</ref> Once it became apparent that emigration to the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] was likely for a large portion of the population, the importance of learning English became relevant. This allowed the new immigrants to get jobs in areas other than farming. It has been estimated that, due to the immigration to the United States because of the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Famine]], anywhere from a quarter to a third of the immigrants were Irish speakers.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://blog.nyhistory.org/the-unadulterated-irish-language-irish-speakers-in-nineteenth-century-new-york/ |title="The unadulterated Irish language": Irish Speakers in Nineteenth Century New York |last=O'Reilly  |first=Edward  |date=17 March 2015 |work=New-York Historical Society |access-date=29 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729225257/http://blog.nyhistory.org/the-unadulterated-irish-language-irish-speakers-in-nineteenth-century-new-york/ |archive-date=29 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
+The change was characterised by [[diglossia]] (two languages being used by the same community in different social and economic situations) and transitional bilingualism (monoglot Irish-speaking grandparents with bilingual children and monoglot English-speaking grandchildren). By the mid-18th century, English was becoming a language of the Catholic middle class, the Catholic Church and public intellectuals, especially in the east of the country. Increasingly, as the value of English became apparent, parents sanctioned the prohibition of Irish in schools.<ref name="Ó Gráda">Ó Gráda 2013.</ref> Increasing interest in emigrating to the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] was also a driver, as fluency in English allowed the new immigrants to get jobs in areas other than farming. An estimated one quarter to one third of US immigrants during the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] were Irish speakers.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://blog.nyhistory.org/the-unadulterated-irish-language-irish-speakers-in-nineteenth-century-new-york/ |title="The unadulterated Irish language": Irish Speakers in Nineteenth Century New York |last=O'Reilly |first=Edward |date=17 March 2015 |work=[[New-York Historical Society]] |access-date=29 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729225257/http://blog.nyhistory.org/the-unadulterated-irish-language-irish-speakers-in-nineteenth-century-new-york/ |archive-date=29 July 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-Irish was not marginal to Ireland's modernisation in the 19th century, as often assumed. In the first half of the century there were still around three million people for whom Irish was the primary language, and their numbers alone made them a cultural and social force. Irish speakers often insisted on using the language in law courts (even when they knew English), and Irish was also common in commercial transactions. The language was heavily implicated in the "devotional revolution" which marked the standardisation of Catholic religious practice and was also widely used in a political context. Down to the time of the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] and even afterwards, the language was in use by all classes, Irish being an urban as well as a rural language.<ref>See the discussion in {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l37VBQAAQBAJ |title=An Irish-Speaking Island: State, Religion, Community, and the Linguistic Landscape in Ireland, 1770–1870 |last=Wolf |first=Nicholas M. |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-299-30274-0 }}</ref>
+Irish was not marginal to Ireland's modernisation in the 19th century, as is often assumed. In the first half of the century there were still around three million people for whom Irish was the primary language, and their numbers alone made them a cultural and social force. Irish speakers often insisted on using the language in law courts (even when they knew English), and Irish was also common in commercial transactions. The language was heavily implicated in the "devotional revolution" which marked the standardisation of Catholic religious practice and was also widely used in a political context. Down to the time of the Great Famine and even afterwards, the language was in use by all classes, Irish being an urban as well as a rural language.<ref>See the discussion in {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l37VBQAAQBAJ |title=An Irish-Speaking Island: State, Religion, Community, and the Linguistic Landscape in Ireland, 1770–1870 |last=Wolf |first=Nicholas M. |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-299-30274-0 }}</ref>
 This linguistic dynamism was reflected in the efforts of certain public intellectuals to counter the decline of the language. At the end of the 19th century, they launched the [[Gaelic revival]] in an attempt to encourage the learning and use of Irish, although few adult learners mastered the language.<ref>McMahon 2008, pp. 130–131.</ref> The vehicle of the revival was the Gaelic League ({{lang|ga|[[Conradh na Gaeilge]]}}), and particular emphasis was placed on the folk tradition, which in Irish is particularly rich. Efforts were also made to develop journalism and a modern literature.
-Although it has been noted that the Catholic Church played a role in the decline of the Irish language before the Gaelic Revival, the Protestant [[Church of Ireland]] also made only minor efforts to encourage use of Irish in a religious context. An Irish translation of the Old Testament by Leinsterman {{lang|ga|[[Muircheartach Óg Ó Cíonga|Muircheartach Ó Cíonga]]|italic=no}}, commissioned by [[William Bedell|Bishop Bedell]], was published after 1685 along with a translation of the New Testament. Otherwise, Anglicisation was seen as synonymous with 'civilising'" of the native Irish. Currently, modern day Irish speakers in the church are pushing for language revival.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ireland.anglican.org/our-faith/apck/the-irish-language-and-the-church-of-ireland|title=The Irish language and the Church of Ireland|work=Church of Ireland|access-date=29 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710061104/https://www.ireland.anglican.org/our-faith/apck/the-irish-language-and-the-church-of-ireland|archive-date=10 July 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
+Although it has been noted that the Catholic Church played a role in the decline of the Irish language before the Gaelic Revival, the Protestant [[Church of Ireland]] also made only minor efforts to encourage use of Irish in a religious context. An Irish translation of the Old Testament by Leinsterman {{lang|ga|[[Muircheartach Óg Ó Cíonga|Muircheartach Ó Cíonga]]|italic=no}}, commissioned by [[William Bedell|Bishop Bedell]], was published after 1685 along with a translation of the New Testament. Otherwise, Anglicisation was seen as synonymous with 'civilising' the native Irish. Currently, modern day Irish speakers in the church are pushing for language revival.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ireland.anglican.org/our-faith/apck/the-irish-language-and-the-church-of-ireland |title=The Irish language and the Church of Ireland |work=[[Church of Ireland]] |access-date=29 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710061104/https://www.ireland.anglican.org/our-faith/apck/the-irish-language-and-the-church-of-ireland |archive-date=10 July 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-It has been estimated that there were around 80,000,000 [[monoglot]] Irish speakers in 1800, which dropped to 320,000 by the end of [[Great Irish Famine|the famine]], and under 17,000 by 1911.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Watson|first1=Iarfhlaith|last2=Nic Ghiolla Phádraig|first2=Máire|date=September 2009|title=Is there an educational advantage to speaking Irish? An investigation of the relationship between education and ability to speak Irish|url=https://researchrepository.ucd.ie/handle/10197/5649|journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|language=en|volume=2009|issue=199|pages=143–156|doi=10.1515/IJSL.2009.039|hdl=10197/5649|s2cid=144222872|hdl-access=free}}</ref> [[Seán Ó hEinirí]] of [[Cill Ghallagáin]], [[County Mayo]] was almost certainly the last [[Monolingualism|monolingual]] Irish speaker.
+It has been estimated that there were around 800,000 [[monoglot]] Irish speakers in 1800, which dropped to 320,000 by the end of the famine, and under 17,000 by 1911.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Watson |first1=Iarfhlaith |last2=Nic Ghiolla Phádraig |first2=Máire |date=September 2009 |title=Is there an educational advantage to speaking Irish? An investigation of the relationship between education and ability to speak Irish |url=https://researchrepository.ucd.ie/handle/10197/5649 |journal=[[International Journal of the Sociology of Language]] |language=en |volume=2009 |issue=199 |pages=143–156 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2009.039 |hdl=10197/5649 |s2cid=144222872 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
-==Status and policy==
+== Status and policy ==
 {{Main|Status of the Irish language}}
-===Ireland===
+=== Ireland ===
-Irish is recognised by the [[Constitution of Ireland]] as the national and first official language of the [[Republic of Ireland]] (English being the other official language). Despite this, almost all government business and debates are conducted in English.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/28iht-irish.html | work=The New York Times | title=Ireland speaks up loudly for Gaelic | date=29 March 2005 | access-date=19 February 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108141042/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/28iht-irish.html | archive-date=8 January 2014 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref> In 1938, the founder of {{lang|ga|[[Conradh na Gaeilge]]|italic=no}} (Gaelic League), [[Douglas Hyde]], was inaugurated as the first [[President of Ireland]]. The record of his delivering his inaugural ''Declaration of Office'' in [[County Roscommon|Roscommon]] Irish is one of only a few recordings of that dialect.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rte.ie/eile/brainstorm/2018/0621/972102-douglas-hydes-inauguration-new-ireland/|title=Douglas Hyde's inauguration – a signal of a new Ireland|last=Murphy|first=Brian|date=25 January 2018|website=RTÉ|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907032427/https://www.rte.ie/eile/brainstorm/2018/0621/972102-douglas-hydes-inauguration-new-ireland/|archive-date=7 September 2018|url-status=live|access-date=6 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite news | url=http://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/681-history-of-rte/682-rte-1920s/289997-first-radio-broadcast-from-2rn-1-january-1926/ | work=RTÉ News | title=Douglas Hyde Opens 2RN 1 January 1926 | date=15 February 2012 | access-date=8 May 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106173216/http://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/681-history-of-rte/682-rte-1920s/289997-first-radio-broadcast-from-2rn-1-january-1926/ | archive-date=6 January 2013 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k129076t.r=|title=Allocution en irlandais, par M. Douglas Hyde|date=28 January 1922|website=Bibliothèque nationale de France|access-date=6 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21756|title=The Doegen Records Web Project|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907032255/https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21756|archive-date=7 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
+Irish is recognised by the [[Constitution of Ireland]] as the national and first official language of [[Republic of Ireland]] (English being the other official language). Despite this, almost all government business and legislative debate is conducted in English.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/28iht-irish.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |title=Ireland speaks up loudly for Gaelic |date=29 March 2005 |access-date=19 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108141042/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/28iht-irish.html |archive-date=8 January 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>
+In 1938, the founder of {{lang|ga|[[Conradh na Gaeilge]]|italic=no}} (Gaelic League), [[Douglas Hyde]], was inaugurated as the first [[President of Ireland]]. The record of his delivering his inaugural ''Declaration of Office'' in [[County Roscommon|Roscommon]] Irish is one of only a few recordings of that dialect.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rte.ie/eile/brainstorm/2018/0621/972102-douglas-hydes-inauguration-new-ireland/ |title=Douglas Hyde's inauguration – a signal of a new Ireland |last=Murphy |first=Brian |date=25 January 2018 |website=[[RTÉ]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907032427/https://www.rte.ie/eile/brainstorm/2018/0621/972102-douglas-hydes-inauguration-new-ireland/ |archive-date=7 September 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=6 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite news |url=http://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/681-history-of-rte/682-rte-1920s/289997-first-radio-broadcast-from-2rn-1-january-1926/ |work=[[RTÉ News]] |title=Douglas Hyde Opens 2RN 1 January 1926 |date=15 February 2012 |access-date=8 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106173216/http://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/681-history-of-rte/682-rte-1920s/289997-first-radio-broadcast-from-2rn-1-january-1926/ |archive-date=6 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k129076t.r= |title=Allocution en irlandais, par M. Douglas Hyde |date=28 January 1922 |website=[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] |access-date=6 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21756 |title=The Doegen Records Web Project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907032255/https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21756 |archive-date=7 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 [[File:Bilingual sign Grafton Street Dublin Ireland.jpg|thumb|Bilingual sign in [[Grafton Street]], [[Dublin]]]]
-In the 2016 census, 10.5% of respondents stated that they spoke Irish, either daily or weekly, while over 70,000 people (4.2%) speak it as a habitual daily means of communication.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cp10esil/p10esil/|title=Census of Population 2016 – Profile 10 Education, Skills and the Irish Language – CSO – Central Statistics Office|language=en|access-date=11 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212083359/http://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cp10esil/p10esil/|archive-date=12 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
+In the 2016 census, 10.5% of respondents stated that they spoke Irish, either daily or weekly, while over 70,000 people (4.2%) speak it as a habitual daily means of communication.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cp10esil/p10esil/ |title=Census of Population 2016 – Profile 10 Education, Skills and the Irish Language – CSO – Central Statistics Office |date=23 November 2017 |language=en |access-date=11 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212083359/http://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cp10esil/p10esil/ |archive-date=12 February 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-From the foundation of the [[Irish Free State]] in 1922 (see [[History of the Republic of Ireland]]), a degree of proficiency in Irish was required of all those newly appointed to the [[Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland]], including [[postal worker]]s, [[tax collector]]s, agricultural inspectors, [[Garda Síochána]] (police), etc. By law if a Garda was stopped and addressed in Irish he had to respond in Irish as well.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ó Murchú |first=Máirtín |chapter=Aspects of the societal status of Modern Irish |pages=471–90 |editor=Martin J. Ball |editor2=James Fife|title=The Celtic Languages |location=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-01035-7 |year=1993}}</ref> Proficiency in just one official language for entrance to the public service was introduced in 1974, in part through the actions of protest organisations like the [[Language Freedom Movement]].
+From the foundation of the [[Irish Free State]] in 1922 (see [[History of the Republic of Ireland]]), new appointees to the [[Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland]], including [[postal worker]]s, [[tax collector]]s, agricultural inspectors, [[Garda Síochána]] (police), etc., were required to have some proficiency in Irish. By law, a Garda who was addressed in Irish had to respond in Irish as well.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ó Murchú |first=Máirtín |chapter=Aspects of the societal status of Modern Irish |pages=471–90 |editor1-first=Martin J. |editor1-last=Ball |editor2-first=James |editor2-last=Fife |title=The Celtic Languages |location=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-01035-7 |year=1993}}</ref>
+In 1974, in part through the actions of protest organisations like the [[Language Freedom Movement]], the requirement for entrance to the public service was changed to proficiency in just one official language.
-Although the Irish requirement was also dropped for wider public service jobs, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools within the Republic which receive public money (see [[Education in the Republic of Ireland]]). Those wishing to teach in primary schools in the State must also pass a compulsory examination called {{lang|ga|Scrúdú Cáilíochta sa Ghaeilge}}. The need for a pass in [[Leaving Certificate (Ireland)|Leaving Certificate]] Irish or English for entry to the Garda Síochána was introduced in September 2005, and recruits are given lessons in the language during their two years of training. The most important official documents of the Irish government must be published in both Irish and English or Irish alone (in accordance with the Official Languages Act 2003, enforced by {{lang|ga|An Coimisinéir Teanga}}, the Irish language ombudsman).
+Nevertheless, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools in the Republic of Ireland that receive public money (see [[Education in the Republic of Ireland]]). Teachers in primary schools must also pass a compulsory examination called {{lang|ga|Scrúdú Cáilíochta sa Ghaeilge}}. As of 2005, Garda Síochána recruits need a pass in [[Leaving Certificate (Ireland)|Leaving Certificate]] Irish or English, and receive lessons in Irish during their two years of training. Official documents of the Irish government must be published in both Irish and English or Irish alone (in accordance with the Official Languages Act 2003, enforced by {{lang|ga|An Coimisinéir Teanga}}, the Irish language ombudsman).
-The [[National University of Ireland]] requires all students wishing to embark on a degree course in the NUI federal system to pass the subject of Irish in the Leaving Certificate or [[General Certificate of Education|GCE]]/[[GCSE]] examinations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nui.ie/college/entry-requirements.asp |title=NUI Entry Requirements – Ollscoil na hÉireann – National University of Ireland |publisher=Nui.ie |access-date=7 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120705142738/http://www.nui.ie/college/entry-requirements.asp |archive-date=5 July 2012 |url-status=live  }}</ref> Exemptions are made from this requirement for students born outside of the Republic of Ireland, those who were born in the Republic but completed primary education outside it, and students diagnosed with [[dyslexia]]. [[NUI Galway]] is required to appoint people who are competent in the Irish language, as long as they are also competent in all other aspects of the vacancy to which they are appointed. This requirement is laid down by the University College Galway Act, 1929 (Section 3).<ref>[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA35Y1929S3.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051130121122/http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA35Y1929S3.html|date=30 November 2005}}</ref> The University faced controversy, however, in 2016 when it was announced that the next president of the University would not have any Irish language ability. {{lang|ga|[[Misneach]]}} staged a number of protests against this decision. It was announced in September 2017 that Ciarán Ó hÓgartaigh, a fluent Irish speaker, would be NUIG's 13th president.
+The [[National University of Ireland]] requires all students wishing to embark on a degree course in the NUI federal system to pass the subject of Irish in the Leaving Certificate or [[General Certificate of Education|GCE]]/[[GCSE]] examinations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nui.ie/college/entry-requirements.asp |title=NUI Entry Requirements – Ollscoil na hÉireann – National University of Ireland |publisher=Nui.ie |access-date=7 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120705142738/http://www.nui.ie/college/entry-requirements.asp |archive-date=5 July 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Exemptions are made from this requirement for students who were born or completed primary education outside of Ireland, and students diagnosed with [[dyslexia]].
-[[File:IMG Creggs2764.jpg|thumb|Bilingual road signs in Creggs, [[County Galway]]]]
+[[NUI Galway]] is required to appoint people who are competent in the Irish language, as long as they are also competent in all other aspects of the vacancy to which they are appointed. This requirement is laid down by the University College Galway Act, 1929 (Section 3).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA35Y1929S3.html |title=Obligation to appoint Irish speakers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051130121122/http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA35Y1929S3.html |archive-date=30 November 2005}}</ref> In 2016, the university faced controversy when it announced the appointment of a president who did not speak Irish. {{lang|ga|[[Misneach]]}}{{explain|date=February 2024}} staged protests against this decision. The following year the university announced that [[Ciarán Ó hÓgartaigh]], a fluent Irish speaker, would be its 13th president.{{cn|date=February 2024}}
-For a number of years there has been vigorous debate in political, academic and other circles about the failure of most students in mainstream (English-medium) schools to achieve competence in the language, even after fourteen years of teaching as one of the three main subjects.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.independent.ie/national-news/academic-claims-the-forced-learning-of-irish-has-failed-118356.html |title=Academic claims the forced learning of Irish 'has failed' |date=19 January 2006 |work=Independent.ie}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/education/end-compulsory-irish-says-fg-as-14000-drop-subject-118897.html |title=End compulsory Irish, says FG, as 14,000 drop subject |last=Regan |first=Mary |date=4 May 2010 |work=Irish Examiner}}</ref><ref>Donncha Ó hÉallaithe: "Litir oscailte chuig Enda Kenny": [http://www.beo.ie/alt-litir-oscailte-chuig-enda-kenny-td.aspx BEO.ie] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120013022/http://www.beo.ie/alt-litir-oscailte-chuig-enda-kenny-td.aspx |date=20 January 2011 }}</ref> The concomitant decline in the number of traditional native speakers has also been a cause of great concern.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/study-sees-decline-of-irish-in-gaeltacht-1.949907 |title=Study sees decline of Irish in Gaeltacht |last=Siggins |first=Lorna |date=16 July 2007 |work=The Irish Times}}</ref><ref>Nollaig Ó Gadhra, 'The Gaeltacht and the Future of Irish, ''Studies'', Volume 90, Number 360</ref><ref>Welsh Robert and Stewart, Bruce (1996). 'Gaeltacht,' ''The Oxford Companion to Irish Literature''. Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>Hindley, Reg (1991). ''The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary''. Taylor & Francis.</ref> In 2007, filmmaker [[Manchán Magan]] found few speakers and some incredulity while speaking only Irish in Dublin. He was unable to accomplish some everyday tasks, as portrayed in his documentary ''[[No Béarla]]''.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2007/jan/05/ireland.features | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Manchán | last=Magan | title=Cá Bhfuil Na Gaeilg eoirí? * | date=9 January 2007 | access-date=17 December 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129063301/https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2007/jan/05/ireland.features | archive-date=29 January 2017 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
+[[File:IMG Creggs2764.jpg|thumb|Bilingual road signs in [[Creggs]], [[County Galway]]]]
-There is, however, a growing body of Irish speakers in urban areas, particularly in [[Dublin]]. Many have been educated in schools in which Irish is the language of instruction: such schools are known as {{lang|ga|[[Gaelscoil]]eanna}} at primary level. These Irish-medium schools send a much higher{{clarify|date=October 2018}} proportion of pupils on to third-level education than do "mainstream" schools, and it seems increasingly possible that, within a generation, non-Gaeltacht habitual users of Irish will typically be members of an urban, middle class and highly educated minority.<ref>See the discussion and the conclusions reached in 'Language and Occupational Status: Linguistic Elitism in the Irish Labour Market,’ The Economic and Social Review, Vol. 40, No. 4, Winter, 2009, pp. 435–460: [https://ideas.repec.org/a/eso/journl/v40y2009i4p435-460.html Ideas.repec.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329152128/https://ideas.repec.org/a/eso/journl/v40y2009i4p435-460.html |date=29 March 2015 }}</ref>
+For a number of years there has been vigorous debate in political, academic and other circles about the failure of most students in English-medium schools to achieve competence in Irish, even after fourteen years of teaching as one of the three main subjects.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.independent.ie/national-news/academic-claims-the-forced-learning-of-irish-has-failed-118356.html |title=Academic claims the forced learning of Irish 'has failed' |date=19 January 2006 |work=Independent.ie}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/education/end-compulsory-irish-says-fg-as-14000-drop-subject-118897.html |title=End compulsory Irish, says FG, as 14,000 drop subject |last=Regan |first=Mary |date=4 May 2010 |work=Irish Examiner}}</ref><ref>Donncha Ó hÉallaithe: "Litir oscailte chuig Enda Kenny": [http://www.beo.ie/alt-litir-oscailte-chuig-enda-kenny-td.aspx BEO.ie] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120013022/http://www.beo.ie/alt-litir-oscailte-chuig-enda-kenny-td.aspx |date=20 January 2011 }}</ref> The concomitant decline in the number of traditional native speakers has also been a cause of great concern.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/study-sees-decline-of-irish-in-gaeltacht-1.949907 |title=Study sees decline of Irish in Gaeltacht |last=Siggins |first=Lorna |date=16 July 2007 |newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref><ref>Nollaig Ó Gadhra, 'The Gaeltacht and the Future of Irish, ''Studies'', Volume 90, Number 360</ref><ref>Welsh Robert and Stewart, Bruce (1996). 'Gaeltacht,' ''The Oxford Companion to Irish Literature''. Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>Hindley, Reg (1991). ''The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary''. Taylor & Francis.</ref>
-Parliamentary legislation is supposed to be available in both Irish and English but is frequently only available in English. This is notwithstanding that Article 25.4 of the Constitution of Ireland requires that an "official translation" of any law in one official language be provided immediately in the other official language, if not already passed in both official languages.<ref>{{cite web
-|url=http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/attached_files/html%20files/Constitution%20of%20Ireland%20(Eng).htm|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090717092821/http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/attached_files/html%20files/Constitution%20of%20Ireland%20%28Eng%29.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 July 2009|title=Constitution of Ireland|date=1 July 1937|publisher=Government of Ireland|access-date=19 June 2007}}</ref>
+In 2007, filmmaker [[Manchán Magan]] found few Irish speakers in [[Dublin]], and faced incredulity when trying to get by speaking only Irish in Dublin. He was unable to accomplish some everyday tasks, as portrayed in his documentary ''[[No Béarla]]''.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2007/jan/05/ireland.features |location=London |work=[[The Guardian]] |first=Manchán |last=Magan |title=Cá Bhfuil Na Gaeilg eoirí? * |date=9 January 2007 |access-date=17 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129063301/https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2007/jan/05/ireland.features |archive-date=29 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
-In November 2016, it was reported that many people worldwide were learning Irish through the [[Duolingo]] app.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rte.ie/lifestyle/living/2016/1125/834370-duolingo-language-learning-app-irish/|title=Over 2.3m people using language app to learn Irish|date=25 November 2016|website=Rte.ie|access-date=23 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904153245/https://www.rte.ie/lifestyle/living/2016/1125/834370-duolingo-language-learning-app-irish/|archive-date=4 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Irish president [[Michael D. Higgins|Michael Higgins]] officially honoured several volunteer translators for developing the Irish edition, and said the push for Irish language rights remains an "unfinished project".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/ar-fheabhas-president-praises-volunteer-duolingo-translators-1.2882374|title=Ar fheabhas! President praises volunteer Duolingo translators|website=Irishtimes.com|access-date=23 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011123725/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/ar-fheabhas-president-praises-volunteer-duolingo-translators-1.2882374|archive-date=11 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
+There is, however, a growing body of Irish speakers in urban areas, particularly in Dublin. Many have been educated in schools in which Irish is the language of instruction. Such schools are known as {{lang|ga|[[Gaelscoil]]eanna}} at primary level. These Irish-medium schools report some better outcomes for students than English-medium schools.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why choose Irish-medium education? {{!}} Gaeloideachas |url=https://gaeloideachas.ie/why-choose-an-irish-medium-school/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=gaeloideachas.ie}}</ref> In 2009, a paper suggested that within a generation, non-Gaeltacht habitual users of Irish might typically be members of an urban, middle class, and highly educated minority.<ref>See the discussion and the conclusions reached in 'Language and Occupational Status: Linguistic Elitism in the Irish Labour Market,' The Economic and Social Review, Vol. 40, No. 4, Winter, 2009, pp. 435–460: [https://ideas.repec.org/a/eso/journl/v40y2009i4p435-460.html Ideas.repec.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329152128/https://ideas.repec.org/a/eso/journl/v40y2009i4p435-460.html |date=29 March 2015 }}</ref>
-====Gaeltacht====
+Parliamentary legislation is supposed to be available in both Irish and English but is frequently only available in English. This is notwithstanding that Article 25.4 of the Constitution of Ireland requires that an "official translation" of any law in one official language be provided immediately in the other official language, if not already passed in both official languages.<ref name="constitution">{{cite web
+|url=http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/attached_files/html%20files/Constitution%20of%20Ireland%20(Eng).htm |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090717092821/http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/attached_files/html%20files/Constitution%20of%20Ireland%20%28Eng%29.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 July 2009 |title=Constitution of Ireland |date=1 July 1937 |publisher=[[Government of Ireland]] |access-date=19 June 2007}}</ref>
+In November 2016, [[RTÉ]] reported that over 2.3 million people worldwide were learning Irish through the [[Duolingo]] app.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rte.ie/lifestyle/living/2016/1125/834370-duolingo-language-learning-app-irish/ |title=Over 2.3m people using language app to learn Irish |date=25 November 2016 |website=[[RTE]] |access-date=23 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904153245/https://www.rte.ie/lifestyle/living/2016/1125/834370-duolingo-language-learning-app-irish/ |archive-date=4 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Irish president [[Michael D. Higgins|Michael Higgins]] officially honoured several volunteer translators for developing the Irish edition, and said the push for Irish language rights remains an "unfinished project".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/ar-fheabhas-president-praises-volunteer-duolingo-translators-1.2882374 |title=Ar fheabhas! President praises volunteer Duolingo translators |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |access-date=23 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011123725/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/ar-fheabhas-president-praises-volunteer-duolingo-translators-1.2882374 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
+==== Gaeltacht ====
 {{Main|Gaeltacht}}
-[[File:Percentage stating they speak Irish daily outside the education system in the 2011 census.png|thumb|upright=1.13|The percentage of respondents who said they spoke Irish daily outside the education system in the 2011 census in the State.]]
