Cannabis Ruderalis

thcscience_admin
1901 assassination of President William McKinley by Leon Czolgosz, using a concealed revolver, at the Pan-American Exposition reception in Buffalo, New York. McKinley died eight days later from his wounds.
File:Eric harris dylan klebold.jpg
Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold in the cafeteria at Columbine High School on April 20, 1999, shortly before committing suicide.

Gun violence in the United States is associated with the majority of homicides and over half the suicides,[1][2] and two-thirds of non-fatal violent injuries.[3] It is a significant public concern, especially in urban areas and in conjunction with youth activity and gang violence.[4][5] Gun violence is not new in the United States, with the assassinations of President Abraham Lincoln in 1865, and of Presidents James Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy. High profile gun violence incidents, such as the assassinations of Robert F. Kennedy, and Martin Luther King, Jr., and, more recently, the Columbine High School massacre and the Beltway sniper attacks, have also fueled debate over gun policies.[6]

The homicide rate in the United States of America is higher than that of other developed countries,[7][8][9] with firearms used to commit 68% of the 14,860 homicides in the United States during 2005.[10] Many more suffer non-fatal gunshot wounds, with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimating 52,447 violence-related and 23,237 accidental gunshot injuries in the United States during 2000.[3] The majority of gun-related deaths in the United States are suicides,[11] with firearms used in 16,907 suicides in the United States during 2004.[1]

Legal policies at the Federal, state, and local levels have attempted to address gun violence through a variety of methods, including restricting firearms purchasing by youths and other "at-risk" populations, setting waiting periods for firearm purchases, establishing gun "buy-back" programs, targeted law enforcement and policing strategies, stiff sentencing of gun law violators, education programs for parents and children, and community-outreach programs. Research has shown mixed results, finding some policies such as gun "buy-back" programs are entirely ineffective, while Boston's Operation Ceasefire is an example of an effective intervention strategy.[12] Gun policy in the United States is also highly influenced by the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution, which prohibits infringement of "the right of the people to keep and bear arms". Gun rights advocates generally encourage a strict preservation of the right protected by the Second Amendment. (See also: Gun politics in the United States).

Crime rates

Main article: Crime in the United States

Homicides

Overall homicide and gun homicide rates by country (2000) [13]
Homicides by weapon type, 1976-2004.[14]
Homicide offenders by age, 1976 - 2004.[15]
Gun and overall homicides in Washington, D.C. are concentrated in crime hot spots located in neighborhoods (including Shaw, Sursum Corda, Trinidad, Anacostia, and Congress Heights) with socio-economic disadvantage, while homicide is rare in other neighborhoods.

While people during the 19th century were concerned about violent crime, it often took the form of riots and other forms of disorder in cities.[16] Gun violence, however, often played a role in these riots (see Haymarket riot). Homicide rates in cities such as Philadelphia were significantly lower than in modern times.[17]

During the 1980s and early 1990s, homicide rates surged in cities across the United States (see graphs).[18] Handgun homicides accounted for nearly all of the overall increase in the homicide rate, from 1985 to 1993, while homicide rates involving other weapons declined during that timeframe.[19] The rising trend in homicide rates during the 1980s and early 1990s was most pronounced among youths and Hispanic and African American males in the United States, with the injury and death rates tripling for black males age 13-17 and doubling for black males age 18-24.[15][20] The rise in crack cocaine use in cities across the United States is often cited as a factor for increased gun violence among youths during this time period.[21][22][23]

Crime rates in the United States are similar to those of other developed countries, except for homicide which occurs at higher rates.[24][8][25] The percentage of homicides committed in the United States with firearms is also significantly higher than in other developed countries.[7][8][19] Nonetheless, many developing countries have higher rates of homicide and firearm usage in homicides, including Mexico, Brazil, South Africa, Thailand, Guatemala, Colombia, Estonia, and Russia.[19][26][7]