+[[File:Percentage stating they speak Irish daily outside the education system in the 2011 census.png|thumb|upright=1.13|The percentage of respondents who said they spoke Irish daily outside the education system in the 2011 census in the State.{{update inline|date=May 2024}}]]
-There are rural areas of Ireland where Irish is still spoken daily to some extent as a [[first language]]. These regions are known individually and collectively as the ''[[Gaeltacht]]'' (plural {{lang|ga|Gaeltachtaí}}). While the fluent Irish speakers of these areas, whose numbers have been estimated at 20{{endash}}30,000,<ref name="Siggins 5">{{Cite news|title=Only 25% of Gaeltacht households fluent in Irish – survey|last=Siggins|first=Lorna|date=6 January 2003|work=The Irish Times |page=5}}</ref> are a minority of the total number of fluent Irish speakers, they represent a higher concentration of Irish speakers than other parts of the country and it is only in ''Gaeltacht'' areas that Irish continues to be spoken as a community vernacular to some extent.
+There are rural areas of Ireland where Irish is still spoken daily to some extent as a [[first language]]. These regions are known individually and collectively as the ''Gaeltacht'' (plural {{lang|ga|Gaeltachtaí}}). While the fluent Irish speakers of these areas, whose numbers have been estimated at 20{{endash}}30,000,<ref name="Siggins 5">{{Cite news|title=Only 25% of Gaeltacht households fluent in Irish – survey |last=Siggins |first=Lorna |date=6 January 2003 |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |page=5}}</ref> are a minority of the total number of fluent Irish speakers, they represent a higher concentration of Irish speakers than other parts of the country and it is only in ''Gaeltacht'' areas that Irish continues to be spoken as a community vernacular to some extent.
 According to data compiled by the [[Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media|Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, ''Gaeltacht'', Sport and Media]], only 1/4 of households in ''Gaeltacht'' areas are fluent in Irish. The author of a detailed analysis of the survey, Donncha Ó hÉallaithe of the [[Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology]], described the Irish language policy followed by Irish governments as a "complete and absolute disaster". ''[[The Irish Times]]'', referring to his analysis published in the Irish language newspaper {{lang|ga|[[Foinse]]}}, quoted him as follows: "It is an absolute indictment of successive Irish Governments that at the foundation of the Irish State there were 250,000 fluent Irish speakers living in Irish-speaking or semi Irish-speaking areas, but the number now is between 20,000 and 30,000."<ref name="Siggins 5"/>
-In the 1920s, when the [[Irish Free State]] was founded, Irish was still a vernacular in some western coastal areas.<ref>Hindley 1991, Map 7: Irish speakers by towns and distinct electoral divisions, census 1926.</ref> In the 1930s, areas where more than 25% of the population spoke Irish were classified as ''Gaeltacht''. Today, the strongest ''Gaeltacht'' areas, numerically and socially, are those of South [[Connemara]], the west of the [[Dingle Peninsula]], and northwest Donegal, where many residents still use Irish as their primary language. These areas are often referred to as the {{lang|ga|Fíor-Ghaeltacht}} (true ''Gaeltacht''), a term originally officially applied to areas where over 50% of the population spoke Irish.
+In the 1920s, when the Irish Free State was founded, Irish was still a vernacular in some western coastal areas.<ref>Hindley 1991, Map 7: Irish speakers by towns and distinct electoral divisions, census 1926.</ref> In the 1930s, areas where more than 25% of the population spoke Irish were classified as ''Gaeltacht''. Today, the strongest ''Gaeltacht'' areas, numerically and socially, are those of South [[Connemara]], the west of the [[Dingle Peninsula]], and northwest Donegal, where many residents still use Irish as their primary language. These areas are often referred to as the {{lang|ga|Fíor-Ghaeltacht}} (true ''Gaeltacht''), a term originally officially applied to areas where over 50% of the population spoke Irish.
+There are ''Gaeltacht'' regions in the following counties:<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Gaeltacht {{!}} Our Language & the Ghaeltacht |url=https://udaras.ie/en/our-language-the-gaeltacht/the-gaeltacht/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=Údarás na Gaeltachta |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-05 |title=Gaeltacht Affairs |url=https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/2061c-gaeltacht-affairs/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=www.gov.ie |language=en}}</ref>
-There are larger ''Gaeltacht'' regions in [[County Galway]] ({{lang|ga|Contae na Gaillimhe}}), including Connemara ({{lang|ga|Conamara}}), the [[Aran Islands]] ({{lang|ga|Oileáin Árann}}), [[Carraroe]] ({{lang|ga|An Cheathrú Rua}}) and [[Spiddal]] ({{lang|ga|An Spidéal}}), on the west coast of [[County Donegal]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Dhún na nGall}}), and on the [[Dingle Peninsula|Dingle]] ({{lang|ga|Corca Dhuibhne}}) and [[Iveragh Peninsula]]s ({{lang|ga|Uibh Rathach}}) in [[County Kerry]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Chiarraí}}).
+* [[County Galway]] ({{lang|ga|Contae na Gaillimhe}})
-Smaller ones also exist in counties [[County Mayo|Mayo]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Mhaigh Eo}}), [[County Meath|Meath]] ({{lang|ga|Contae na Mí}}), [[County Waterford|Waterford]] ({{lang|ga|[[Gaeltacht na nDéise]], Contae Phort Láirge}}), and [[County Cork|Cork]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Chorcaí}}). [[Gweedore]] ({{lang|ga|Gaoth Dobhair}}), County Donegal, is the largest ''Gaeltacht'' parish in Ireland. Irish language summer colleges in the ''Gaeltacht'' are attended by tens of thousands of teenagers annually. Students live with Gaeltacht families, attend classes, participate in sports, go to ''{{lang|ga|[[cèilidh|céilithe]]}}'' and are obliged to speak Irish. All aspects of Irish culture and tradition are encouraged.
+** [[Connemara]] ({{lang|ga|Conamara}})
+** [[Aran Islands]] ({{lang|ga|Oileáin Árann}})
+** [[Carraroe]] ({{lang|ga|An Cheathrú Rua}})
+** [[Spiddal]] ({{lang|ga|An Spidéal}})
+* [[Gaeltacht#Mayo Gaeltacht|County Mayo]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Mhaigh Eo}})
+* [[County Donegal]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Dhún na nGall}})
+* [[County Kerry]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Chiarraí}})
+** [[Dingle Peninsula]] ({{lang|ga|Corca Dhuibhne}})
+** [[Iveragh Peninsula]] ({{lang|ga|Uibh Rathach}})
+* [[Gaeltacht#Cork Gaeltacht|County Cork]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Chorcaí}})
+* [[Gaeltacht#Waterford Gaeltacht|County Waterford]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Phort Láirge}})
+* [[Gaeltacht#Meath Gaeltacht|County Meath]] ({{lang|ga|Contae na Mí}})
+[[Gweedore]] ({{lang|ga|Gaoth Dobhair}}), County Donegal, is the largest ''Gaeltacht'' parish in Ireland. Irish language summer colleges in the ''Gaeltacht'' are attended by tens of thousands of teenagers annually. Students live with Gaeltacht families, attend classes, participate in sports, go to ''{{lang|ga|[[cèilidh|céilithe]]}}'' and are obliged to speak Irish. All aspects of Irish culture and tradition are encouraged.
 ===Policy===
 ==== Official Languages Act 2003 ====
-''Main Article:'' [[Official Languages Act 2003]]
+{{main|Official Languages Act 2003}}
-The Act was passed 14 July 2003 with the main purpose of improving the amount and quality of public services delivered in Irish by the government and other public bodies.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Trinity College Dublin|date=5 November 2020|title=Official Languages Act 2003|url=https://www.tcd.ie/gaeloifig/en/acht-na-dteangacha-oifigiula/#:~:text=The%20aim%20of%20the%20Official,in%20public%20affairs%20in%20Ireland.}}</ref> Compliance with the Act is monitored by the ''[[An Coimisinéir Teanga]]'' (Irish Language Commissioner) which was established in 2004<ref>{{Cite web|title=Official Languages Act 2003|url=https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/6bdcf-official-languages-act-2003/|access-date=2020-12-10|website=www.gov.ie|language=en}}</ref> and any complaints or concerns pertaining to the Act are brought to them.<ref name=":12" /> There are 35 sections included in the Act all detailing different aspects of the use of Irish in official documentation and communication. Included in these sections are subjects such as Irish language use in official courts, official publications, and placenames.<ref>{{Cite book|last=An Coimisinéir Teanga|title=Official Languages Act 2003: Guidebook|url=https://www.tcd.ie/gaeloifig/assets/foilseachain/Guidebook%20-%20Official%20Languages%20Act%202003.pdf|pages=1–3}}</ref> The Act was recently amended in December 2019 in order to strengthen the already preexisting legislation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Official Languages Act 2003 (and related legislation)|url=https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/4d92d-official-languages-act-2003-and-related-legislation/|access-date=2020-12-10|website=www.gov.ie|language=en}}</ref> All changes made took into account data collected from online surveys and written submissions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Review of Official Language Act 2003|url=https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/28c94-review-of-official-language-act-2003/|access-date=2020-12-10|website=www.gov.ie|language=en}}</ref>
+[[File:Dublin airport sign in both English and Irish Gaelic languages.jpg|thumb|Dublin airport sign in both English and Irish languages]]The Act was passed 14 July 2003 with the main purpose of improving the amount and quality of public services delivered in Irish by the government and other public bodies.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Trinity College Dublin|date=5 November 2020|title=Official Languages Act 2003|url=https://www.tcd.ie/gaeloifig/en/acht-na-dteangacha-oifigiula/#:~:text=The%20aim%20of%20the%20Official,in%20public%20affairs%20in%20Ireland.}}</ref> Compliance with the Act is monitored by the ''[[An Coimisinéir Teanga]]'' (Irish Language Commissioner) which was established in 2004<ref>{{Cite web|title=Official Languages Act 2003|url=https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/6bdcf-official-languages-act-2003/|access-date=10 December 2020|website=www.gov.ie|date=22 July 2020 |language=en}}</ref> and any complaints or concerns pertaining to the Act are brought to them.<ref name=":12" /> There are 35 sections included in the Act all detailing different aspects of the use of Irish in official documentation and communication. Included in these sections are subjects such as Irish language use in official courts, official publications, and placenames.<ref>{{Cite book|last=An Coimisinéir Teanga |title=Official Languages Act 2003: Guidebook |url=https://www.tcd.ie/gaeloifig/assets/foilseachain/Guidebook%20-%20Official%20Languages%20Act%202003.pdf |pages=1–3}}</ref> The Act was recently amended in December 2019 in order to strengthen the already preexisting legislation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Official Languages Act 2003 (and related legislation) |url=https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/4d92d-official-languages-act-2003-and-related-legislation/ |access-date=10 December 2020 |website=www.gov.ie |date=31 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref> All changes made took into account data collected from online surveys and written submissions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Review of Official Language Act 2003 |url=https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/28c94-review-of-official-language-act-2003/ |access-date=10 December 2020 |website=www.gov.ie |date=3 July 2015 |language=en}}</ref>
-==== Official Languages Scheme 2019-2022 ====
+==== Official Languages Scheme 2019–2022 ====
-The Official Languages Scheme was enacted 1 July 2019 and is an 18 page document that adheres to the guidelines of the ''Official Languages Act 2003''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Irish Language Policy|url=https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/820415-irish-language-policy/|access-date=2020-12-10|website=www.gov.ie|language=en}}</ref> The purpose of the Scheme is to provide services through the mediums of Irish and/or English. According to the ''Department of the Taoiseach,'' it is meant to "develop a sustainable economy and a successful society, to pursue Ireland's interests abroad, to implement the Government's Programme and to build a better future for Ireland and all her citizens."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roinn an Taoisigh|title=Official Languages Act 2003: Language Scheme 2019-2022|year=2019|url=https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/820415-irish-language-policy/|pages=3}}</ref>
+The Official Languages Scheme was enacted 1 July 2019 and is an 18-page document that adheres to the guidelines of the ''Official Languages Act 2003''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Irish Language Policy |url=https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/820415-irish-language-policy/ |access-date=10 December 2020 |website=www.gov.ie |date=July 2019 |language=en}}</ref> The purpose of the Scheme is to provide services through the mediums of Irish and/or English. According to the ''Department of the Taoiseach,'' it is meant to "develop a sustainable economy and a successful society, to pursue Ireland's interests abroad, to implement the Government's Programme and to build a better future for Ireland and all her citizens."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roinn an Taoisigh |title=Official Languages Act 2003: Language Scheme 2019–2022 |year=2019 |url=https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/820415-irish-language-policy/ |pages=3}}</ref>
-==== 20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010-2030 ====
+==== 20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010–2030 ====
-''Main Article'': [[20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010–2030]]
+{{main|20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010–2030}}
-The Strategy was produced on 21 December 2010 and will stay in action until 2030; it aims to target language vitality and revitalization of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite web|title=20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language|url=https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/2ea63-20-year-strategy-for-the-irish-language/|access-date=2020-12-10|website=www.gov.ie|language=en}}</ref> The 30-page document published by the [[Government of Ireland]] details the objectives it plans to work towards in an attempt to preserve and promote both the Irish language and the Gaeltacht. It is divided into four separate phases with the intention of improving 9 main areas of action including:
+The Strategy was produced on 21 December 2010 and will stay in action until 2030; it aims to target language vitality and revitalization of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite web|title=20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language |url=https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/2ea63-20-year-strategy-for-the-irish-language/ |access-date=10 December 2020 |website=www.gov.ie |date=29 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref> The 30-page document published by the [[Government of Ireland]] details the objectives it plans to work towards in an attempt to preserve and promote both the Irish language and the Gaeltacht. It is divided into four separate phases with the intention of improving 9 main areas of action including:
 * "Education"
 * "The ''Gaeltacht''"
-* "Family Transmission of the Language - Early Intervention"
+* "Family Transmission of the Language – Early Intervention"
 * "Administration, Services and Community"
 * "Media and Technology"
@@ Line 156: / Line 180: @@
 * "Legislation and Status"
 * "Economic Life"
-* "Cross-cutting Initiatives"<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Government of Ireland|title=20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010-2030|year=2010|url=https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/2ea63-20-year-strategy-for-the-irish-language/|pages=11}}</ref>
+* "Cross-cutting Initiatives"<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Government of Ireland |title=20-Year Strategy for the Irish Language 2010–2030 |year=2010 |url=https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/2ea63-20-year-strategy-for-the-irish-language/ |pages=11}}</ref>
-The general goal for this strategy is to increase the amount of speakers from 83,000 to 250,000 by the end of its run.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Breadun|first=Deaglan De|title=Plan could treble number speaking Irish, says Cowen|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/plan-could-treble-number-speaking-irish-says-cowen-1.688731|access-date=2020-12-10|website=The Irish Times|language=en}}</ref>
+The general goal for this strategy was to increase the amount of daily speakers from 83,000 to 250,000 by the end of its run.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Breadun |first=Deaglan De |title=Plan could treble number speaking Irish, says Cowen |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/plan-could-treble-number-speaking-irish-says-cowen-1.688731 |access-date=10 December 2020 |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |language=en}}</ref> By 2022, the number of such speakers had fallen to 71,968.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-19 |title=Irish Language and the Gaeltacht – CSO – Central Statistics Office |url=https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cpp8/census2022profile8-theirishlanguageandeducation/irishlanguageandthegaeltacht/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=www.cso.ie |language=en}}</ref>
-===Northern Ireland===
+=== Northern Ireland ===
 {{main|Irish language in Northern Ireland}}
 [[File:Multilingual sign Department Culture Leisure Arts Northern Ireland.jpg|thumb|A sign for the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure in Northern Ireland, in English, Irish and [[Ulster Scots language|Ulster Scots]].]]
-Before the partition of Ireland in 1921, Irish was recognised as a school subject and as "Celtic" in some third level institutions. Between 1921 and 1972, [[Northern Ireland]] had devolved government. During those years the political party holding power in the [[Parliament of Northern Ireland|Stormont Parliament]], the [[Ulster Unionist Party]] (UUP), was hostile to the language.  The context of this hostility was the use of the language by nationalists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/language/oreilly97.htm#national |title=CAIN: Issues: Language: O'Reilly, C. (1997) Nationalists and the Irish Language in Northern Ireland: Competing Perspectives |publisher=Cain.ulst.ac.uk |access-date=31 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009134019/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/language/oreilly97.htm#national |archive-date=9 October 2015 |url-status=live  }}</ref> In broadcasting, there was an exclusion on the reporting of minority cultural issues, and Irish was excluded from radio and television for almost the first fifty years of the previous devolved government.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gppac.net/documents/pbp_f/part1/7_changi.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513093201/http://www.gppac.net/documents/pbp_f/part1/7_changi.htm|url-status=dead|title=GPPAC.net|archivedate=13 May 2007}}</ref> The language received a degree of [[Irish language in Northern Ireland|formal recognition in Northern Ireland]] from the United Kingdom, under the 1998 [[Good Friday Agreement]],<ref name="belfast">{{cite web |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/docs/agreement.htm#rights |title=Belfast Agreement – Full text – Section 6 (Equality) – "Economic, Social and Cultural issues" |publisher=Cain.ulst.ac.uk |access-date=7 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122194559/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/docs/agreement.htm#rights |archive-date=22 November 2013 |url-status=live  }}</ref> and then, in 2003, by the British government's ratification in respect of the language of the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]. In the 2006 [[St Andrews Agreement]] the British government promised to enact legislation to promote the language<ref name=bbc13dec2006>{{Cite news
- |url          = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/6177321.stm
- |title        = Irish language future is raised
- |date         = 13 December 2006
- |work    = BBC News
- |access-date   = 19 June 2007
- |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20070315193716/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/6177321.stm
- |archive-date = 15 March 2007
- |url-status     = live
- |df           = dmy-all
-}}</ref> but as of 2019 it has yet to do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://connemarajournal.ie/will-campaign-achieve-equality-irish-language/|title=We will continue to campaign until we achieve equality for the Irish language|publisher=Connemara Journal|date=12 March 2014|access-date=23 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011123728/http://connemarajournal.ie/will-campaign-achieve-equality-irish-language/|archive-date=11 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
-The Irish language has often been used as a bargaining chip during government formation in Northern Ireland, prompting protests from organisations and groups such as {{lang|ga|[[An Dream Dearg]]}}. There is currently an ongoing debate in relation to the status of the language in the form of an [[Irish Language Act]]. An Dream Dearg have launched a campaign in favour of such an Act called ''{{lang|ga|Acht na Gaeilge Anois}}'' ("Irish Language Act Now").<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/thousands-call-for-irish-language-act-during-belfast-rally-1.3090740|title=Thousands call for Irish Language Act during Belfast rally|website=Irishtimes.com|access-date=15 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115205211/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/thousands-call-for-irish-language-act-during-belfast-rally-1.3090740|archive-date=15 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
+Before the partition of Ireland in 1921, Irish was recognised as a school subject and as "Celtic" in some third level institutions. Between 1921 and 1972, [[Northern Ireland]] had devolved government. During those years the political party holding power in the [[Parliament of Northern Ireland|Stormont Parliament]], the [[Ulster Unionist Party]] (UUP), was hostile to the language. The context of this hostility was the use of the language by nationalists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/language/oreilly97.htm#national |title=CAIN: Issues: Language: O'Reilly, C. (1997) Nationalists and the Irish Language in Northern Ireland: Competing Perspectives |publisher=Cain.ulst.ac.uk |access-date=31 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009134019/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/language/oreilly97.htm#national |archive-date=9 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> In broadcasting, there was an exclusion on the reporting of minority cultural issues, and Irish was excluded from radio and television for almost the first fifty years of the previous devolved government.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gppac.net/documents/pbp_f/part1/7_changi.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513093201/http://www.gppac.net/documents/pbp_f/part1/7_changi.htm |url-status=dead |title=GPPAC.net |archive-date=13 May 2007}}</ref> After the 1998 [[Good Friday Agreement]], the language gradually received a degree of [[Irish language in Northern Ireland|formal recognition in Northern Ireland]] from the United Kingdom,<ref name="belfast">{{cite web |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/docs/agreement.htm#rights |title=Belfast Agreement – Full text – Section 6 (Equality) – "Economic, Social and Cultural issues" |publisher=Cain.ulst.ac.uk |access-date=7 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122194559/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/docs/agreement.htm#rights |archive-date=22 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> and then, in 2003, by the British government's ratification in respect of the language of the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]. In the 2006 [[St Andrews Agreement]] the British government promised to enact legislation to promote the language<ref name=bbc13dec2006>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/6177321.stm |title=Irish language future is raised |date=13 December 2006 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=19 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315193716/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/6177321.stm |archive-date=15 March 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> and in 2022 it approved [[Irish Language Act|legislation to recognise Irish as an official language]] alongside English. The bill received [[royal assent]] on 6 December 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ainsworth |first=Paul |date=6 December 2022 |title='Historic milestone' passed as Irish language legislation becomes law |url=https://www.irishnews.com/news/2022/12/06/news/_historic_milestone_passed_as_irish_language_legislation_becomes_law-2932333/ |access-date=18 February 2023 |website=The Irish News |language=en}}</ref>
-===European Parliament===
-Irish became an official language of the EU on 1 January 2007, meaning that MEPs with Irish fluency can now speak the language in the [[European Parliament]] and at committees, although in the case of the latter they have to give prior notice to a simultaneous interpreter in order to ensure that what they say can be interpreted into other languages. While an official [[Languages of the European Union|language of the European Union]], only co-decision regulations must be available in Irish for the moment, due to a renewable five-year derogation on what has to be translated, requested by the Irish Government when negotiating the language's new official status. Any expansion in the range of documents to be translated will depend on the results of the first five-year review and on whether the Irish authorities decide to seek an extension. The Irish government has committed itself to train the necessary number of translators and interpreters and to bear the related costs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/spotlight/irish_en.htm |access-date=14 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318191550/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/spotlight/irish_en.htm |archive-date=18 March 2008 |title=Is í an Ghaeilge an 21ú teanga oifigiúil den Aontas Eorpach}}</ref> Derogation is expected to end completely by 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/languages-culture/news/irish-to-be-given-full-official-eu-language-status/|title=Irish to be given full official EU language status|website=EURACTIV.com|date=10 December 2015|access-date=23 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924044948/https://www.euractiv.com/section/languages-culture/news/irish-to-be-given-full-official-eu-language-status/|archive-date=24 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
+The Irish language has often been used as a bargaining chip during government formation in Northern Ireland, prompting protests from organisations and groups such as {{lang|ga|[[An Dream Dearg]]}}.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/thousands-call-for-irish-language-act-during-belfast-rally-1.3090740 |title=Thousands call for Irish Language Act during Belfast rally |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |access-date=15 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115205211/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/thousands-call-for-irish-language-act-during-belfast-rally-1.3090740 |archive-date=15 November 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
+=== European Parliament ===
+Irish became an official language of the EU on 1 January 2007, meaning that MEPs with Irish fluency can now speak the language in the [[European Parliament]] and at committees, although in the case of the latter they have to give prior notice to a simultaneous interpreter in order to ensure that what they say can be interpreted into other languages.
+While an official [[Languages of the European Union|language of the European Union]], only co-decision regulations were available until 2022, due to a five-year derogation, requested by the Irish Government when negotiating the language's new official status. The Irish government had committed itself to train the necessary number of translators and interpreters and to bear the related costs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/spotlight/irish_en.htm |access-date=14 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080318191550/http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/spotlight/irish_en.htm |archive-date=18 March 2008 |title=Is í an Ghaeilge an 21ú teanga oifigiúil den Aontas Eorpach |language=Irish |trans-title=Irish is the 21st official language of the European Union}}</ref> This derogation ultimately came to an end on 1 January 2022, making Irish a fully recognised EU language for the first time in the state's history.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Boland |first=Lauren |title=Irish to be fully recognised as an official EU language from New Year's Day |url=https://www.thejournal.ie/irish-gaeilge-eu-language-5643611-Dec2021/ |access-date=1 January 2022 |website=[[TheJournal.ie]] |date=31 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
 Before Irish became an official language it was afforded the status of treaty language and only the highest-level documents of the EU were made available in Irish.
-===Outside Ireland===
+=== Outside Ireland ===
 {{Main|Irish language outside Ireland|Irish language in Newfoundland}}
 The Irish language was carried abroad in the modern period by a vast [[diaspora]], chiefly to [[Great Britain]] and North America, but also to [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Argentina]].
-The first large movements began in the 17th century, largely as a result of the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]], which saw many Irish sent to the [[West Indies]]. Irish emigration to the United States was well established by the 18th century, and was reinforced in the 1840s by thousands fleeing from the Famine. This flight also affected Britain. Up until that time most emigrants spoke Irish as their first language, though English was establishing itself as the primary language. Irish speakers had first arrived in Australia in the late 18th century as convicts and soldiers, and many Irish-speaking settlers followed, particularly in the 1860s. New Zealand also received some of this influx. Argentina was the only non-English-speaking country to receive large numbers of Irish emigrants, and there were few Irish speakers among them.
+The first large movements began in the 17th century, largely as a result of the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]], which saw many Irish sent to the [[West Indies]]. Irish emigration to the United States was well established by the 18th century, and was reinforced in the 1840s by thousands fleeing from [[Great Famine (Ireland)|the Famine]]. This flight also affected Britain. Up until that time most emigrants spoke Irish as their first language, though English was establishing itself as the primary language. Irish speakers had first arrived in Australia in the late 18th century as convicts and soldiers, and many Irish-speaking settlers followed, particularly in the 1860s. New Zealand also received some of this influx. Argentina was the only non-English-speaking country to receive large numbers of Irish emigrants, and there were few Irish speakers among them.
-Relatively few of the emigrants were literate in Irish, but manuscripts in the language were brought to both Australia and the United States, and it was in the United States that the first newspaper to make significant use of Irish was established: {{lang|ga|[[An Gael|An Gaodhal]]}}. In Australia, too, the language found its way into print. The Gaelic revival, which started in Ireland in the 1890s, found a response abroad, with branches of {{lang|ga|[[Conradh na Gaeilge]]}} being established in all the countries to which Irish speakers had emigrated.
+Relatively few of the emigrants were literate in Irish, but manuscripts in the language were brought to both Australia and the United States, and it was in the United States that the first newspaper to make significant use of Irish was established: {{lang|ga|[[An Gael|An Gaodhal]]}}. In Australia, too, the language found its way into print. The [[Gaelic revival]], which started in Ireland in the 1890s, found a response abroad, with branches of {{lang|ga|[[Conradh na Gaeilge]]}} being established in all the countries to which Irish speakers had emigrated.
-The decline of Irish in Ireland and a slowing of emigration helped to ensure a decline in the language abroad, along with natural attrition in the host countries. Despite this, small groups of enthusiasts continued to learn and cultivate Irish in diaspora countries and elsewhere, a trend which strengthened in the second half of the 20th century. Today the language is taught at tertiary level in North America, Australia and Europe, and Irish speakers outside Ireland contribute to journalism and literature in the language. There are significant Irish-speaking networks in the United States and Canada;<ref>{{cite document|last=O Broin|first=Brian|title=An Analysis of the Irish-Speaking Communities of North America: Who are they, what are their opinions, and what are their needs?|publisher=Academia|url=https://wpunj.academia.edu/Brian%C3%93Broin/Talks/61329/An_Analysis_of_the_Irish-Speaking_Communities_of_North_America_Who_are_they_what_are_their_opinions_and_what_are_their_needs|access-date=31 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510104027/http://wpunj.academia.edu/Brian%C3%93Broin/Talks/61329/An_Analysis_of_the_Irish-Speaking_Communities_of_North_America_Who_are_they_what_are_their_opinions_and_what_are_their_needs|archive-date=10 May 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> figures released for the period 2006–2008 show that 22,279 [[Irish Americans]] claimed to speak Irish at home.<ref>{{Citation | type = table | contribution = 1. Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over for the United States: 2006–2008 | year = 2010 | title = Language | contribution-url = https://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/ | publisher = Census}}</ref>
+The decline of Irish in Ireland and a slowing of emigration helped to ensure a decline in the language abroad, along with natural attrition in the host countries. Despite this, small groups of enthusiasts continued to learn and cultivate Irish in diaspora countries and elsewhere, a trend which strengthened in the second half of the 20th century. Today the language is taught at tertiary level in North America, Australia and Europe, and Irish speakers outside Ireland contribute to journalism and literature in the language. There are significant Irish-speaking networks in the United States and Canada;<ref>{{cite web|last=O Broin |first=Brian |title=An Analysis of the Irish-Speaking Communities of North America: Who are they, what are their opinions, and what are their needs? |website=Academia |url=https://wpunj.academia.edu/Brian%C3%93Broin/Talks/61329/An_Analysis_of_the_Irish-Speaking_Communities_of_North_America_Who_are_they_what_are_their_opinions_and_what_are_their_needs |access-date=31 March 2012 |language=Irish |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510104027/http://wpunj.academia.edu/Brian%C3%93Broin/Talks/61329/An_Analysis_of_the_Irish-Speaking_Communities_of_North_America_Who_are_they_what_are_their_opinions_and_what_are_their_needs |archive-date=10 May 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> figures released for the period 2006–2008 show that 22,279 [[Irish Americans]] claimed to speak Irish at home.<ref name="USA"/>
-The Irish language is also one of the languages of the [[Celtic League]], a non-governmental organisation that promotes self-determination, Celtic identity and culture in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, [[Brittany]], [[Cornwall]] and the Isle of Man, known collectively as the [[Celtic nations]].
+The Irish language is also one of the languages of the [[Celtic League]], a non-governmental organisation that promotes [[self-determination]], Celtic identity and culture in [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Brittany]], [[Cornwall]] and the [[Isle of Man]], known collectively as the [[Celtic nations]].
-Irish was spoken as a community language until the early 20th century on the [[island of Newfoundland]], in a form known as [[Irish language in Newfoundland|Newfoundland Irish]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mannion|first=John|date=February 2003|title=The Irish in Newfoundland|url=https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/society/irish-newfoundland.php|website=Heritage: Newfoundland & Labrador}}</ref> Certain Irish vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation features are still used in modern [[Newfoundland English]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Clarke|first1=Sandra|last2=Paddock|first2=Harold|last3=MacKenzie|first3=Marguerite|date=1999|title=Language|url=https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/society/language.php|website=Heritage: Newfoundland and Labrador}}</ref>
+Irish was spoken as a community language until the early 20th century on the [[island of Newfoundland]], in a form known as [[Irish language in Newfoundland|Newfoundland Irish]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mannion |first=John |date=February 2003 |title=The Irish in Newfoundland |url=https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/society/irish-newfoundland.php |website=Heritage: Newfoundland & Labrador}}</ref> Certain Irish vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation features are still used in modern [[Newfoundland English]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Clarke |first1=Sandra |last2=Paddock |first2=Harold |last3=MacKenzie |first3=Marguerite |date=1999 |title=Language |url=https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/society/language.php |website=Heritage: Newfoundland and Labrador}}</ref>
-==Usage==
+== Usage ==
-The 2016 census data shows:<blockquote>The total number of people who answered 'yes' to being able to speak Irish in April 2016 was 1,761,420, a slight decrease (0.7 per cent) on the 2011 figure of 1,774,437. This represents 39.8 per cent of respondents compared with 41.4 in 2011... Of the 73,803 daily Irish speakers (outside the education system), 20,586 (27.9%) lived in Gaeltacht areas.<ref name="Cens_16_Irish">{{cite book |title=Report of the 2016 Census of Ireland |date=2017 |publisher=Central Statistics Office |location=Dublin, Ireland |pages=66, 69 |chapter=7. Irish |quote=Of the 1.76 million who said they could speak Irish,  73,803 said they speak it daily outside the education system, a fall of 3,382 on the 2011 figure.  ... (421,274) said they never spoke Irish. ... Of the 73,803 daily Irish speakers (outside the education system), 20,586 (27.9%) lived in Gaeltacht areas. The total population of all Gaeltacht areas in April 2016 was 96,090}}</ref></blockquote>
+The 2016 census data shows:<blockquote>The total number of people who answered 'yes' to being able to speak Irish in April 2016 was 1,761,420, a slight decrease (0.7 per cent) on the 2011 figure of 1,774,437. This represents 39.8 per cent of respondents compared with 41.4 in 2011... Of the 73,803 daily Irish speakers (outside the education system), 20,586 (27.9%) lived in Gaeltacht areas.<ref name="Cens_16_Irish">{{cite book |title=Report of the 2016 Census of Ireland |date=2017 |publisher=Central Statistics Office |location=Dublin, Ireland |pages=66, 69 |chapter=7. Irish |quote=Of the 1.76 million who said they could speak Irish, 73,803 said they speak it daily outside the education system, a fall of 3,382 on the 2011 figure. ... (421,274) said they never spoke Irish. ... Of the 73,803 daily Irish speakers (outside the education system), 20,586 (27.9%) lived in Gaeltacht areas. The total population of all Gaeltacht areas in April 2016 was 96,090}}</ref></blockquote>
-===Daily Irish speakers in Gaeltacht areas between 2011 and 2016===
+=== Daily Irish speakers in Gaeltacht areas between 2011 and 2016 ===
 {| class="wikitable"
+! rowspan=2|Gaeltacht Area
+! rowspan=2|2011
+! rowspan=2|2016
+! colspan=2|Change 2011–2016
 |-
+! No.
-! Gaeltacht Area
+!%
-! 2011
-! 2016
-! Change 2011/2016
-!Change 2011/2016 (%)
 |-
-|align="center"|Cork County
+|align="center"|County Cork
 |align="right"|982
 |align="right"|872
@@ Line 213: / Line 233: @@
 |{{decrease}} 11.2%
 |-
-|align="center"|Donegal County
+|align="center"|County Donegal
 |align="right"|7,047
 |align="right"|5,929
@@ Line 221: / Line 241: @@
 |align="center"|Galway City
 |align="right"|636
-|align="right"|646
+|align="right"|647
-|align="right"|{{increase}} 10
+|align="right"|{{increase}} 11
 |{{increase}} 1.6%
 |-
-|align="center"|Galway County
+|align="center"|County Galway
 |align="right"|10,085
 |align="right"|9,445
@@ Line 231: / Line 251: @@
 |{{decrease}} 6.3%
 |-
-|align="center"|Kerry County
+|align="center"|County Kerry
 |align="right"|2,501
 |align="right"|2,049
@@ Line 237: / Line 257: @@
 |{{decrease}} 18.1%
 |-
-|align="center"|Mayo County
+|align="center"|County Mayo
 |align="right"|1,172
 |align="right"|895
@@ Line 243: / Line 263: @@
 |{{decrease}} 23.6%
 |-
-|align="center"|Meath County
+|align="center"|County Meath
 |align="right"|314
 |align="right"|283
@@ Line 249: / Line 269: @@
 |{{decrease}} 9.9%
 |-
-|align="center"|Waterford County
+|align="center"|County Waterford
 |align="right"|438
 |align="right"|467
 |align="right"|{{increase}} 29
 |{{increase}} 6.6%
+|-style="background:#DDFFEE;"
-|-
-|align="center"|''All Gaeltacht Areas''
+|align="center"|'''All Gaeltacht Areas'''
-|align="right"|''23,175''
+|align="right"|'''23,175'''
-|align="right"|''20,586''
+|align="right"|'''20,586'''
-|align="right"|{{decrease}} ''2,589''
+|align="right"|{{decrease}} '''2,589'''
-|{{decrease}} ''11.2%''
+|{{decrease}} '''11.2%'''
 |- class="sortbottom"
 | colspan="10" |{{center|''Source:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cso.ie/en/csolatestnews/presspages/2017/census2016summaryresults-part1/|title=Census 2016 Summary Results – Part 1 – CSO – Central Statistics Office|website=Cso.ie|language=en|access-date=29 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730013846/http://www.cso.ie/en/csolatestnews/presspages/2017/census2016summaryresults-part1/|archive-date=30 July 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>''}}
 |}
-In 1996, the 3 electoral divisions in the State where Irish has the most daily speakers were An Turloch (91%+), Scainimh (89%+), Min an Chladaigh (88%+).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.ie/en/organisation/department-of-tourism-culture-arts-gaeltacht-sport-and-media/?referrer=http://www.chg.gov.ie/app/uploads/2018/07/report-of-coimisiun-na-gaeltachta.pdf|title=Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media|website=www.gov.ie}}</ref>
+In 1996, the three electoral divisions in the State where Irish had the most daily speakers were An Turloch (91%+), Scainimh (89%+), Min an Chladaigh (88%+).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.ie/en/organisation/department-of-tourism-culture-arts-gaeltacht-sport-and-media/?referrer=http://www.chg.gov.ie/app/uploads/2018/07/report-of-coimisiun-na-gaeltachta.pdf|title=Department of Tourism, Culture, Arts, Gaeltacht, Sport and Media|website=www.gov.ie}}</ref>
 ==Dialects==
 Irish is represented by several traditional [[dialect]]s and by various varieties of "urban" Irish. The latter have acquired lives of their own and a growing number of native speakers. Differences between the dialects make themselves felt in stress, intonation, vocabulary and structural features.
-Roughly speaking, the three major dialect areas which survive coincide roughly with the provinces of [[Munster]] ({{lang|ga|Cúige Mumhan}}), [[Connacht]] ({{lang|ga|Cúige Chonnacht}}) and [[Ulster]] ({{lang|ga|Cúige Uladh}}). Records of some dialects of [[Leinster]] (''{{lang|ga|Cúige Laighean}}'') were made by the [[Irish Folklore Commission]] and others.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21984|title=The Doegen Records Web Project|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180908015716/https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21984|archive-date=8 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], in eastern Canada, had a form of Irish derived from the Munster Irish of the later 18th century (see [[Newfoundland Irish]]).
+Roughly speaking, the three major dialect areas which survive coincide roughly with the provinces of [[Connacht]] ({{lang|ga|Cúige Chonnacht}}), [[Munster]] ({{lang|ga|Cúige Mumhan}}) and [[Ulster]] ({{lang|ga|Cúige Uladh}}). Records of some dialects of [[Leinster]] ({{lang|ga|Cúige Laighean}}) were made by the [[Irish Folklore Commission]] and others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Doegen Records Web Project |url=https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21984 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180908015716/https://doegen.ie/taxonomy/term/21984 |archive-date=8 September 2018}}</ref> [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], in eastern Canada, had a form of Irish derived from the Munster Irish of the later 18th century (see [[Newfoundland Irish]]).
-===Munster===
+=== Connacht ===
-{{Main|Munster Irish}}
+{{Main|Connacht Irish}}
-Munster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht areas of the three counties [[County Cork|Cork]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Chorcaí}}), [[County Kerry|Kerry]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Chiarraí}}), [[County Waterford|Waterford]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Phort Láirge}}).  The Gaeltacht areas of Cork can be found in [[Cape Clear Island]] ({{lang|ga|Oileán Chléire}}) and [[Muskerry]] ({{lang|ga|Múscraí}}); those of Kerry lie in {{lang|ga|[[Corca Dhuibhne]]}} and [[Iveragh Peninsula]]; and those of Waterford in [[Ring, County Waterford|Ring]] ({{lang|ga|An Rinn}}) and [[Old Parish]] ({{lang|ga|An Sean Phobal}}), both of which together form [[Gaeltacht na nDéise]].  Of the three counties, the Irish spoken in Cork and Kerry are quite similar while that of Waterford is more distinct.
+Historically, Connacht Irish represents the westernmost remnant of a dialect area which once stretched from east to west across the centre of Ireland. The strongest dialect of Connacht Irish is to be found in [[Connemara]] and the [[Aran Islands]]. Much closer to the larger Connacht Gaeltacht is the dialect spoken in the smaller region on the border between Galway ({{lang|ga|Gaillimh}}) and Mayo ({{lang|ga|Maigh Eo}}). There are a number of differences between the popular South Connemara form of Irish, the Mid-Connacht/Joyce Country form (on the border between Mayo and Galway) and the Achill and Erris forms in the north of the province.
-Some typical features of Munster Irish are:
-# The use of endings to show person on verbs in parallel with a pronominal subject system, thus "I must" is in Munster {{lang|ga|caithfead}} as well as {{lang|ga|caithfidh mé}}, while other dialects prefer {{lang|ga|caithfidh mé}} ({{lang|ga|mé}} means "I"). "I was and you were" is {{lang|ga|Bhíos agus bhís}} as well as {{lang|ga|Bhí mé agus bhí tú}} in Munster but more commonly {{lang|ga|Bhí mé agus bhí tú}} in other dialects. Note that these are strong tendencies, and the personal forms ''bhíos'' etc. are used in the West and North, particularly when the words are last in the clause.
-# Use of [[Dependent and independent verb forms|independent/dependent forms of verbs]] that are not included in the Standard. For example, "I see" in Munster is {{lang|ga|chím}}, which is the independent form – Ulster Irish also uses a similar form, ''{{lang|ga|tchím}}''), whereas "I do not see" is {{lang|ga|ní fheicim}}, ''{{lang|ga|feicim}}'' being the dependent form, which is used after particles such as ''{{lang|ga|ní}}'' "not"). ''{{lang|ga|Chím}}'' is replaced by ''{{lang|ga|feicim}}'' in the Standard. Similarly, the traditional form preserved in Munster {{lang|ga|bheirim}} I give/{{lang|ga|ní thugaim}} is {{lang|ga|tugaim}}/{{lang|ga|ní thugaim}} in the Standard; {{lang|ga|gheibhim}} I get/{{lang|ga|ní bhfaighim}} is {{lang|ga|faighim}}/{{lang|ga|ní bhfaighim}}.
-# When before -''nn'', -''m'', -''rr'', -''rd'', -''ll'' and so on, in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant, some short vowels are lengthened while others are [[diphthong]]ised, thus ''{{lang|ga|ceann}}'' {{IPA|[caun]}} "head", ''{{lang|ga|cam}}'' {{IPA|[kɑum]}} "crooked", ''{{lang|ga|gearr}}'' {{IPA|[ɟaːr]}} "short", ''{{lang|ga|ord}}'' {{IPA|[oːrd]}} "sledgehammer", ''{{lang|ga|gall}}'' {{IPA|[ɡɑul]}} "foreigner, non-Gael", ''{{lang|ga|iontas}}'' {{IPA|[uːntəs]}} "a wonder, a marvel", ''{{lang|ga|compánach}}'' {{IPA|[kəumˈpɑːnəx]}} "companion, mate", etc.
-# A [[copula (linguistics)|copula]]r construction involving {{lang|ga|ea}} "it" is frequently used. Thus "I am an Irish person" can be said ''{{lang|ga|is Éireannach mé}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|Éireannach is ea mé}}'' in Munster; there is a subtle difference in meaning, however, the first choice being a simple statement of fact, while the second brings emphasis onto the word ''Éireannach''.  In effect the construction is a type of "[[Topicalization|fronting]]".
-# Both masculine and feminine words are subject to lenition after ''{{lang|ga|insan}}'' (''{{lang|ga|sa}}''/''{{lang|ga|san}}'') "in the", ''{{lang|ga|den}}'' "of the" and ''{{lang|ga|don}}'' "to/for the" : ''{{lang|ga|sa tsiopa}}'', "in the shop", compared to the Standard ''{{lang|ga|sa siopa}}'' (the Standard lenites only feminine nouns in the dative in these cases).
-# Eclipsis of ''f'' after ''{{lang|ga|sa}}'': ''{{lang|ga|sa bhfeirm}}'', "in the farm", instead of ''{{lang|ga|san fheirm}}''.
-# Eclipsis of ''t'' and ''d'' after preposition + singular article, with all prepositions except after ''{{lang|ga|insan}}'', ''{{lang|ga|den}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|don}}'': ''{{lang|ga|ar an dtigh}}'' "on the house", ''{{lang|ga|ag an ndoras}}'' "at the door".
-# [[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] falls in general found on the second syllable of a word when the first syllable contains a short vowel, and the second syllable contains a long vowel, diphthong, or is ''{{lang|ga|-(e)ach}}'', e.g. {{lang|ga|bio''rán''|italic=unset}} ("pin"), as opposed to {{lang|ga|''bio''rán|italic=unset}} in Connacht and Ulster.
+Features in Connacht Irish differing from the official standard include a preference for verbal nouns ending in {{lang|ga|-achan}}, e.g. {{lang|ga|lagachan}} instead of {{lang|ga|lagú}}, "weakening". The non-standard pronunciation of [[Cois Fharraige]] with lengthened vowels and heavily reduced endings gives it a distinct sound. Distinguishing features of Connacht and Ulster dialect include the pronunciation of word-final {{IPA|/w/}} as {{IPA|[w]}}, rather than as {{IPA|[vˠ]}} in Munster. For example, {{lang|ga|sliabh}} ("mountain") is {{IPA|[ʃlʲiəw]}} in Connacht and Ulster as opposed to {{IPA|[ʃlʲiəβ]}} in the south. In addition Connacht and Ulster speakers tend to include the "we" pronoun rather than use the standard compound form used in Munster, e.g. {{lang|ga|bhí muid}} is used for "we were" instead of {{lang|ga|bhíomar}}.
-===Connacht===
-{{Main|Connacht Irish}}
-Historically, Connacht Irish represents the westernmost remnant of a dialect area which once stretched from east to west across the centre of Ireland. The strongest dialect of Connacht Irish is to be found in [[Connemara]] and the [[Aran Islands]]. Much closer to the larger Connacht Gaeltacht is the dialect spoken in the smaller region on the border between Galway ({{lang|ga|Gaillimh}}) and Mayo ({{lang|ga|Maigh Eo}}).  There are a number of differences between the popular South Connemara form of Irish, the Mid-Connacht/Joyce Country form (on the border between Mayo and Galway) and the Achill and Erris forms in the north of the province.
+As in Munster Irish, some short vowels are lengthened and others diphthongised before {{vr|ll, m, nn, rr, rd}}, in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant. This can be seen in {{lang|ga|ceann}} {{IPA|[cɑːn̪ˠ]}} "head", {{lang|ga|cam}} {{IPA|[kɑːmˠ]}} "crooked", {{lang|ga|gearr}} {{IPA|[ɟɑːɾˠ]}} "short", {{lang|ga|ord}} {{IPA|[ouɾˠd̪ˠ]}} "sledgehammer", {{lang|ga|gall}} {{IPA|[gɑːl̪ˠ]}} "foreigner, non-Gael", {{lang|ga|iontas}} {{IPA|[iːn̪ˠt̪ˠəsˠ]}} "a wonder, a marvel", etc. The form {{vr|(a)ibh}}, when occurring at the end of words like {{lang|ga|agaibh}}, tends to be pronounced as {{IPA|[iː]}}.
-Features in Connacht Irish differing from the official standard include a preference for verbal nouns ending in {{lang|ga|-achan}}, e.g. {{lang|ga|lagachan}} instead of {{lang|ga|lagú}}, "weakening". The non-standard pronunciation of the {{lang|ga|[[Gaeltacht Cois Fharraige]]}} area with lengthened vowels and heavily reduced endings gives it a distinct sound. Distinguishing features of Connacht and Ulster dialect include the pronunciation of word-final broad ''{{lang|ga|bh}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|mh}}'' as {{IPA|[w]}}, rather than as {{IPA|[vˠ]}} in Munster. For example, {{lang|ga|sliabh}} ("mountain") is pronounced {{IPA|[ʃlʲiəw]}} in Connacht and Ulster as opposed to {{IPA|[ʃlʲiəβ]}} in the south. In addition Connacht and Ulster speakers tend to include the "we" pronoun rather than use the standard compound form used in Munster, e.g. {{lang|ga|bhí muid}} is used for "we were" instead of {{lang|ga|bhíomar}}.
+In South Connemara, for example, there is a tendency to replace word-final {{IPA|/vʲ/}} with {{IPA|/bʲ/}}, in word such as {{lang|ga|sibh}}, {{lang|ga|libh}} and {{lang|ga|dóibh}} (pronounced respectively as "shiv," "liv" and "{{lang|ga|dófa}}" in the other areas). This placing of the B-sound is also present at the end of words ending in vowels, such as {{lang|ga|acu}} ({{IPA|[ˈakəbˠ]}}) and '{{lang|ga|leo}} ({{IPA|[lʲoːbˠ]}}). There is also a tendency to omit {{IPA|/g/}} in {{lang|ga|agam}}, {{lang|ga|agat}} and {{lang|ga|againn}}, a characteristic also of other Connacht dialects. All these pronunciations are distinctively regional.
-As in Munster Irish, some short vowels are lengthened and others diphthongised before -''nn'', -''m'', -''rr'', -''rd'', -''ll'', in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant. This can be seen in ''{{lang|ga|ceann}}'' [cɑ:n] "head", ''{{lang|ga|cam}}'' [kɑ:m] "crooked", ''{{lang|ga|gearr}}'' [gʲɑ:r] "short", ''{{lang|ga|ord}}'' [{{lang|ga|ourd}}] "sledgehammer", ''{{lang|ga|gall}}'' [gɑ:l] "foreigner, non-Gael", ''{{lang|ga|iontas}}'' [i:ntəs] "a wonder, a marvel", etc. The form '{{lang|ga|-aibh}}', when occurring at the end of words like '{{lang|ga|agaibh}}', tends to be pronounced as an 'ee' sound.
-In South Connemara, for example, there is a tendency to substitute a "b" sound at the end of words ending in "{{lang|ga|bh}}" {{IPA|[β]}}, such as ''{{lang|ga|sibh}}'', ''{{lang|ga|libh}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|dóibh}}'', something not found in the rest of Connacht (these words would be pronounced respectively as "shiv," "liv" and "{{lang|ga|dófa}}" in the other areas). This placing of the B-sound is also present at the end of words ending in vowels, such as ''{{lang|ga|acu}}'' (pronounced as "acub") and ''{{lang|ga|leo}}'' (pronounced as "lyohab"). There is also a tendency to omit the "g" sound in words such as ''{{lang|ga|agam}}'', ''{{lang|ga|agat}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|againn}}'', a characteristic also of other Connacht dialects. All these pronunciations are distinctively regional.
+The pronunciation prevalent in the [[Joyce Country]] (the area around [[Lough Corrib]] and [[Lough Mask]]) is quite similar to that of South Connemara, with a similar approach to the words {{lang|ga|agam}}, {{lang|ga|agat}} and {{lang|ga|againn}} and a similar approach to pronunciation of vowels and consonants but there are noticeable differences in vocabulary, with certain words such as {{lang|ga|doiligh}} (difficult) and {{lang|ga|foscailte}} being preferred to the more usual {{lang|ga|deacair}} and {{lang|ga|oscailte}}. Another interesting aspect of this sub-dialect is that almost all vowels at the end of words tend to be pronounced as {{IPA|[iː]}}: {{lang|ga|eile}} (other), {{lang|ga|cosa}} (feet) and {{lang|ga|déanta}} (done) tend to be pronounced as {{lang|ga|eilí}}, {{lang|ga|cosaí}} and {{lang|ga|déantaí}} respectively.
-The pronunciation prevalent in the [[Joyce Country]] (the area around [[Lough Corrib]] and [[Lough Mask]]) is quite similar to that of South Connemara, with a similar approach to the words ''{{lang|ga|agam}}'', ''{{lang|ga|agat}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|againn}}'' and a similar approach to pronunciation of vowels and consonants but there are noticeable differences in vocabulary, with certain words such as ''{{lang|ga|doiligh}}'' (difficult) and ''{{lang|ga|foscailte}}'' being preferred to the more usual ''{{lang|ga|deacair}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|oscailte}}''. Another interesting aspect of this sub-dialect is that almost all vowels at the end of words tend to be pronounced as ''í'': ''{{lang|ga|eile}}'' (other), ''{{lang|ga|cosa}}'' (feet) and ''{{lang|ga|déanta}}'' (done) tend to be pronounced as ''{{lang|ga|eilí}}'', ''{{lang|ga|cosaí}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|déantaí}}'' respectively.
+The northern Mayo dialect of [[Erris]] ({{lang|ga|Iorras}}) and [[Achill]] ({{lang|ga|Acaill}}) is in grammar and [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] essentially a Connacht dialect but shows some similarities to Ulster Irish due to large-scale immigration of dispossessed people following the [[Plantation of Ulster]]. For example, words ending -{{vr|bh, mh}} have a much softer sound, with a tendency to terminate words such as {{lang|ga|leo}} and {{lang|ga|dóibh}} with {{vr|f}}, giving {{lang|ga|leofa}} and {{lang|ga|dófa}} respectively. In addition to a vocabulary typical of other area of Connacht, one also finds Ulster words like {{lang|ga|amharc}} (meaning "to look"), {{lang|ga|nimhneach}} (painful or sore), {{lang|ga|druid}} (close), {{lang|ga|mothaigh}} (hear), {{lang|ga|doiligh}} (difficult), {{lang|ga|úr}} (new), and {{lang|ga|tig le}} (to be able to – i.e. a form similar to {{lang|ga|féidir}}).
+Irish President [[Douglas Hyde]] was possibly one of the last speakers of the [[Roscommon]] dialect of Irish.<ref name="auto" />
-The northern Mayo dialect of [[Erris]] ({{lang|ga|Iorras}}) and [[Achill]] ({{lang|ga|Acaill}}) is in grammar and [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] essentially a Connacht dialect but shows some similarities to Ulster Irish due to large-scale immigration of dispossessed people following the [[Plantation of Ulster]].  For example, words ending ''{{lang|ga|-mh}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|-bh}}'' have a much softer sound, with a tendency to terminate words such as ''{{lang|ga|leo}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|dóibh}}'' with "f", giving ''{{lang|ga|leofa}}'' and ''{{lang|ga|dófa}}'' respectively. In addition to a vocabulary typical of other area of Connacht, one also finds Ulster words like ''{{lang|ga|amharc}}'' (meaning "to look" and pronounced "onk"), ''{{lang|ga|nimhneach}}'' (painful or sore), ''{{lang|ga|druid}}'' (close), ''{{lang|ga|mothaigh}}'' (hear), ''{{lang|ga|doiligh}}'' (difficult), ''{{lang|ga|úr}}'' (new), and ''{{lang|ga|tig le}}'' (to be able to – i.e. a form similar to ''{{lang|ga|féidir}}'').
+=== Munster ===
-Irish President [[Douglas Hyde]] was possibly one of the last speakers of the [[Roscommon]] dialect of Irish.<ref name="auto"/>
+{{Main|Munster Irish}}
+Munster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht areas of the counties of [[County Cork|Cork]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Chorcaí}}), [[County Kerry|Kerry]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Chiarraí}}), and [[County Waterford|Waterford]] ({{lang|ga|Contae Phort Láirge}}). The Gaeltacht areas of Cork can be found in [[Cape Clear Island]] ({{lang|ga|Oileán Chléire}}) and [[Muskerry]] ({{lang|ga|Múscraí}}); those of Kerry lie in {{lang|ga|[[Corca Dhuibhne]]}} and [[Iveragh Peninsula]]; and those of Waterford in [[Ring, County Waterford|Ring]] ({{lang|ga|An Rinn}}) and [[Old Parish]] ({{lang|ga|An Sean Phobal}}), both of which together form [[Gaeltacht na nDéise]]. Of the three counties, the Irish spoken in Cork and Kerry is quite similar while that of Waterford is more distinct.
-===Ulster===
+Some typical features of Munster Irish are:
+# The use of [[Irish conjugation|synthetic]] verbs in parallel with a pronominal subject system, thus "I must" is {{lang|ga|caithfead}} in Munster, while other dialects prefer {{lang|ga|caithfidh mé}} ({{lang|ga|mé}} means "I"). "I was" and "you were" are {{lang|ga|bhíos}} and {{lang|ga|bhís}} in Munster but more commonly {{lang|ga|bhí mé}} and {{lang|ga|bhí tú}} in other dialects. These are strong tendencies, and the personal forms {{lang|ga|bhíos}} etc. are used in the West and North, particularly when the words are last in the clause.
+# Use of [[Dependent and independent verb forms|independent/dependent forms of verbs]] that are not included in the Standard. For example, "I see" in Munster is {{lang|ga|chím}}, which is the independent form; Ulster Irish also uses a similar form, {{lang|ga|tchím}}, whereas "I do not see" is {{lang|ga|ní fheicim}}, {{lang|ga|feicim}} being the dependent form, which is used after particles such as {{lang|ga|ní}} ("not"). {{lang|ga|Chím}} is replaced by {{lang|ga|feicim}} in the Standard. Similarly, the traditional form preserved in Munster {{lang|ga|bheirim}} "I give"/{{lang|ga|ní thugaim}} is {{lang|ga|tugaim}}/{{lang|ga|ní thugaim}} in the Standard; {{lang|ga|gheibhim}} I get/{{lang|ga|ní bhfaighim}} is {{lang|ga|faighim}}/{{lang|ga|ní bhfaighim}}.
+# When before {{vr|ll, m, nn, rr, rd}} and so on, in monosyllabic words and in the stressed syllable of multisyllabic words where the syllable is followed by a consonant, some short vowels are lengthened while others are [[diphthong]]ised, in {{lang|ga|ceann}} {{IPA|[cɑun̪ˠ]}} "head", {{lang|ga|cam}} {{IPA|[kɑumˠ]}} "crooked", {{lang|ga|gearr}} {{IPA|[ɟɑːɾˠ]}} "short", {{lang|ga|ord}} {{IPA|[oːɾˠd̪ˠ]}} "sledgehammer", {{lang|ga|gall}} {{IPA|[gɑul̪ˠ]}} "foreigner, non-Gael", {{lang|ga|iontas}} {{IPA|[uːn̪ˠt̪ˠəsˠ]}} "a wonder, a marvel", {{lang|ga|compánach}} {{IPA|[kəumˠˈpˠɑːnˠəx]}} "companion, mate", etc.
+# A [[Copula (linguistics)|copular]] construction involving {{lang|ga|ea}} "it" is frequently used. Thus "I am an Irish person" can be said {{lang|ga|is Éireannach mé}} and {{lang|ga|Éireannach is ea mé}} in Munster; there is a subtle difference in meaning, however, the first choice being a simple statement of fact, while the second brings emphasis onto the word {{lang|ga|Éireannach}}. In effect the construction is a type of "[[Topicalization|fronting]]".
+# Both masculine and feminine words are subject to lenition after {{lang|ga|insan}} ({{lang|ga|sa}}/{{lang|ga|san}}) "in the", {{lang|ga|den}} "of the", and {{lang|ga|don}} "to/for the": {{lang|ga|sa tsiopa}} "in the shop", compared to the Standard {{lang|ga|sa siopa}} (the Standard lenites only feminine nouns in the dative in these cases).
+# Eclipsis of {{vr|f}} after {{lang|ga|sa}}: {{lang|ga|sa bhfeirm}}, "in the farm", instead of {{lang|ga|san fheirm}}.
+# Eclipsis of {{vr|t}} and {{vr|d}} after preposition + singular article, with all prepositions except after {{lang|ga|insan}}, {{lang|ga|den}} and {{lang|ga|don}}: {{lang|ga|ar an dtigh}} "on the house", {{lang|ga|ag an ndoras}} "at the door".
+# [[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] is generally on the second syllable of a word when the first syllable contains a short vowel, and the second syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, or is -{{vr|(e)ach}}, e.g. {{Lang|ga|Ciarán}} is {{IPA|ga|[ciəˈɾˠaːn̪ˠ]|pron}} opposed to {{IPA|[ˈciəɾˠaːn̪ˠ]}} in Connacht and Ulster.
+=== Ulster ===
 {{Main|Ulster Irish}}
-Ulster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht regions of Donegal.  These regions contain all of Ulster's communities where Irish has been spoken in an unbroken line back to when the language was the dominant language of Ireland.  The Irish-speaking communities in other parts of Ulster are a result of language revival – English-speaking families deciding to learn Irish. Census data shows that 4,130 people speak it at home.
+Ulster Irish is the dialect spoken in the Gaeltacht regions of Donegal. These regions contain all of Ulster's communities where Irish has been spoken in an unbroken line back to when the language was the dominant language of Ireland. The Irish-speaking communities in other parts of Ulster are a result of language revival – English-speaking families deciding to learn Irish. Census data shows that 4,130 people speak it at home.
 Linguistically, the most important of the [[Ulster]] dialects today is that which is spoken, with slight differences, in both [[Gweedore]] ({{lang|ga|Gaoth Dobhair}} = Inlet of Streaming Water) and [[The Rosses]] ({{lang|ga|na Rossa}}).
@@ Line 308: / Line 332: @@
 Ulster Irish sounds quite different from the other two main dialects. It shares several features with southern dialects of [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Manx language|Manx]], as well as having many characteristic words and shades of meanings. However, since the demise of those Irish dialects spoken natively in what is today Northern Ireland, it is probably an exaggeration to see present-day Ulster Irish as an intermediary form between Scottish Gaelic and the southern and western dialects of Irish. Northern Scottish Gaelic has many non-Ulster features in common with Munster Irish.
-One noticeable trait of Ulster Irish, Scots Gaelic and Manx is the use of the negative particle {{lang|ga|cha(n)}} in place of the Munster and Connacht {{lang|ga|ní}}. Though southern Donegal Irish tends to use {{lang|ga|ní}} more than ''cha(n)'', ''cha(n)'' has almost ousted ''{{lang|ga|ní}}'' in northernmost dialects (e.g. [[Rosguill]] and [[Tory Island]]), though even in these areas {{lang|ga|níl}} "is not" is more common than ''{{lang|ga|chan fhuil}}'' or ''{{lang|ga|cha bhfuil}}''.<ref>{{Cite book| title=A Phonetic Study of the Irish of Tory Island, County Donegal| last=Hamilton |first=John Noel |publisher=Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen's University of Belfast |year=1974}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Grammar of Ros Goill Irish, County Donegal |first=Leslie W. |last=Lucas |publisher=Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen's University of Belfast |year=1979}}</ref> Another noticeable trait is the pronunciation of the first person singular verb ending ''{{lang|ga|-im}}'' as ''{{lang|ga|-am}}'', also common to Man and Scotland (Munster/Connacht ''{{lang|ga|siúlaim}}'' "I walk", Ulster ''{{lang|ga|siúlam}}'').
+One noticeable trait of Ulster Irish, Scots Gaelic and Manx is the use of the negative particle {{lang|ga|cha(n)}} in place of the Munster and Connacht {{lang|ga|ní}}. Though southern Donegal Irish tends to use {{lang|ga|ní}} more than {{lang|ga|cha(n)}}, {{lang|ga|cha(n)}} has almost ousted {{lang|ga|ní}} in northernmost dialects (e.g. [[Rosguill]] and [[Tory Island]]), though even in these areas {{lang|ga|níl}} "is not" is more common than {{lang|ga|chan fhuil}} or {{lang|ga|cha bhfuil}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=John Noel |title=A Phonetic Study of the Irish of Tory Island, County Donegal |publisher=Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen's University of Belfast |year=1974}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lucas |first=Leslie W. |title=Grammar of Ros Goill Irish, County Donegal |publisher=Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen's University of Belfast |year=1979}}</ref> Another noticeable trait is the pronunciation of the first person singular verb ending {{lang|ga|-(a)im}} as {{lang|ga|-(e)am}}, also common to the Isle of Man and Scotland (Munster/Connacht {{lang|ga|siúlaim}} "I walk", Ulster {{lang|ga|siúlam}}).
-===Leinster===
+=== Leinster ===
 Down to the early 19th century and even later, Irish was spoken in all twelve counties of Leinster. The evidence furnished by placenames, literary sources and recorded speech indicates that there was no Leinster dialect as such. Instead, the main dialect used in the province was represented by a broad central belt stretching from west Connacht eastwards to the [[River Liffey|Liffey estuary]] and southwards to [[Wexford]], though with many local variations. Two smaller dialects were represented by the Ulster speech of counties Meath and Louth, which extended as far south as the [[River Boyne|Boyne valley]], and a Munster dialect found in Kilkenny and south Laois.
-The main dialect had characteristics which survive today only in the Irish of Connacht. It typically placed the stress on the first syllable of a word, and showed a preference (found in placenames) for the pronunciation ''cr'' where the standard spelling is ''cn''. The word {{lang|ga|cnoc}} (hill) would therefore be pronounced {{lang|ga|croc}}. Examples are the placenames Crooksling ({{lang|ga|Cnoc Slinne}}) in County Dublin and Crukeen ({{lang|ga|Cnoicín}}) in Carlow. East Leinster showed the same diphthongisation or vowel lengthening as in Munster and Connacht Irish in words like {{lang|ga|poll}} (hole), {{lang|ga|cill}} (monastery), {{lang|ga|coill}} (wood), {{lang|ga|ceann}} (head), {{lang|ga|cam}} (crooked) and {{lang|ga|dream}} (crowd). A feature of the dialect was the pronunciation of the vowel ''ao'', which generally became ''ae'' in east Leinster (as in Munster), and ''í'' in the west (as in Connacht).<ref>Williams 1994, pp. 467–478.</ref>
+The main dialect had characteristics which survive today only in the Irish of Connacht. It typically placed the stress on the first syllable of a word, and showed a preference (found in placenames) for the pronunciation {{vr|cr}} where the standard spelling is {{vr|cn}}. The word {{lang|ga|cnoc}} (hill) would therefore be pronounced {{lang|ga|croc}}. Examples are the placenames Crooksling ({{lang|ga|Cnoc Slinne}}) in County Dublin and Crukeen ({{lang|ga|Cnoicín}}) in Carlow. East Leinster showed the same diphthongisation or vowel lengthening as in Munster and Connacht Irish in words like {{lang|ga|poll}} (hole), {{lang|ga|cill}} (monastery), {{lang|ga|coill}} (wood), {{lang|ga|ceann}} (head), {{lang|ga|cam}} (crooked) and {{lang|ga|dream}} (crowd). A feature of the dialect was the pronunciation of {{vr|ao}}, which generally became {{IPA|[eː]}} in east Leinster (as in Munster), and {{IPA|[iː]}} in the west (as in Connacht).<ref>Williams 1994, pp. 467–478.</ref>
-Early evidence regarding colloquial Irish in east Leinster is found in ''The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge'' (1547), by the English physician and traveller Andrew Borde.<ref>{{cite web |last=Borde |first=Andrew |title=''The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge'' |editor=F.J. Furnivall |publisher=N. Trubner & Co. |date=1870 |pages=131–135 |url=https://archive.org/stream/fyrstbokeintrod01boorgoog#page/n140/mode/2up }}</ref> The illustrative phrases he uses include the following (with regularised Irish spelling in brackets):
+Early evidence regarding colloquial Irish in east Leinster is found in ''The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge'' (1547), by the English physician and traveller Andrew Borde.<ref>{{cite web |last=Borde |first=Andrew |date=1870 |editor-last=Furnivall |editor-first=F.J. |title=''The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge'' |url=https://archive.org/stream/fyrstbokeintrod01boorgoog#page/n140/mode/2up |publisher=N. Trubner & Co. |pages=131–135}}</ref> The illustrative phrases he uses include the following:
-{| style="margin-left: 1em;"
+{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: 1em;"
+! rowspan="2" |English
-| How are you? || ''Kanys stato?'' || [{{lang|ga|Canas 'tá tú?}}]
+! colspan="2" |Leinster Irish
 |-
+!Anglicised spelling
-| I am well, thank you || ''Tam a goomah gramahagood.'' || [{{lang|ga|Tá mé go maith, go raibh maith agat.}}]
+!Irish spelling
 |-
-| Syr, can you speak Iryshe? || ''Sor, woll galow oket?'' || [{{lang|ga|Sir, 'bhfuil Gaeilig [Gaela'] agat?}}]
+| How are you? || ''Kanys stato?''|| [{{lang|ga|Canas 'tá tú?}}]
 |-
-| Wyfe, gyve me bread! || ''Benytee, toor haran!'' || [{{lang|ga|A bhean an tí, tabhair arán!}}]
+| I am well, thank you || ''Tam a goomah gramahagood.''|| [{{lang|ga|Tá mé go maith, go raibh maith agat.}}]
+|-
+| Sir, can you speak Irish? || ''Sor, woll galow oket?''|| [{{lang|ga|Sir, 'bhfuil Gaeilig [Gaela'] agat?}}]
+|-
+| Wife, give me bread! || ''Benytee, toor haran!''|| [{{lang|ga|A bhean an tí, tabhair arán!}}]
 |-
 | How far is it to Waterford? || ''Gath haad o showh go part laarg?''. || [{{lang|ga|Gá fhad as [a] seo go Port Láirge?}}]
 |-
-| It is one an twenty myle. || ''Myle hewryht.'' || [{{lang|ga|Míle a haon ar fhichid.}}]
+| It is one a twenty mile. || ''Myle hewryht.'' || [{{lang|ga|Míle a haon ar fhichid.}}]
 |-
-| Whan shal I go to slepe, wyfe? || ''Gah hon rah moyd holow?'' || [{{lang|ga|Gathain a rachamaoid a chodladh?}}]
+| When shall I go to sleep, wife? || ''Gah hon rah moyd holow?'' || [{{lang|ga|Gathain a rachamaoid a chodladh?}}]
 |}
-====The Pale====
+==== The Pale ====
-[[File:The Pale According to the Statute of 1488.jpg|thumb|upright=0.86|right|The Pale – According to Statute of 1488]]
+[[File:The Pale According to the Statute of 1488.jpg|thumb|upright=0.86|right|[[The Pale]] – According to Statute of 1488]]
 [[The Pale]] ({{lang|ga|An Pháil}}) was an area around late medieval Dublin under the control of the English government. By the late 15th century it consisted of an area along the coast from [[Dalkey]], south of [[Dublin]], to the garrison town of [[Dundalk]], with an inland boundary encompassing [[Naas]] and [[Leixlip]] in the [[Earldom of Kildare]] and [[Trim, County Meath|Trim]] and [[Kells, County Meath|Kells]] in County Meath to the north. In this area of "Englyshe tunge" English had never actually been a dominant language – and was moreover a relatively late comer; the first colonisers were Normans who spoke Norman French, and before these Norse. The Irish language had always been the language of the bulk of the population. An English official remarked of the Pale in 1515 that "all the common people of the said half counties that obeyeth the King's laws, for the most part be of Irish birth, of Irish habit and of Irish language".<ref>"State of Ireland & Plan for its Reformation" in ''State Papers Ireland'', Henry VIII, ii, 8.</ref>
 With the strengthening of English cultural and political control, language change began to occur but this did not become clearly evident until the 18th century. Even then, in the decennial period 1771–81, the percentage of Irish speakers in Meath was at least 41%. By 1851 this had fallen to less than 3%.<ref name="Fitzgerald">See Fitzgerald 1984.</ref>
-====General decline====
+==== General decline ====
 English expanded strongly in Leinster in the 18th century but Irish speakers were still numerous. In the decennial period 1771–81 certain counties had estimated percentages of Irish speakers as follows (though the estimates are likely to be too low):<ref name="Fitzgerald" />
@@ Line 347: / Line 377: @@
 :Westmeath 17%
-The language saw its most rapid initial decline in counties Dublin, Kildare, Laois, Wexford, and Wicklow. In recent years, County Wicklow has been noted as having the lowest percentage of Irish speakers of any county in Ireland, with only 0.14% of its population claiming to have passable knowledge of the language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://heritage.wicklowheritage.org/places/county_wicklow_historical_societies/wicklow_historical_society/wicklow_historical_society-2/the_irish_language_in_co_wicklow|title=The Irish Language in Co. Wicklow|date=27 June 2019}}</ref> The proportion of Irish-speaking children in Leinster went down as follows: 17% in the 1700s, 11% in the 1800s, 3% in the 1830s, and virtually none in the 1860s.<ref>Cited in Ó Gráda 2013.</ref> The Irish census of 1851 showed that there were still a number of older speakers in County Dublin.<ref name="Fitzgerald" /> Sound recordings were made between 1928 and 1931 of some of the last speakers in [[Omeath]], County Louth (now available in digital form).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doegen.ie/ |title=The Doegen Records Web Project &#124; DHO |publisher=Dho.ie |date=5 September 1928 |access-date=19 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319210106/http://www.doegen.ie/ |archive-date=19 March 2016 |url-status=live  }}</ref> The last known traditional native speaker in Omeath, and in Leinster as a whole, was Annie O'Hanlon (née Dobbin), who died in 1960.<ref name="Ó Gráda" /> Her dialect was, in fact, a branch of the Irish of south-east Ulster.<ref>Cur síos ar an chainteoir ó dhúchas deireannach ón Ó Méith, Co Lú, Anna Uí Annluain: https://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/1981-proinsias-o-conluain/615547-gaeilgeoir-deireannacha-mith/</ref>
+The language saw its most rapid initial decline in counties Dublin, Kildare, Laois, Wexford, and Wicklow. In recent years, County Wicklow has been noted as having the lowest percentage of Irish speakers of any county in Ireland, with only 0.14% of its population claiming to have passable knowledge of the language.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2019 |title=The Irish Language in Co. Wicklow |url=https://heritage.wicklowheritage.org/places/county_wicklow_historical_societies/wicklow_historical_society/wicklow_historical_society-2/the_irish_language_in_co_wicklow}}</ref> The proportion of Irish-speaking children in Leinster went down as follows: 17% in the 1700s, 11% in the 1800s, 3% in the 1830s, and virtually none in the 1860s.<ref>Cited in Ó Gráda 2013.</ref> The Irish census of 1851 showed that there were still a number of older speakers in County Dublin.<ref name="Fitzgerald" /> Sound recordings were made between 1928 and 1931 of some of the last speakers in [[Omeath]], County Louth (now available in digital form).<ref>{{cite web |date=5 September 1928 |title=The Doegen Records Web Project &#124; DHO |url=http://www.doegen.ie/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160319210106/http://www.doegen.ie/ |archive-date=19 March 2016 |access-date=19 March 2016 |publisher=Dho.ie}}</ref> The last known traditional native speaker in Omeath, and in Leinster as a whole, was Annie O'Hanlon (née Dobbin), who died in 1960.<ref name="Ó Gráda" /> Her dialect was, in fact, a branch of the Irish of south-east Ulster.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cur síos ar an chainteoir ó dhúchas deireannach ón Ó Méith, Co Lú, Anna Uí AnnluainCur síos ar an chainteoir ó dhúchas deireannach ón Ó Méith, Co Lú, Anna Uí Annluain |url=https://www.rte.ie/archives/exhibitions/1981-proinsias-o-conluain/615547-gaeilgeoir-deireannacha-mith/ |access-date=22 October 2022 |publisher=RTÉ Archives}}</ref>
-===Urban use from the middle ages to the 19th century===
+=== Urban use from the Middle Ages to the 19th century ===
-Irish was spoken as a community language in Irish towns and cities down to the 19th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries it was widespread even in Dublin and the Pale. The English administrator [[William Gerard]] (1518–1581) commented as follows: "All Englishe, and the most part with delight, even in Dublin, speak Irishe,"<ref>See "Tony Crowley, "The Politics of Language in Ireland 1366–1922: A Sourcebook" and [[Joep Leerssen|Leerssen, Joep]], ''Mere Irish and Fior-Ghael: Studies in the Idea of Irish Nationality, Its Development and Literary Expression Prior to the Nineteenth Century'', University of Notre Dame Press 1997, p. 51. {{ISBN|978-0268014278}}</ref> while the [[Normans in Ireland|Old English]] historian [[Richard Stanihurst]] (1547–1618) lamented that "When their posteritie became not altogither so warie in keeping, as their ancestors were valiant in conquering, the Irish language was free dennized in the English Pale: this canker tooke such deep root, as the bodie that before was whole and sound, was by little and little festered, and in manner wholly putrified".<ref>Ellis, Henry (ed.). ''The Description of Ireland'', An Electronic Edition: Chapter 1 (The Names of Ireland, with the Compasse of the Same, also what Shires or Counties it Conteineth, the Diuision or Partition of the Land, and of the Language of the People): http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.03.0089</ref>
+Irish was spoken as a community language in Irish towns and cities down to the 19th century. In the 16th and 17th centuries it was widespread even in Dublin and the Pale. The English administrator [[William Gerard]] (1518–1581) commented as follows: "All English, and the most part with delight, even in Dublin, speak Irish,"<ref>See "Tony Crowley, "The Politics of Language in Ireland 1366–1922: A Sourcebook" and [[Joep Leerssen|Leerssen, Joep]], ''Mere Irish and Fior-Ghael: Studies in the Idea of Irish Nationality, Its Development and Literary Expression Prior to the Nineteenth Century'', University of Notre Dame Press 1997, p. 51. {{ISBN|978-0268014278}}</ref> while the [[Normans in Ireland|Old English]] historian [[Richard Stanihurst]] (1547–1618) lamented that "When their posterity became not altogether so wary in keeping, as their ancestors were valiant in conquering, the Irish language was free dennized in the English Pale: this canker took such deep root, as the body that before was whole and sound, was by little and little festered, and in manner wholly putrified".<ref>Ellis, Henry (ed.). [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.03.0089 ''The Description of Ireland''], An Electronic Edition: Chapter 1 (The Names of Ireland, with the Compasse of the Same, also what Shires or Counties it Conteineth, the Diuision or Partition of the Land, and of the Language of the People)</ref>
-The Irish of Dublin, situated as it was between the east Ulster dialect of Meath and Louth to the north and the Leinster-Connacht dialect further south, may have reflected the characteristics of both in phonology and grammar. In County Dublin itself the general rule was to place the stress on the initial vowel of words. With time it appears that the forms of the dative case took over the other case endings in the plural (a tendency found to a lesser extent in other dialects). In a letter written in Dublin in 1691 we find such examples as the following: ''{{lang|ga|gnóthuimh}}'' (accusative case, the standard form being ''{{lang|ga|gnóthaí}}''), ''{{lang|ga|tíorthuibh}}'' (accusative case, the standard form being ''{{lang|ga|tíortha}}'') and ''{{lang|ga|leithscéalaibh}}'' (genitive case, the standard form being ''{{lang|ga|leithscéalta}}'').<ref>See Ó hÓgáin 2011.</ref>
+The Irish of Dublin, situated as it was between the east Ulster dialect of Meath and Louth to the north and the Leinster-Connacht dialect further south, may have reflected the characteristics of both in phonology and grammar. In County Dublin itself the general rule was to place the stress on the initial vowel of words. With time it appears that the forms of the dative case took over the other case endings in the plural (a tendency found to a lesser extent in other dialects). In a letter written in Dublin in 1691 we find such examples as the following: {{lang|ga|gnóthuimh}} (accusative case, the standard form being {{lang|ga|gnóthaí}}), {{lang|ga|tíorthuibh}} (accusative case, the standard form being {{lang|ga|tíortha}}) and {{lang|ga|leithscéalaibh}} (genitive case, the standard form being {{lang|ga|leithscéalta}}).<ref>See Ó hÓgáin 2011.</ref>
-English authorities of the Cromwellian period, aware that Irish was widely spoken in Dublin, arranged for its official use. In 1655 several local dignitaries were ordered to oversee a lecture in Irish to be given in Dublin. In March 1656 a converted Catholic priest, Séamas Corcy, was appointed to preach in Irish at Bride's parish every Sunday, and was also ordered to preach at [[Drogheda]] and [[Athy]].<ref>Berresford Ellis, Peter (1975). ''Hell or Connnaught! The Cromwellian Colonisation of Ireland 1652-1660'', p. 156. Hamish Hamilton. SBN 241-89071-3.</ref> In 1657 the English colonists in Dublin presented a petition to the Municipal Council complaining that in Dublin itself "there is Irish commonly and usually spoken".<ref>Ibid., p. 193.</ref>
+English authorities of the Cromwellian period, aware that Irish was widely spoken in Dublin, arranged for its official use. In 1655 several local dignitaries were ordered to oversee a lecture in Irish to be given in Dublin. In March 1656 a converted Catholic priest, Séamas Corcy, was appointed to preach in Irish at Bride's parish every Sunday, and was also ordered to preach at [[Drogheda]] and [[Athy]].<ref>Berresford Ellis, Peter (1975). ''Hell or Connnaught! The Cromwellian Colonisation of Ireland 1652–1660'', p. 156. Hamish Hamilton. SBN 241-89071-3.</ref> In 1657 the English colonists in Dublin presented a petition to the Municipal Council complaining that in Dublin itself "there is Irish commonly and usually spoken".<ref>Berresford Ellis 1975, p. 193.</ref>
 There is contemporary evidence of the use of Irish in other urban areas at the time. In 1657 it was found necessary to have an Oath of Abjuration (rejecting the authority of the Pope) read in Irish in [[Cork (city)|Cork]] so that people could understand it.<ref>Berresford Ellis 1975, p. 190.</ref>
-Irish was sufficiently strong in early 18th century Dublin to be the language of a coterie of poets and scribes led by Seán and Tadhg Ó Neachtain, both poets of note.<ref>Caerwyn Williams & Uí Mhuiríosa 1979, pp. 279 and 284.</ref> Scribal activity in Irish persisted in Dublin right through the 18th century. An outstanding example was Muiris Ó Gormáin (Maurice Gorman), a prolific producer of manuscripts who advertised his services (in English) in ''Faulkner's Dublin Journal''.<ref>Ní Mhunghaile 2010, pp. 239–276.</ref> There were still an appreciable number of Irish speakers in [[County Dublin]] at the time of the 1851 census.<ref>See Fitzgerald, 1984.</ref>
+Irish was sufficiently strong in early 18th century Dublin to be the language of a coterie of poets and scribes led by Seán and Tadhg Ó Neachtain, both poets of note.<ref>Williams & Uí Mhuiríosa 1979, pp. 279 and 284.</ref> Scribal activity in Irish persisted in Dublin right through the 18th century. An outstanding example was Muiris Ó Gormáin (Maurice Gorman), a prolific producer of manuscripts who advertised his services (in English) in ''Faulkner's Dublin Journal''.<ref>Ní Mhunghaile 2010, pp. 239–276.</ref> There were still an appreciable number of Irish speakers in [[County Dublin]] at the time of the 1851 census.<ref>See Fitzgerald, 1984.</ref>
 In other urban centres the descendants of medieval Anglo-Norman settlers, the so-called [[Normans in Ireland|Old English]], were Irish-speaking or bilingual by the 16th century.<ref>McCabe, p.31</ref> The English administrator and traveller [[Fynes Moryson]], writing in the last years of the 16th century, said that "the English Irish and the very citizens (excepting those of Dublin where the lord deputy resides) though they could speak English as well as we, yet commonly speak Irish among themselves, and were hardly induced by our familiar conversation to speak English with us".<ref>Quoted in Graham Kew (ed.), ''The Irish Sections of Fynes Moryson's unpublished itinerary'' (IMC, Dublin, 1998), p. 50.</ref> In Galway, a city dominated by Old English merchants and loyal to the Crown up to the [[Irish Confederate Wars]] (1641–1653), the use of the Irish language had already provoked the passing of an Act of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] (1536), ordaining as follows:
-::''Item, that every inhabitant within oure said towne [Galway] endeavour themselfes to speake English, and to use themselfes after the English facon; and, speciallye, that you, and every one of you, doe put your children to scole, to lerne to speke English...''<ref>Quoted in [[James Hardiman|Hardiman, James]], ''The History of the Town and Country of the County of Galway''. Dublin 1820: p. 80. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=Lv8HAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false)</ref>
+::''Item, that every inhabitant within oure said towne [Galway] endeavour themselfes to speake English, and to use themselfes after the English facon; and, speciallye, that you, and every one of you, doe put your children to scole, to lerne to speke English...''<ref>Quoted in [[James Hardiman|Hardiman, James]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Lv8HAAAAQAAJ ''The History of the Town and Country of the County of Galway'']. Dublin 1820: p. 80.</ref>
-The demise of native cultural institutions in the seventeenth century saw the social prestige of Irish diminish, and the gradual Anglicisation of the middle classes followed.<ref>Ó Laoire 2007, p. 164.</ref> The census of 1851 showed, however, that the towns and cities of Munster still had significant Irish-speaking populations. Much earlier, in 1819, James McQuige, a veteran Methodist lay preacher in Irish, wrote: "In some of the largest southern towns, Cork, Kinsale and even the Protestant town of Bandon, provisions are sold in the markets, and cried in the streets, in Irish".<ref>Quoted in de Brún 2009, pp. 11–12.</ref> Irish speakers constituted over 40% of the population of Cork even in 1851.<ref>Fitzgerald, Garrett, ‘Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117-1781 to 1861–1871,’ Volume 84, ''Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy'' 1984</ref>
+The demise of native cultural institutions in the seventeenth century saw the social prestige of Irish diminish, and the gradual Anglicisation of the middle classes followed.<ref>Ó Laoire 2007, p. 164.</ref> The census of 1851 showed, however, that the towns and cities of Munster still had significant Irish-speaking populations. Much earlier, in 1819, James McQuige, a veteran [[Methodism|Methodist]] lay preacher in Irish, wrote: "In some of the largest southern towns, Cork, [[Kinsale]] and even the Protestant town of [[Bandon, County Cork|Bandon]], provisions are sold in the markets, and cried in the streets, in Irish".<ref>Quoted in de Brún 2009, pp. 11–12.</ref> Irish speakers constituted over 40% of the population of Cork even in 1851.<ref>Fitzgerald, Garrett, 'Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117-1781 to 1861–1871,' Volume 84, ''Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy'' 1984</ref>
-===Modern urban Irish===
+=== Modern urban usage ===
+The late 18th and 19th centuries saw a reduction in the number of Dublin's Irish speakers, in keeping with the trend elsewhere. This continued until the end of the 19th century, when the [[Gaelic revival]] saw the creation of a strong Irish–speaking network, typically united by various branches of the {{lang|ga|[[Conradh na Gaeilge]]}}, and accompanied by renewed literary activity.<ref>Ó Conluain & Ó Céileachair 1976, pp. 148–153, 163–169, 210–215.</ref> By the 1930s Dublin had a lively literary life in Irish.<ref>Máirín Ní Mhuiríosa, "Cumann na Scríbhneoirí: Memoir" in ''Scríobh 5'', pp. 168–181, Seán Ó Mórdha (ed.), An Clóchomhar Tta 1981.</ref>
+Urban Irish has been the beneficiary, from the last decades of the 20th century, of a rapidly expanding system of {{lang|ga|[[Gaelscoil]]eanna}}, teaching entirely through Irish. As of 2019 there are 37 such primary schools in Dublin alone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dublin : Gaelscoileanna – Irish Medium Education |url=http://www.gaelscoileanna.ie/en/category/schools/primary/dublin-bunscoil/ |access-date=8 April 2020}}</ref>
-The 19th century saw a reduction in the number of Dublin's Irish speakers, in keeping with the trend elsewhere. This continued until the end of the century, when the [[Gaelic revival]] saw the creation of a strong Irish–speaking network, typically united by various branches of the {{lang|ga|[[Conradh na Gaeilge]]}}, and accompanied by renewed literary activity.<ref>Ó Conluain & Ó Céileachair 1976, pp. 148–153, 163–169, 210–215.</ref> By the 1930s Dublin had a lively literary life in Irish.<ref>Máirín Ní Mhuiríosa, "Cumann na Scríbhneoirí: Memoir" in ''Scríobh 5'', pp. 168–181, Seán Ó Mórdha (ed.), An Clóchomhar Tta 1981.</ref>
+It has been suggested that Ireland's towns and cities are acquiring a critical mass of Irish speakers, reflected in the expansion of Irish language media.<ref name="schism">{{cite news |last=Ó Broin |first=Brian |date=16 January 2010 |title=Schism fears for Gaeilgeoirí |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/schism-fears-for-gaeilgeoir%C3%AD-1.1269494 |url-status=live |access-date=16 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216211616/https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/schism-fears-for-gaeilgeoir%C3%AD-1.1269494 |archive-date=16 February 2018}}</ref> Many are younger speakers who, after encountering Irish at school, made an effort to acquire fluency, while others have been educated through Irish and some have been raised with Irish. Those from an English-speaking background are now often described as {{lang|ga|nuachainteoirí}} ("new speakers") and use whatever opportunities are available (festivals, "pop-up" events) to practise or improve their Irish.<ref>{{cite report |first1=John |last1=Walsh |first2=Bernadette |last2=OʼRourke |first3=Hugh |last3=Rowland |title=Research Report on New Speakers of Irish |url=https://www.forasnagaeilge.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/New-speakers-of-Irish-report.pdf |publisher=Foras na Gaeilge |date=October 2015 |access-date=8 June 2023}}</ref>
-Urban Irish has been the beneficiary, over the last few decades, of a rapidly expanding independent school system, known generally as {{lang|ga|[[Gaelscoil]]eanna}}, teaching entirely through Irish.  As of 2019 there are 37 such primary schools in Dublin alone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gaelscoileanna.ie/en/category/schools/primary/dublin-bunscoil/|title=Dublin : Gaelscoileanna – Irish Medium Education|access-date=8 April 2020}}</ref>
+It has been suggested that the comparative standard is still the Irish of the Gaeltacht,<ref name="Seoighe">{{cite news |last=Seoighe |first=Stiofán |date=22 July 2019 |title=Gá le doirse a oscailt do nuachainteoirí na Gaeilge: Cén chaoi gur féidir cainteoirí gníomhacha, féinmhuiníneacha a dhéanamh astu seo a fhoghlaimíonn an Ghaeilge ar scoil? |language=Irish |trans-title=Need to open doors for new speakers of Irish: How can active, self-confident speakers be made from those who learn Irish at school? |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/tuarasc%C3%A1il/g%C3%A1-le-doirse-a-oscailt-do-nuachainteoir%C3%AD-na-gaeilge-1.3945939 |access-date=19 August 2019}}</ref> but other evidence suggests that young urban speakers take pride in having their own distinctive variety of the language.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nic Fhlannchadha |first1=S. |last2=Hickey |first2=T.M. |date=12 January 2016 |title=Minority Language Ownership and Authority: Perspectives of Native Speakers and New Speakers |journal=International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=38–53 |doi=10.1080/13670050.2015.1127888 |hdl=10197/7394 |s2cid=67833553|hdl-access=free }}</ref> A comparison of traditional Irish and urban Irish shows that the distinction between broad and slender consonants, which is fundamental to Irish phonology and grammar, is not fully or consistently observed in urban Irish. This and other changes make it possible that urban Irish will become a new dialect or even, over a long period, develop into a creole (i.e. a new language) distinct from Gaeltacht Irish.<ref name="schism" /> It has also been argued that there is a certain elitism among Irish speakers, with most respect being given to the Irish of native Gaeltacht speakers and with "Dublin" (i.e. urban) Irish being under-represented in the media.<ref name="Nic Mhuiris">{{cite news |last=Ní Thuathaláin |first=Méabh |date=23 July 2019 |title='I'm gonna speak Irish the way that's natural for me' – craoltóir buartha faoi éilíteachas shaol na Gaeilge |work=Tuairisc.ie |url=https://www.tuairisc.ie/ |url-status=bot: unknown |access-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904185629/https://tuairisc.ie/ |archive-date=4 September 2019}}</ref> This, however, is paralleled by a failure among some urban Irish speakers to acknowledge grammatical and phonological features essential to the structure of the language.<ref name="schism" />
-It has been suggested that Ireland's towns and cities are acquiring a critical mass of Irish speakers, reflected in the expansion of Irish language media.<ref name="schism">{{cite news|last=Ó Broin|first=Brian|date=16 January 2010|title=Schism fears for Gaeilgeoirí|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/schism-fears-for-gaeilgeoir%C3%AD-1.1269494|work=[[The Irish Times]]|access-date=16 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216211616/https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/schism-fears-for-gaeilgeoir%C3%AD-1.1269494|archive-date=16 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
-Many are younger speakers who, after encountering Irish at school, made an effort to acquire fluency; others have been educated through Irish; some have been raised with Irish. Those from an English-speaking background are now often described as {{lang|ga|nuachainteoirí}} (new speakers) and use whatever opportunities are available (festivals, "pop-up" events) to practise or improve their Irish.<ref>John Walsh; Bernadette OʼRourke; Hugh Rowland, ''Research Report on New Speakers of Irish'': https://www.forasnagaeilge.ie/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/New-speakers-of-Irish-report.pdf</ref> Though it has been suggested that the comparative standard is still the Irish of the Gaeltacht,<ref name="Seoighe">{{cite news|last=Seoighe|first=Stiofán|date=22 July 2019|title=Gá le doirse a oscailt do nuachainteoirí na Gaeilge: Cén chaoi gur féidir cainteoirí gníomhacha, féinmhuiníneacha a dhéanamh astu seo a fhoghlaimíonn an Ghaeilge ar scoil?|url=https://www.irishtimes.com|work=[[The Irish Times]]|access-date=19 August 2019|archive-url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/tuarasc%C3%A1il/g%C3%A1-le-doirse-a-oscailt-do-nuachainteoir%C3%AD-na-gaeilge-1.3945939|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> other evidence suggests that young urban speakers take pride in having their own distinctive variety of the language.<ref>Nic Fhlannchadha, S. and Hickey, T.M. (2016). ‘Minority Language Ownership and Authority: Perspectives of Native Speakers and New Speakers.’ International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Online publication: https://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/10197/7394/1/Nic_Fhlannchadha_%26_Hickey_2016__Proof_for_Repository.pdf</ref> A comparison of traditional Irish and urban Irish shows that the distinction between broad and slender consonants, which is fundamental to Irish phonology and grammar, is not fully or consistently observed in urban Irish. This and other changes make it possible that urban Irish will become a new dialect or even, over a long period, develop into a creole (i.e. a new language) distinct from Gaeltacht Irish.<ref name="schism" />
+=== Standardisation ===
-It has been argued that there is a certain elitism among Irish speakers, with most respect being given to the Irish of native Gaeltacht speakers and with "Dublin" (i.e. urban) Irish being under-represented in the media.<ref name="Nic Mhuiris">{{cite news|last=Ní Thuathaláin|first=Méabh|date=23 July 2019|title='I'm gonna speak Irish the way that's natural for me' – craoltóir buartha faoi éilíteachas shaol na Gaeilge|url=https://www.tuairisc.ie|work=Tuairisc.ie|access-date=19 August 2019|archive-url=https://tuairisc.ie/im-gonna-speak-irish-the-way-thats-natural-for-me-craoltoir-buartha-faoi-eiliteachas-shaol-na-gaeilge/
-|archive-date=23 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> This, however, is paralleled by a failure among some urban Irish speakers to acknowledge grammatical and phonological features essential to the structure of the language.<ref name="schism"/>
-===Towards a standard Irish – An Caighdeán Oifigiúil===
 {{Main|An Caighdeán Oifigiúil}}
-There is no single official standard for pronouncing the Irish language.  Certain dictionaries, such as {{lang|ga|Foclóir Póca}}, provide a single pronunciation. Online dictionaries such as ''Foclóir Béarla-Gaeilge''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.teanglann.ie/ga/|title=Leabharlann Teanga agus Foclóireachta|website=www.teanglann.ie|access-date=8 April 2020}}</ref> provide audio files in the three major dialects. The differences between dialects are considerable, and have led to recurrent difficulties in conceptualising a "standard Irish." In recent decades contacts between speakers of different dialects have become more frequent and the differences between the dialects are less noticeable.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishlanguage.net:80/irish/dialects.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701154842/http://www.irishlanguage.net/irish/dialects.asp|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 July 2016|title=Irish Dialects copy of Irishlanguage.net|access-date=31 October 2015}}</ref>
+There is no single official standard for pronouncing the Irish language. Certain dictionaries, such as {{lang|ga|Foclóir Póca}}, provide a single pronunciation. Online dictionaries such as ''Foclóir Béarla-Gaeilge''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Leabharlann Teanga agus Foclóireachta |url=https://www.teanglann.ie/ga/ |access-date=8 April 2020 |website=www.teanglann.ie}}</ref> provide audio files in the three major dialects. The differences between dialects are considerable, and have led to recurrent difficulties in conceptualising a "standard Irish." In recent decades contacts between speakers of different dialects have become more frequent and the differences between the dialects are less noticeable.<ref>{{cite web |title=Irish Dialects copy of Irishlanguage.net |url=http://www.irishlanguage.net:80/irish/dialects.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701154842/http://www.irishlanguage.net/irish/dialects.asp |archive-date=1 July 2016 |access-date=31 October 2015}}</ref>
-{{lang|ga|An Caighdeán Oifigiúil}} ("The Official Standard"), often shortened to {{lang|ga|An Caighdeán}}, is a standard for the spelling and grammar of written Irish, developed and used by the Irish government.  Its rules are followed by most schools in Ireland, though schools in and near Irish-speaking regions also use the local dialect. It was published by the translation department of {{lang|ga|[[Dáil Éireann]]}} in 1953<ref name="blas">{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/irish/blas/education/beginnersblas/dictionaries.shtml | title=Beginners' Blas | access-date=18 March 2011 | date=June 2005 | publisher=BBC | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303083711/http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/irish/blas/education/beginnersblas/dictionaries.shtml | archive-date=3 March 2009 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref> and updated in 2012<ref>{{cite web|title=An Caighdeán Oifigiúil|url=http://www.oireachtas.ie/parliament/media/translators/An-Caighde%C3%A1n-Oifigi%C3%BAil-2017.pdf|access-date=26 February 2018|language=ga|date=January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425182331/http://www.oireachtas.ie/parliament/media/translators/An-Caighde%C3%A1n-Oifigi%C3%BAil-2017.pdf|archive-date=25 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and 2017.
+{{lang|ga|An Caighdeán Oifigiúil}} ("The Official Standard"), often shortened to {{lang|ga|An Caighdeán}}, is a standard for the spelling and grammar of written Irish, developed and used by the Irish government. Its rules are followed by most schools in Ireland, though schools in and near Irish-speaking regions also use the local dialect. It was published by the translation department of {{lang|ga|[[Dáil Éireann]]}} in 1953<ref name="blas">{{cite web |date=June 2005 |title=Beginners' Blas |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/irish/blas/education/beginnersblas/dictionaries.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303083711/http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/irish/blas/education/beginnersblas/dictionaries.shtml |archive-date=3 March 2009 |access-date=18 March 2011 |publisher=[[BBC]] }}</ref> and updated in 2012<ref>{{cite web |date=January 2012 |title=An Caighdeán Oifigiúil |trans-title=The Official Standard |url=http://www.oireachtas.ie/parliament/media/translators/An-Caighde%C3%A1n-Oifigi%C3%BAil-2017.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180425182331/http://www.oireachtas.ie/parliament/media/translators/An-Caighde%C3%A1n-Oifigi%C3%BAil-2017.pdf |archive-date=25 April 2018 |access-date=26 February 2018 |language=Irish}}</ref> and 2017.
-==Phonology==
+== Phonology ==
 {{Main|Irish phonology}}
-In pronunciation, Irish most closely resembles its nearest relatives, Scottish Gaelic and Manx. One notable feature is that consonants (except {{IPA|/h/}}) come in pairs, one "broad" ([[velarization|velarised]], pronounced with the back of the tongue pulled back towards the soft palate) and one "slender" ([[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalised]], pronounced with the middle of the tongue pushed up towards the hard palate). While broad–slender pairs are not unique to Irish (being found, for example, in [[Russian language|Russian]]), in Irish they have a grammatical function.
+In pronunciation, Irish most closely resembles its nearest relatives, [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Manx language|Manx]]. One notable feature is that consonants (except {{IPA|/h/}}) come in pairs, one "broad" ([[velarization|velarised]], pronounced with the back of the tongue pulled back towards the soft palate) and one "slender" ([[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalised]], pronounced with the middle of the tongue pushed up towards the hard palate). While broad–slender pairs are not unique to Irish (being found, for example, in [[Russian language|Russian]]), in Irish they have a grammatical function.
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
@@ Line 408: / Line 435: @@
 !rowspan="2" | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
 !<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]</small>
-| {{IPA|pˠ}} || {{IPA|pʲ}}
+| {{IPA link|pˠ}} || {{IPA link|pʲ}}
-| {{IPA|t̪ˠ}} || {{IPA|tʲ}}
+| {{IPA link|t̪ˠ}} || {{IPA link|tʲ}}
-| {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|c}}
+| {{IPA link|k}} || {{IPA link|c}}
 |
 |-
 !<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
-| {{IPA|bˠ}} || {{IPA|bʲ}}
+| {{IPA link|bˠ}} || {{IPA link|bʲ}}
-| {{IPA|d̪ˠ}} || {{IPA|dʲ}}
+| {{IPA link|d̪ˠ}} || {{IPA link|dʲ}}
-| {{IPA|ɡ}} || {{IPA|ɟ}}
+| {{IPA link|ɡ}} || {{IPA link|ɟ}}
 |
 |-
-!rowspan="2"|[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]/<br/>[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
+!rowspan="2"|[[Continuant consonant|Continuant]]
 !<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]</small>
-| {{IPA|fˠ}} || {{IPA|fʲ}}
+| {{IPA link|fˠ}} || {{IPA link|fʲ}}
-| {{IPA|sˠ}} || {{IPA|ʃ}}
+| {{IPA link|sˠ}} || {{IPA link|ʃ}}
-| {{IPA|x}} || {{IPA|ç}}
+| {{IPA link|x}} || {{IPA link|ç}}
-| {{IPA|h}}
+| {{IPA link|h}}
 |-
 !<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
-| {{IPA|w}} || {{IPA|vʲ}}
+| {{IPA link|w}} || {{IPA link|vʲ}}
+| {{IPA link|l̪ˠ}}||{{IPA link|lʲ}}
-| ||
-| {{IPA|ɣ}} || {{IPA|j}}
+| {{IPA link|ɣ}} || {{IPA link|j}}
 |
 |-
 !colspan="2"| [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
-| {{IPA|mˠ}} || {{IPA|mʲ}}
+| {{IPA link|mˠ}} || {{IPA link|mʲ}}
-| {{IPA|n̪ˠ}} || {{IPA|nʲ}}
+| {{IPA link|n̪ˠ}} || {{IPA link|nʲ}}
-| {{IPA|ŋ}} || {{IPA|ɲ}}
+| {{IPA link|ŋ}} || {{IPA link|ɲ}}
 |
 |-
 !colspan=2| [[Flap consonant|Tap]]
 | ||
-| {{IPA|ɾˠ}} || {{IPA|ɾʲ}}
+| {{IPA link|ɾˠ}} || {{IPA link|ɾʲ}}
-| ||
-|
-|-
-!colspan=2| [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
-| ||
-| {{IPA|l̪ˠ}} || {{IPA|lʲ}}
 | ||
 |
@@ Line 456: / Line 477: @@
 |-
 ! rowspan="2" |
-! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| Front
+! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| [[Front vowel|Front]]
-! style="text-align:center;"| Central
+! style="text-align:center;"| [[Central vowel|Central]]
-! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| Back
+! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| [[Back vowel|Back]]
 |-
-! style="text-align:center;"| short
+! style="text-align:center;"| [[Vowel length|<small>short</small>]]
-! style="text-align:center;"| long
+! style="text-align:center;"| [[Vowel length|<small>long</small>]]
-! style="text-align:center;"| short
+! style="text-align:center;"| [[Vowel length|<small>short</small>]]
-! style="text-align:center;"| short
+! style="text-align:center;"| [[Vowel length|<small>short</small>]]
-! style="text-align:center;"| long
+! style="text-align:center;"| [[Vowel length|<small>long</small>]]
 |-
-! style="text-align:center;"| Close
+! style="text-align:center;"| [[Close vowel|Close]]
-| style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|ɪ}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|iː}} || || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|ʊ}}|| style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|uː}}
+| style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA link|ɪ}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA link|iː}} || || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA link|ʊ}}|| style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA link|uː}}
 |-
-! style="text-align:center;"| Mid
+! style="text-align:center;"| [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
-| style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|ɛ}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|eː}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|ə}}|| style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|ɔ}}|| style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|oː}}
+| style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA link|ɛ}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA link|eː}} || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA link|ə}}|| style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA link|ɔ}}|| style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA link|oː}}
 |-
-! style="text-align:center;"| Open
+! style="text-align:center;"| [[Open vowel|Open]]
-| ||| || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|a}}|| || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|ɑː}}
+| ||| || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA link|a}}|| || style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA link|ɑː}}
 |}
-[[Diphthongs]]: {{IPA|iə, uə, əi, əu}}.
+The [[diphthongs]] of Irish are {{IPA|/iə, uə, əi, əu/}}.
 ==Syntax and morphology==
 {{Main|Irish grammar|Irish declension|Irish conjugation|Irish syntax}}
-Irish is a [[fusional language|fusional]], [[verb-subject-object|VSO]], [[nominative-accusative language]]. Irish is neither [[verb framing|verb]] nor [[verb framing|satellite framed]], and makes liberal use of [[deixis|deictic]] verbs.
+Irish is a [[fusional language|fusional]], [[verb-subject-object|VSO]], [[nominative-accusative language]]. It is neither [[verb framing|verb]] nor [[verb framing|satellite framed]], and makes liberal use of [[deixis|deictic]] verbs.
-Nouns [[declension|decline]] for 3 [[grammatical number|numbers]]: [[Grammatical number#Singular versus plural|singular]], [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] (only in conjunction with the number ''dhá''/''dá'' "two"), [[plural]]; 2 [[Grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine; and 4 [[grammatical case|cases]]: ainmneach ([[nominative|nomino]]-[[accusative]]), gairmeach ([[vocative]]), ginideach ([[genitive]]), and tabharthach ([[prepositional case|prepositional]]-[[locative case|locative]]), with fossilised traces of the older [[accusative case|accusative]]. [[Adjective]]s [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical gender|gender]], and [[grammatical case|case]]. Adjectives generally follow nouns, though some precede or [[prefix]] nouns. [[Demonstrative]] [[adjective]]s have [[Demonstrative#Distal and proximal demonstratives|proximal]], [[Demonstrative#Distal and proximal demonstratives|medial]], and [[Demonstrative#Distal and proximal demonstratives|distal]] forms. The [[prepositional]]-[[locative]] case is called the [[dative]] by convention, though it originates in the Proto-Celtic ablative.
+Nouns [[declension|decline]] for 3 [[grammatical number|numbers]]: [[Grammatical number#Singular versus plural|singular]], [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] (only in conjunction with the number {{lang|ga|dhá}} "two"), [[plural]]; 2 [[Grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine; and 4 [[grammatical case|cases]]: [[nominative|nomino]]-[[accusative]] ({{Lang|ga|ainmneach}}), [[vocative]] ({{Lang|ga|gairmeach}}), [[genitive]] ({{Lang|ga|ginideach}}), and [[prepositional case|prepositional]]-[[locative case|locative]] ({{Lang|ga|tabharthach}}), with fossilised traces of the older [[accusative case|accusative]] ({{Lang|ga|cuspóireach}}). [[Adjective]]s [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical gender|gender]], and [[grammatical case|case]]. Adjectives generally follow nouns, though some precede or [[prefix]] nouns. [[Demonstrative]] [[adjective]]s have [[Demonstrative#Distal and proximal demonstratives|proximal]], [[Demonstrative#Distal and proximal demonstratives|medial]], and [[Demonstrative#Distal and proximal demonstratives|distal]] forms. The [[prepositional]]-[[locative]] case is called the [[dative]] by convention, though it originates in the Proto-Celtic ablative.
 Verbs [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugate]] for 3 [[grammatical tense|tenses]]: [[past tense|past]], [[present tense|present]], [[future tense|future]]; 2 [[grammatical aspect|aspects]]: [[Uses of English verb forms#perfective|perfective]], [[imperfective]]; 2 numbers: [[Grammatical number#Singular versus plural|singular]], [[plural]]; 4 [[grammatical mood|moods]]: [[indicative mood|indicative]], [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], [[imperative mood|imperative]]; 2 relative forms, the present and future relative; and in some verbs, [[Dependent and independent verb forms|independent]] and [[Dependent and independent verb forms|dependent]] forms. Verbs [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugate]] for 3 [[grammatical person|persons]] and an impersonal form which is [[agent (grammar)|actor]]-free; the 3rd person singular acts as a person-free personal form that can be followed or otherwise refer to any person or number.
-There are two verbs for "to be", one for [[essence|inherent qualities]] with only two forms, ''is'' "present" and ''ba'' "past" and "conditional", and one for [[Substance theory#Aristotle|transient qualities]], with a full complement of forms except for the verbal adjective. The two verbs share the one verbal noun.
+There are two verbs for "to be", one for [[essence|inherent qualities]] with only two forms, {{lang|ga|is}} "present" and {{lang|ga|ba}} "past" and "conditional", and one for [[Substance theory#Aristotle|transient qualities]], with a full complement of forms except for the verbal adjective. The two verbs share the one verbal noun.
+Irish verb formation employs a mixed system during conjugation, with both [[analytic language|analytic]] and [[synthetic language|synthetic]] methods employed depending on tense, number, mood and person. For example, in the official standard, present tense verbs have conjugated forms only in the 1st person and autonomous forms (i.e. {{lang|ga|molaim}} 'I praise', {{lang|ga|molaimid}} 'we praise', {{lang|ga|moltar}} 'is praised, one praises' ), whereas all other persons are conveyed analytically (i.e. {{lang|ga|molann sé}} 'he praises', {{lang|ga|molann sibh}} 'you {{small|pl.}} praise'). The ratio of analytic to synthetic forms in a given verb paradigm varies between the various tenses and moods. The conditional, imperative and past habitual forms prefer synthetic forms in most persons and numbers, whereas the subjunctive, past, future and present forms prefer mostly analytical forms.
-The [[passive voice]] and many other forms are [[periphrasis|periphrastic]]. There are a number of preverbal [[grammatical particle|particles]] marking the [[affirmative and negative|negative]], [[interrogative]], [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]], [[relative clause]]s, etc. There is a [[verbal noun]] and [[verbal adjective]]. Verb forms are highly [[Inflection#Regular and irregular inflection|regular]], many grammars recognise only [[Irish conjugation#Irregular verbs|11 irregular verbs]].
+The meaning of the [[passive voice]] is largely conveyed through the autonomous verb form, however there also exist other structures analogous to the [[English passive voice|passival]] and [[resultative]] constructions. There are also a number of preverbal [[grammatical particle|particles]] marking the [[affirmative and negative|negative]], [[interrogative]], [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]], [[relative clause]]s, etc. There is a [[verbal noun]] and [[verbal adjective]]. Verb forms are highly [[Inflection#Regular and irregular inflection|regular]], many grammars recognise only [[Irish conjugation#Irregular verbs|11 irregular verbs]].
 [[preposition and postposition|Prepositions]] [[inflection|inflect]] for [[grammatical person|person]] and [[grammatical number|number]]. Different prepositions [[government (linguistics)|govern]] different [[grammatical case|cases]]. In Old and Middle Irish,
 prepositions [[government (linguistics)|govern]]ed different cases depending on intended [[semantics]]; this has disappeared in Modern Irish except in fossilised form.
-Irish had no verb to express having; instead, the word {{lang|ga|ag}} ("at", etc.) is used in conjunction with the transient "be" verb ''bheith'':
+Irish has no verb to express having; instead, the word {{lang|ga|ag}} ("at", etc.) is used in conjunction with the transient "be" verb {{lang|ga|bheith}}:
-*{{lang|ga|''Tá leabhar'' agam.|italic=unset}} "I have a book." (Literally, "there is a book at me," cf. Russian У меня есть книга, Finnish ''minulla on kirja'', French ''le livre est à moi'')
+*{{lang|ga|''Tá leabhar'' agam.|italic=unset}} "I have a book." (Literally, "there is a book at me", cf. Russian У меня есть книга, Finnish ''minulla on kirja'', French ''le livre est à moi'')
 *{{lang|ga|''Tá leabhar'' agat.|italic=unset}} "You (singular) have a book."
 *{{lang|ga|''Tá leabhar'' aige.|italic=unset}} "He has a book."
@@ Line 503: / Line 526: @@
 *{{lang|ga|''Tá leabhar'' acu.|italic=unset}} "They have a book."
-[[numerals (linguistics)|Numerals]] have 3 forms: abstract, general and ordinal.  The numbers from 2 to 10 (and these in combination with higher numbers) are rarely used for people, numeral nominals being used instead:
+[[numerals (linguistics)|Numerals]] have three forms: abstract, general and ordinal. The numbers from 2 to 10 (and these in combination with higher numbers) are rarely used for people, numeral nominals being used instead:
 *{{lang|ga|a dó}} "Two."
@@ Line 510: / Line 533: @@
 *{{lang|ga|dara}}, {{lang|ga|tarna}} (free variation) "Second."
-Irish had both decimal and vigesimal systems:
+Irish has both decimal and vigesimal systems:
-: ''a deich''
+: {{lang|ga|a deich}}
-: ''fiche''
+: {{lang|ga|fiche}}
-: vigesimal – ''a deich is fiche''; decimal – ''tríocha''
+: vigesimal – {{lang|ga|a deich is fiche}}; decimal – {{lang|ga|tríocha}}
-: v. ''daichead, dá fhichead''; d. ''ceathracha''
+: v. {{lang|ga|daichead, dá fhichead}}; d. {{lang|ga|ceathracha}}
-: v. ''a deich is daichead''; d. ''caoga'' (also: ''leathchéad'' "half-hundred")
+: v. {{lang|ga|a deich is daichead}}; d. {{lang|ga|caoga}} (also: {{lang|ga|leathchéad}} "half-hundred")
-: v. ''trí fichid''; d. ''seasca''
+: v. {{lang|ga|trí fichid}}; d. {{lang|ga|seasca}}
-: v. ''a deich is trí fichid''; d. ''seachtó''
+: v. {{lang|ga|a deich is trí fichid}}; d. {{lang|ga|seachtó}}
-: v. ''cheithre fichid''; d. ''ochtó''
+: v. {{lang|ga|cheithre fichid}}; d. {{lang|ga|ochtó}}
-: v. ''a deich is cheithre fichid''; d. ''nócha''
+: v. {{lang|ga|a deich is cheithre fichid}}; d. {{lang|ga|nócha}}
-: v. ''cúig fichid''; d. ''céad''
+: v. {{lang|ga|cúig fichid}}; d. {{lang|ga|céad}}
 A number such as 35 has various forms:
-''a cúigdéag is fichid'' "15 and 20"
+{{lang|ga|a cúigdéag is fichid}} "15 and 20"
-''a cúig is tríocha'' "5 and 30"
+{{lang|ga|a cúig is tríocha}} "5 and 30"
-'' a cúigdéag ar fhichid'' "15 on 20"
+{{lang|ga|a cúigdéag ar fhichid}} "15 on 20"
-''a cúig ar thríochaid'' "5 on 30"
+{{lang|ga|a cúig ar thríochaid}} "5 on 30"
-''a cúigdéag fichead'' "15 of 20 (genitive)"
+{{lang|ga|a cúigdéag fichead}} "15 of 20 (genitive)"
-''a cúig tríochad'' "5 of 30 (genitive)"
+{{lang|ga|a cúig tríochad}} "5 of 30 (genitive)"
-''fiche 's a cúigdéag'' "20 and 15"
+{{lang|ga|fiche 's a cúigdéag}} "20 and 15"
-''tríocha 's a cúig'' "30 and 5"
+{{lang|ga|tríocha 's a cúig}} "30 and 5"
 The latter is most commonly used in mathematics.
@@ Line 556: / Line 579: @@
 In Irish, there are two classes of initial [[consonant mutation]]s, which express grammatical relationship and meaning in verbs, nouns and adjectives:
-* [[Lenition]] ({{lang|ga|séimhiú}}) describes the change of stops into [[fricative]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/book/9783110226607/10.1515/9783110226607.235.xml|chapter=III The morphonology of Irish|date=2014-04-11|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-3-11-022660-7|language=en|doi=10.1515/9783110226607.235|title=The Sound Structure of Modern Irish}}</ref> Indicated in [[gaelic type|Gaelic script]] by a {{lang|ga|sí buailte}} (a dot) written above the consonant, it is shown in [[Latin script]] by adding an ''h''.
+* [[Lenition]] ({{lang|ga|séimhiú}}) describes the change of [[Plosive|stops]] into [[fricative]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/book/9783110226607/10.1515/9783110226607.235.xml|date=11 April 2014|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-3-11-022660-7|language=en|doi=10.1515/9783110226607.235|title=The Sound Structure of Modern Irish|pages=235–316 |chapter=III the morphonology of Irish }}</ref> Indicated in [[Gaelic type]] by an [[Dot (diacritic)#Overdot|overdot]] ({{lang|ga|ponc séimhithe}}), it is shown in [[Roman type]] by adding an {{vr|h}}.
 ** {{lang|ga|caith!}} "throw!" – {{lang|ga|chaith mé}} "I threw" (lenition as a past-tense marker, caused by the particle {{lang|ga|do}}, now generally omitted)
 ** {{lang|ga|gá}} "requirement" – {{lang|ga|easpa an ghá}} "lack of the requirement" (lenition marking the genitive case of a masculine noun)
@@ Line 565: / Line 588: @@
 ** {{lang|ga|Gaillimh}} "Galway" – {{lang|ga|i nGaillimh}} "in Galway"
-Mutations are often the only way to distinguish grammatical forms. For example, the only non-contextual way to distinguish [[pronoun#Possessive|possessive pronouns]] "her," "his" and "their", is through initial mutations since all meanings are represented by the same word ''a''.
+Mutations are often the only way to distinguish grammatical forms. For example, the only non-contextual way to distinguish [[pronoun#Possessive|possessive pronouns]] "her", "his" and "their", is through initial mutations since all meanings are represented by the same word {{lang|ga|a}}.
-* his shoe – ''{{lang|ga|a bhróg}}'' (lenition)
+* his shoe – {{lang|ga|a bhróg}} (lenition)
-* their shoe – ''{{lang|ga|a mbróg}}'' (eclipsis)
+* their shoe – {{lang|ga|a mbróg}} (eclipsis)
-* her shoe – ''{{lang|ga|a bróg}}'' (unchanged)
+* her shoe – {{lang|ga|a bróg}} (unchanged)
 Due to [[irish initial mutations|initial mutation]], [[prefix]]es, [[clitic]]s, [[suffix]]es, [[root (linguistics)|root]] [[inflection]], ending [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[elision]], [[sandhi]], [[epenthesis]], and [[assimilation (phonology)|assimilation]]; the beginning, core, and end of words can each change radically and even simultaneously depending on context.
@@ Line 576: / Line 599: @@
 {{Main|Irish orthography}}
 [[File:Badge of the Irish Defence Forces.svg|thumb|The official symbol of the Irish Defence Forces, showing a Gaelic typeface with dot diacritics]]
-Modern Irish traditionally used the [[ISO basic Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]] without the letters j, k, q, w, x, y and z. However, some Gaelicised words use those letters: for instance, "jeep" is written as "{{lang|ga|jíp}}" (the letter v has been naturalised into the language, although it is not part of the traditional alphabet, and has the same pronunciation as "bh"). One [[diacritic]] sign, the [[acute accent]] (''á é í ó ú''), known in Irish as the {{lang|ga|síneadh fada}} ("long mark"; plural: {{lang|ga|sínte fada}}), is used in the alphabet. In idiomatic English usage, this diacritic is frequently referred to simply as the {{lang|ga|fada}}, where the adjective is used as a noun. The ''fada'' serves to lengthen the sound of the vowels and in some cases also changes their quality. For example, in Munster Irish (Kerry), ''a'' is {{IPA|/a/}} or {{IPA|/ɑ/}} and ''á'' is {{IPA|/ɑː/}} in "father", but in Ulster Irish (Donegal), ''á'' tends to be {{IPA|/æː/}}.
+A native [[writing system]], [[Ogham]], was used to write Primitive Irish and Old Irish until [[Latin script]] was introduced in the 5th century [[Common Era|CE]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-languages/Irish|title=Celtic languages – Irish &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> Since the introduction of Latin script, the main [[typeface]] used to write Irish was [[Gaelic type]] until it was replaced by [[Roman type]] during the mid-20th century.
-Traditional orthography had an additional diacritic{{spaced ndash}}a [[dot (diacritic)|dot]] over some consonants to indicate [[lenition]]. In modern Irish, the letter h suffixed to a consonant indicates that the consonant is lenited. Thus, for example, '{{lang|ga|Gaelaċ}}' has become '{{lang|ga|Gaelach}}'. This [[dot (diacritic)|dot-above diacritic]], called a {{lang|ga|ponc séimhithe}} or {{lang|ga|sí buailte}} (often shortened to {{lang|ga|buailte}}), derives from the ''punctum delens'' used in medieval manuscripts to indicate deletion, similar to crossing out unwanted words in handwriting today. From this usage it was used to indicate the [[lenition]] of ''s'' (from {{IPA|/s/}} to {{IPA|/h/}}) and ''f'' (from {{IPA|/f/}} to [[null morpheme|zero]]) in [[Old Irish]] texts. Lenition of ''c'', ''p'', and ''t'' was indicated by placing the letter ''h'' after the affected consonant; lenition of ''b'', ''d'', ''g'', or ''m'' was left unmarked. Later, both {{lang|ga|buailte}} and postposed ''h'' were extended to be indicators of lenition of any sound except ''l'', ''n'', and ''r'', which could not be lenited. Eventually, use of the {{lang|ga|buailte}} predominated when texts were written using Gaelic letters, while the ''h'' predominated when writing using Roman letters.
+The traditional Irish [[alphabet]] ({{Lang|ga|áibítir}}) consists of 18 [[letter (alphabet)|letter]]s: {{vr|{{wrap|a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u}}}}; it does not contain {{vr|j, k, q, v, w, x, y, z}}.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46449130 |title=Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostai. |date=1999 |publisher=An Gúm |others=L. A. Ó hAnluain, Christian Brothers |isbn=1-85791-327-2 |edition=Eagrán nua |location=Baile Átha Cliath |oclc=46449130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Irish Orthography |url=http://www.nualeargais.ie/gnag/ortho.htm |access-date=23 October 2022 |website=www.nualeargais.ie}}</ref> However contemporary Irish uses the full Latin alphabet, with the previously unused letter used in modern [[loanword]]s; {{vr|v}} occurs in a small number of (mainly [[Onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]]) native words and [[colloquialism]]s.
-Today, [[Gaelic type]] and the {{lang|ga|buailte}} are rarely used except where a "traditional" style is required, e.g. the motto on the [[University College Dublin]] coat of arms<ref>UCD, {{cite web |url= http://www.ucd.ie/visualidentity/ucd_brand_guidelines.pdf |title= Brand Identity Guidelines |access-date= 19 April 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20051213085151/http://www.ucd.ie/visualidentity/ucd_brand_guidelines.pdf |archive-date= 13 December 2005 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}&nbsp;{{small|(1.8&nbsp;MB)}}. Retrieved 19 April 2020.</ref> or the symbol of the Irish Defence Forces, the [[Irish Defence Forces cap badge]] {{lang|ga|(Óglaiġ na h-Éireann)}}. Letters with the {{lang|ga|buailte}} are available in [[Unicode]] and [[ISO 8859-14|Latin-8]] [[character set]]s (see Latin Extended Additional chart and [[Dot (diacritic)]]).<ref>Unicode 5.0, {{cite web |url= https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1E00.pdf |title= Latin Extended Additional |access-date= 24 March 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180410091257/http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1E00.pdf |archive-date= 10 April 2018 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}&nbsp;{{small|(163&nbsp;KB)}}. Retrieved 13 October 2007.</ref> Postposed ''h'' has predominated due to its convenience and the lack of a character set containing the overdot before [[Unicode]], although extending the latter method to Roman letters would theoretically have the advantage of making Irish texts significantly shorter, particularly as a large portion of the ''h''-containing digraphs in a typical Irish text are silent (ex. the above ''{{lang|ga|Lughbhaidh}}'', the old spelling of Louth, which would become ''{{lang|ga|Luġḃaiḋ}}'').
+Vowels may be [[Diacritic|accented]] with an [[acute accent]] ({{vr|á, é, í, ó, ú}}; Irish and [[Hiberno-English]]: {{Lang|ga|(síneadh) fada}} "long (sign)"), but it is ignored for purposes of alphabetisation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Irish 'fada' to get legal protection – and must appear in all State IT systems and computer keyboards |url=https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/politics/irish-fadato-get-legal-protection-and-must-appear-in-all-state-it-systems-and-computer-keyboards-40631034.html |access-date=31 December 2022 |website=independent |date=8 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref> It is used, among other conventions, to mark [[Vowel length|long vowel]]s, e.g. {{vr|e}} is {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{vr|é}} is {{IPA|/eː/}}.
-===Spelling reform===
-Around the time of the [[Second World War]], Séamas Daltún, in charge of {{lang|ga|Rannóg an Aistriúcháin}} (the official translations department of the Irish government), issued his own guidelines about how to standardise Irish spelling and grammar. This de facto standard was subsequently approved by the State and called the Official Standard or {{lang|ga|Caighdeán Oifigiúil}}. It simplified and standardised the orthography. Many words had silent letters removed and vowel combination brought closer to the spoken language. Where multiple versions existed in different dialects for the same word, one or more were selected.
+The [[Dot (diacritic)#Overdot|overdot]] ({{Lang|ga|ponc séimhithe}} "dot of lenition") was used in traditional [[orthography]] to indicate [[lenition]]; An Caighdeán uses a following {{vr|h}} for this purpose, i.e. the dotted letters ({{lang|ga|litreacha buailte}} "struck letters") {{vr|{{wrap|ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ}}}} are equivalent to {{vr|{{wrap|bh, ch, dh, fh, gh, mh, ph, sh, th}}}}.
-Examples:
-* {{lang|ga|Gaedhealg / Gaedhilg(e) / Gaedhealaing / Gaeilic / Gaelainn / Gaoidhealg / Gaolainn}} →  {{lang|ga|Gaeilge}}, "Irish language"
-* {{lang|ga|Lughbhaidh}}  →  {{lang|ga|Lú}}, "Louth" (see [[County Louth Historic Names]])
-* {{lang|ga|Biadh}}  →  {{lang|ga|bia}}, "food"
+The use of Gaelic type and the overdot today is restricted to when a traditional style is consciously being used, e.g. {{lang|ga|Óglaiġ na h-Éireann}} on the [[Irish Defence Forces cap badge]] (see [[#Orthography|above]]). Extending the use of the overdot to Roman type would theoretically have the advantage of making Irish texts significantly shorter, e.g. {{lang|ga|gheobhaidh sibh}} "you (pl.) will get" would become {{lang|ga|ġeoḃaiḋ siḃ}}.
-The standard spelling does not necessarily reflect the pronunciation used in particular dialects. For example, in standard Irish, ''{{lang|ga|bia}}'', "food", has the genitive ''{{lang|ga|bia}}''. In Munster Irish, however, the genitive is pronounced {{IPA|/bʲiːɟ/}}.<ref>{{Cite book|title= An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego|first1=Aidan|last1=Doyle|first2=Edmund|last2=Gussmann|year= 2005|isbn= 83-7363-275-1|page= 412}}</ref> For this reason, the spelling {{lang|ga|biadh}} is still used by the speakers of some dialects, in particular those that show a meaningful and audible difference between {{lang|ga|biadh}} (nominative case) and {{lang|ga|bídh}} (genitive case) "of food, food's". In Munster the latter spelling regularly produces the pronunciation {{IPA|/bʲiːɟ/}} because final ''{{lang|ga|-idh, -igh}}'' regularly delenites to ''{{lang|ga|-ig}}'' in Munster pronunciation. Another example would be the word ''{{lang|ga|crua}}'', meaning "hard". This pronounced {{IPA|/kruəɟ/}}<ref>{{Cite book|title= An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego|first1=Aidan|last1=Doyle|first2=Edmund|last2=Gussmann|year= 2005|isbn= 83-7363-275-1|page= 417}}</ref> in Munster, in line with the pre-Caighdeán spelling, ''{{lang|ga|cruaidh}}''. In Munster, ''{{lang|ga|ao}}'' is pronounced {{IPA|/eː/}} and ''{{lang|ga|aoi}}'' pronounced {{IPA|/iː/}},<ref>{{Cite book|title= Teach Yourself Irish|author-link=Myles Dillon|first1=Myles|last1=Dillon|first2=Donncha|last2=Ó Cróinín|year= 1961|isbn= 0-340-27841-2|page= 6}}</ref> but the new spellings of ''{{lang|ga|saoghal}}'', "life, world", genitive: ''{{lang|ga|saoghail}}'', have become ''{{lang|ga|saol}}'', genitive ''{{lang|ga|saoil}}''. This produces irregularities in the match-up between the spelling and pronunciation in Munster, because the word is pronounced {{IPA|/sˠeːl̪ˠ/}}, genitive {{IPA|/sˠeːlʲ/}}.<ref>{{Cite book|title= An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego|first1=Aidan|last1=Doyle|first2=Edmund|last2=Gussmann|year= 2005|isbn= 83-7363-275-1|page= 432}}</ref>
+=== Spelling reform ===
-==See also==
+Around the time of the [[Second World War]], Séamas Daltún, in charge of {{ill|Rannóg an Aistriúcháin|ga}} (The Translation Department of the [[Irish government]]), issued his own guidelines about how to [[Standard language|standardise]] Irish [[spelling]] and [[grammar]]. This [[de facto]] standard was subsequently approved by the State and developed into {{lang|ga|[[an Caighdeán Oifigiúil]]}}, which simplified and standardised the orthography and grammar by removing inter-dialectal [[silent letter]]s and simplifying vowel combinations. Where multiple versions existed in different dialects for the same word, one was selected, for example:
+* {{lang|ga|beirbhiughadh}} → {{lang|ga|beiriú}} "cook"
+* {{lang|ga|biadh}} → {{lang|ga|bia}} "food"
+* {{lang|ga|Gaedhealg}} / {{lang|ga|Gaedhilg}} / {{lang|ga|Gaedhealaing}} / {{lang|ga|Gaeilic}} / {{lang|ga|Gaelainn}} / {{lang|ga|Gaoidhealg}} / {{lang|ga|Gaolainn}} → {{lang|ga|Gaeilge}} "Irish language"
+{{lang|ga|An Caighdeán}} does not reflect all dialects to the same degree, e.g. {{lang|ga|cruaidh}} {{IPA|/kɾˠuəj/}} "hard", {{lang|ga|leabaidh}} {{IPA|/ˈl̠ʲabˠəj/}} "bed", and {{lang|fa|tráigh}} {{IPA|/t̪ˠɾˠaːj/}} "beach" were standardised as {{lang|ga|crua}}, {{lang|ga|leaba}}, and {{lang|ga|trá}} despite the reformed spellings only reflecting South Connacht realisations {{IPA|[kɾˠuə], [ˈl̠ʲabˠə], and [t̪ˠɾˠaː]}}, failing to represent the other dialectal realisations {{IPA|[kɾˠui], [ˈl̠ʲabˠi], and [t̪ˠɾˠaːi]|}} (in Mayo and Ulster) or {{IPA|[kɾˠuəɟ], [ˈl̠ʲabˠəɟ], and [t̪ˠɾˠaːɟ]|}} (in Munster), which were previously represented by the pre-reformed spellings.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Doyle |first1=Aidan |title=An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego |last2=Gussmann |first2=Edmund |author-link2=Edmund Gussmann |year=2005 |isbn=83-7363-275-1 |page=417|publisher=Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego }}</ref> For this reason, the pre-reform spellings are used by some speakers to reflect the dialectal pronunciations.
+Other examples include the genitive of {{lang|ga|bia}} "food" ({{IPA|/bʲiə/}}; pre-reform {{lang|ga|biadh}}) and {{lang|ga|saol}} "life, world" ({{IPA|/sˠeːlˠ/}}; pre-reform {{lang|ga|saoghal}}), realised {{IPA|[bʲiːɟ]}} and {{IPA|[sˠeːlʲ]}} in Munster, reflecting the pre-Caighdeán spellings {{lang|ga|bídh}} and {{lang|ga|saoghail}}, which were standardised as {{lang|ga|bia}} and {{lang|ga|saoil}} despite not representing the Munster pronunciations.<ref>{{Cite book|title=An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego |first1=Aidan |last1=Doyle |first2=Edmund |last2=Gussmann |author-link2=Edmund Gussmann |year=2005 |isbn=83-7363-275-1 |page=412|publisher=Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Doyle |first1=Aidan |title=An Ghaeilge, Podręcznik Języka Irlandzkiego |last2=Gussmann |first2=Edmund |author-link2=Edmund Gussmann |year=2005 |isbn=83-7363-275-1 |page=432|publisher=Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego }}</ref>
+== Sample text ==
+'''Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'''
+{|
+|-
+|| '''Irish''': <br>{{lang|ga|Saolaítear gach duine den chine daonna saor agus comhionann i ndínit agus i gcearta. Tá bua an réasúin agus an choinsiasa acu agus ba cheart dóibh gníomhú i dtreo a chéile i spiorad an bhráithreachais.}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |publisher=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=gli1 }}</ref>
+|style="padding-left: 1em"| '''English''': <br> All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |publisher=[[United Nations]] }}</ref>
+|}
+== See also ==
 {{div col|colwidth=20em}}
 * {{lang|ga|[[Béarlachas]]}}, Anglicisms in Irish
 * {{lang|ga|[[Buntús Cainte]]}}, a course in basic spoken Irish
+* [[Comparison of Scottish Gaelic and Irish]]
 * {{lang|ga|[[Cumann Gaelach]]}}, Irish language Society
 * [[Dictionary of the Irish Language]]
-* [[Comparison of Scottish Gaelic and Irish]]
+* [[Fáinne]], a lapel pin for Irish speakers
 * [[Goidelic substrate hypothesis]]
 * [[Hiberno-Latin]], a variety of [[Medieval Latin]] used in Irish monasteries. It included Greek, Hebrew and Celtic neologisms.
+* [[Irish language outside Ireland]]
 * [[Irish name]] and [[Place names in Ireland]]
 * [[Irish words used in the English language]]
-* [[Irish (Junior Cert)|Irish]], a subject of the Junior Cycle examination in Secondary schools in the Republic of Ireland
+* [[Irish (Junior Cert)|Irish]], a subject of the Junior Cycle examination in Secondary schools in Ireland
-* {{lang|ga|[[Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge]]}}
-* [[List of Irish-language media]]
 * [[List of artists who have released Irish-language songs]]
 * [[List of English words of Irish origin]]
 * [[List of Ireland-related topics]]
 * [[List of Irish-language given names]]
+* [[List of Irish-language media]]
 * [[Modern literature in Irish]]
+* [[Status of the Irish language]], a detailed account of the current state of the language.
+* {{lang|ga|[[Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge]]}}
 {{div col end}}
-==Notes==
+== Notes ==
 {{notelist}}
-==References==
+== References ==
-===Citations===
+=== Citations ===
 {{Reflist}}
-===Bibliography===
+=== Bibliography ===
-{{refbegin}}
+{{refbegin|30em}}
+* McCabe, Richard A.. ''Spenser's Monstrous Regiment: Elizabethan Ireland and the Poetics of Difference''. [[Oxford University Press]] 2002. {{ISBN|0-19-818734-3}}.
-*Caerwyn Williams, J.E. & Ní Mhuiríosa, Máirín (ed.). ''{{lang|ga|Traidisiún Liteartha na nGael}}''. An Clóchomhar Tta 1979.
+* [[Raymond Hickey|Hickey, Raymond]]. ''The Dialects of Irish: Study of a Changing Landscape''. [[Walter de Gruyter]], 2011. {{ISBN|3110238306}}.
-*McCabe, Richard A.. ''Spenser's Monstrous Regiment: Elizabethan Ireland and the Poetics of Difference''. Oxford University Press 2002. {{ISBN|0-19-818734-3}}.
-*Hickey, Raymond. ''The Dialects of Irish: Study of a Changing Landscape''. Walter de Gruyter, 2011. {{ISBN|3110238306}}.
+* [[Raymond Hickey|Hickey, Raymond]]. ''The Sound Structure of Modern Irish''. [[De Gruyter Mouton]] 2014. {{ISBN|978-3-11-022659-1}}.
-*Hickey, Raymond. ''The Sound Structure of Modern Irish''. De Gruyter Mouton 2014. {{ISBN|978-3-11-022659-1}}.
+* De Brún, Pádraig. ''Scriptural Instruction in the Vernacular: The Irish Society and its Teachers 1818–1827''. [[Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies]] 2009. {{ISBN|978-1-85500-212-8}}
+* [[Aidan Doyle|Doyle, Aidan]], ''A History of the Irish Language: From the Norman Invasion to Independence'', Oxford, 2015.
-*De Brún, Pádraig. ''Scriptural Instruction in the Vernacular: The Irish Society and its Teachers 1818–1827''. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 2009. {{ISBN|978-1-85500-212-8}}
+* Fitzgerald, Garrett, 'Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117–1781 to 1861–1871,' Volume 84, ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy]]'' 1984.
-*Doyle, Aidan, ''A History of the Irish Language: From the Norman Invasion to Independence'', Oxford, 2015.
+* Garvin, Tom, ''Preventing the Future: Why was Ireland so poor for so long?'', [[Gill and MacMillan]], 2005.
-*Fitzgerald, Garrett, 'Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117-1781 to 1861–1871,’ Volume 84, ''Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy '' 1984.
+* Hindley, Reg (1991, new ed.). ''The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary''. [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-0-4150-6481-1}}
-*Garvin, Tom, ''Preventing the Future: Why was Ireland so poor for so long?'', Gill and MacMillan, 2005.
-*Hindley, Reg (1991, new ed.). ''The Death of the Irish Language: A Qualified Obituary''. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-4150-6481-1}}
+* McMahon, Timothy G.. ''Grand Opportunity: The Gaelic Revival and Irish Society, 1893–1910''. [[Syracuse University Press]] 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-8156-3158-3}}
+* Ó Gráda, Cormac. '{{lang|ga|Cé Fada le Fán}}' in ''Dublin Review of Books'', Issue 34, 6 May 2013: {{cite web|url=http://www.drb.ie/essays/c%C3%A9-fada-le-f%C3%A1n |title=CÉ FADA LE FÁN |website=Drb.ie |access-date=23 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011123934/http://www.drb.ie/essays/c%C3%A9-fada-le-f%C3%A1n |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=live}}
-*McMahon, Timothy G.. ''Grand Opportunity: The Gaelic Revival and Irish Society, 1893–1910''. Syracuse University Press 2008.  {{ISBN|978-0-8156-3158-3}}
+* Kelly, James & Mac Murchaidh, Ciarán (eds.). ''Irish and English: Essays on the Linguistic and Cultural Frontier 1600–1900''. [[Four Courts Press]] 2012. {{ISBN|978-1846823404}}
-*Ó Gráda, Cormac. '{{lang|ga|Cé Fada le Fán}}' in ''Dublin Review of Books'', Issue 34, 6 May 2013:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drb.ie/essays/c%C3%A9-fada-le-f%C3%A1n|title=CÉ FADA LE FÁN|website=Drb.ie|access-date=23 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011123934/http://www.drb.ie/essays/c%C3%A9-fada-le-f%C3%A1n|archive-date=11 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
+* Ní Mhunghaile, Lesa. 'An Eighteenth Century Irish scribe's private library: Muiris Ó Gormáin's books' in ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy]]'', Volume 110C, 2010, pp.&nbsp;239–276.
-*Kelly, James & Mac Murchaidh, Ciarán (eds.). ''Irish and English: Essays on the Linguistic and Cultural Frontier 1600–1900''. Four Courts Press 2012. {{ISBN|978-1846823404}}
+* Ní Mhuiríosa, Máirín. '{{lang|ga|Cumann na Scríbhneoirí: Memoir}}' in ''{{lang|ga|Scríobh 5}}'', ed. Seán Ó Mórdha. {{lang|ga|Baile Átha Cliath: An Clóchomhar Tta}} 1981.
-*Ní Mhunghaile, Lesa. 'An Eighteenth Century Irish scribe's private library: Muiris Ó Gormáin's books' in ''Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy'', Volume 110C, 2010, pp.&nbsp;239–276.
+* Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. ''Labhrann Laighnigh: Téacsanna agus Cainteanna ó Shean-Chúige Laighean''. Coiscéim 2011.
-*Ní Mhuiríosa, Máirín. ‘{{lang|ga|Cumann na Scríbhneoirí: Memoir}}’ in ''{{lang|ga|Scríobh 5}}'', ed. Seán Ó Mórdha. {{lang|ga|Baile Átha Cliath: An Clóchomhar Tta}} 1981.
+* Ó Laoire, Muiris. ''Language Use and Language Attitudes in Ireland'' in ''Multilingualism in European Bilingual Contexts : Language Use and Attitudes'', ed. David Lasagabaster and Ángel Huguet. Multilingual Matters Ltd. 2007. {{ISBN|1-85359-929-8}}
-*Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí. ''Labhrann Laighnigh: Téacsanna agus Cainteanna ó Shean-Chúige Laighean''. Coiscéim 2011.
+* Shibakov, Alexey. ''Irish Word Forms / Irische Wortformen''. epubli 2017. {{ISBN|9783745066500}}
-*Ó Laoire, Muiris. ''Language Use and Language Attitudes in Ireland' in ''Multilingualism in European Bilingual Contexts : Language Use and Attitudes'', ed. David Lasagabaster and Ángel Huguet. Multilingual Matters Ltd. 2007. {{ISBN|1-85359-929-8}}
+* Williams, J. E. Caerwyn & Ní Mhuiríosa, Máirín (ed.). ''{{lang|ga|Traidisiún Liteartha na nGael}}''. An Clóchomhar Tta 1979.
-*Shibakov, Alexey. ''Irish Word Forms / Irische Wortformen''. epubli 2017. {{ISBN|9783745066500}}
-*Williams, Nicholas. 'Na Canúintí a Theacht chun Solais' in ''{{lang|ga|Stair na Gaeilge}}'', ed. Kim McCone and others. Maigh Nuad 1994. {{ISBN|0-901519-90-1}}
+* Williams, Nicholas. 'Na Canúintí a Theacht chun Solais' in ''{{lang|ga|Stair na Gaeilge}}'', ed. Kim McCone and others. Maigh Nuad 1994. {{ISBN|0-901519-90-1}}
 {{refend|2}}
-==External links==
+== External links ==
+{{Sister project links|auto=1|the Irish language|wikt=Category:Irish language|iw=ga}}
-{{InterWiki|code=ga}}
-{{Sister project links
- |display=the Irish language
- |wikt=Category:Irish language |n=no |v=Irish |voy=Irish phrasebook}}
 {{Wikisourcelang|oldwikisource|Main Page/Gaeilge}}
 * [http://www.uni-due.de/DI/ Discover Irish]
-* [http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaeilge/english.html {{lang|ga|Gaeilge ar an ghréasán}} Irish online resources]
-* [http://www.gael-taca.com/ '{{lang|ga|Gael-Taca (Corcaigh)}}']
 * "[https://www.bbc.co.uk/irish/features/8/english/ Learning Irish?]," ''[[BBC]]''
-* "[https://web.archive.org/web/20111024191825/http://talkirish.com/ Social Network for learners, teachers and speakers],"
-* [http://www.gaelscoileanna.ie/index.php?page=about_us {{lang|ga|Gaelscoil}} stats]
 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100628023038/http://www.digitalaudioproductions.com/radio-shows/ {{lang|ga|Giotaí and Top 40 Offigiúla na hÉireann}} programmes]
 * [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Irish_Swadesh_list Irish Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix])
-* [http://www.ucd.ie/specialcollections/archives/irishdialect/ {{lang|ga|Cartlann na gCanúintí}} – Irish Dialect Archives]
-* [https://digital.ucd.ie/view/ivrla:990 Irish Dialect Archive Card Collection. A UCD Digital Library Collection.]
-* [https://digital.ucd.ie/view/ivrla:991 Irish Dialect Archive Manuscript Collection. A UCD Digital Library Collection.]
+=== Grammar and pronunciation ===
-===Literature===
-* [http://ga.bibles.org/gle-ABN/Gen/1 Extract from ''{{lang|ga|An Bíobla Naofa}}'' (the Bible in Irish), published by {{lang|ga|An Sagart}} in 1981]
-* [http://ga.bibles.org/gle-OC1970/Luke/1 Extract from the ''{{lang|ga|Tiomna Nua}}'' (New Testament) 1970, tr. Coslett Ó Cuinn, published by {{lang|ga|Cumann Gaelach na hEaglaise}}]
-* [http://ga.bibles.org/gle-BEDELL/Matt/1 Extract from ''{{lang|ga|An Bíobla Naomhtha}}'' (The Holy Bible), 16th–17th century translation done under the supervision of [[William Bedell]], republished in 1817 by the British and Foreign Bible Society]
-===Grammar and pronunciation===
 * [http://learn101.org/irish.php Learn Irish] Grammar with audio and pronunciation
 * [http://www.angaelmagazine.com/pronunciation/introduction.htm {{lang|ga|An Gael}} Magazine]&nbsp;– Irish Gaelic Arts, Culture, And History Alive Worldwide Today
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081004130355/http://www.miejipang-jpn2.net/untitled3.html A short Irish and Breton phrase list with Japanese translation(Renewal)] incl sound file
-* [http://nualeargais.ie/gnag/gram.htm Braesicke's {{lang|ga|Gramadach na Gaeilge}} (Engl. translation)]
-* [http://www.irishlanguageincountymayo.com/ Irish language in Mayo]
-* [[s:de:Die araner mundart|''Die araner mundart'']] (a phonological description of the dialect of the [[Aran Islands]] by F.&nbsp;N. Finck, from 1899)
-* [[s:en:A dialect of Donegal|''A dialect of Donegal'']] (a phonological description of the dialect of [[Glenties]] by [[E. C. Quiggin]], from 1906)
 * [http://www.abair.tcd.ie/?page=synthesis&lang=eng Trinity College Dublin The Irish Language Synthesiser]
-* [https://cruinneog.com/ {{lang|ga|Cruinneog}} – publishers of Irish grammar checker software {{lang|ga|Anois}}]
-===Dictionaries===
+=== Dictionaries ===
-* [http://acmhainn.ie/ {{lang|ga|Acmhainn.ie}} – Dictionary and terminology resource]
+* [http://teanglann.ie/ {{lang|ga|Teanglann.ie}} – Dictionaries and terminology resource]
 * [http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/search.html General Gaelic Dictionaries]
-* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111024191655/http://talkirish.com/dictionary/ Irish-English Audio/Image dictionary]
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+[[Category:Definitely endangered languages]]

Irish
Irish Gaelic Gaelic
Standard Irish: Gaeilge (na hÉireann)
Pronunciation	Connacht Irish: [ˈɡeːlʲɟə] Munster Irish: [ˈɡeːl̪ˠən̠ʲ] Ulster Irish: [ˈɡeːlʲəc]
Region	Ireland
Ethnicity	Irish people
Native speakers	L1: unknown People aged 3+ stating they could speak Irish "very well": (ROI, 2022) 195,029 Daily users outside education system: (ROI, 2022) 71,968 (NI, 2021) 43,557 L2: unknown People aged 3+ stating they could speak Irish: (ROI, 2022) 1,873,997 (NI, 2021) 228,600
Language family	Indo-European Celtic Insular Celtic Goidelic Irish
Early forms	Primitive Irish Old Irish Middle Irish Early Modern Irish
Standard forms	An Caighdeán Oifigiúil (written only)
Dialects	Connacht Irish Leinster Irish † Munster Irish Newfoundland † Ulster Irish
Writing system	Latin (Irish alphabet) Ogham (historically) Irish Braille
Official status
Official language in	Ireland^[a] Northern Ireland^[2] European Union
Language codes
ISO 639-1	`ga`
ISO 639-2	`gle`
ISO 639-3	`gle`
Glottolog	`iris1253`
ELP	Irish
Linguasphere	`50-AAA`
Proportion of respondents who said they could speak Irish in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland censuses of 2011
Irish is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (2010)
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Revision as of 10:00, 18 May 2024