Prevalence of homicide and other violent crime is greatest in urban areas of the United States. In metropolitan areas, the homicide rate in 2005 was 6.1 per 100,000 compared with 3.5 in non-metropolitan counties.[27] In U.S. cities with populations greater than 250,000, the mean homicide rate was 12.1 per 100,000.[28] Rates of gun-related homicides are greatest in southern and western states.[29]

Homicide rates among 18-24 year-olds have declined since 1993, but remain higher than they were prior to the 1980s.[15] In 2005, the 17-24 age group remains significantly overrepresented in violent crime statistics, particularly homicides involving firearms.[30] In 2005, 17-19 year olds were 4.3% of the overall population of the United States;[31] This same age group accounted for 11.2% of those killed by firearm homicides.[2] This age group also accounted for 10.6% of all homicide offenses.[32] The 20-24 year old age group accounted for 7.1% of the population,[31] while accounting for 22.5% of those killed by firearm homicides.[2] The 20-24 age group also accounted for 17.7% of all homicide offenses.[32] Those under age 17 are not overrepresented in homicide statistics. In 2005, 13-16 year olds accounted for 6% of the overall population of the United States, but only accounted for 3.6% of firearm homicide victims,[2] and 2.7% of overall homicide offenses.[32]

People with a criminal record are also more likely to die as homicide victims.[20] Between 1990 and 1994, 75% of all homicide victims age 21 and younger in the city of Boston had a prior criminal record.[33] In Philadelphia, the percentage of those killed in gun homicides that had prior criminal records increased from 73% in 1985 to 93% in 1996.[20][34] In Richmond, Virginia, the risk of gunshot injury is 22 times higher for those males involved with crime.[35]

In 2005, 75% of the 10,100 homicides committed using firearms in the United States were committed using handguns, compared to 4% with rifles, 5% with shotguns, and the rest with a type of firearm not specified.[36] Due to the lethal potential that a gun brings to a situation, the likelihood that a death will result is significantly increased when either the victim or the attacker has a gun.[37] The mortality rate for gunshot wounds to the heart is 84%, compared to 30% for people who sustain stab wounds to the heart.[38]

Further information: Gun violence in the United States by state

Assassinations and attempted assassinations of U.S. Presidents

The most notable assassination victim in early U.S. history was President Abraham Lincoln in 1865. President Lincoln lived only a few hours after being hit by a single .44-caliber handgun round fired by John Wilkes Booth.[39] Presidents James Garfield and William McKinley were both assassinated with handguns; Garfield was killed by an assailant using a .44-caliber handgun; McKinley was killed by two rounds fired from a .32-caliber revolver.[39] President John F. Kennedy was murdered by Lee Harvey Oswald who used a bolt-action Carcano M1891/38 rifle in 6.5 x 52 mm. Presidents Andrew Jackson and Harry S. Truman were uninjured during assassination attempts, as was Gerald Ford in two separate attempts only a few weeks apart. Ronald Reagan survived an assassination attempt after being shot by John Hinckley, Jr. with a Rohm RG-14 .22-caliber revolver, and is the only sitting President to survive a gunshot wound. Former President Theodore Roosevelt was shot and wounded during the 1912 presidential campaign. One attempt on the life of Franklin D. Roosevelt was also made, though he was still President-elect and had yet to be sworn into office. Aside from the assassination of Kennedy, in which a rifle was used, all other assassinations and attempted assassinations involved assailants using handguns.

Other violent crime

In the United States, a quarter of commercial robberies are committed with guns.[40] Robberies committed with guns are three times as likely to result in fatalities compared with robberies where other weapons were used,[40][41][42] with similar patterns in cases of family violence.[43] Criminologist Philip J. Cook, a leading expert on gun violence, hypothesizes that if guns were less available, criminals may likely commit the crime anyway but with less-lethal weapons.[9] He finds that the level of gun ownership in the 50 largest U.S. cities correlates with the rate of robberies committed with guns, but not overall robbery rates.[44][45] A significant number of homicides result as a by-product of another violent crime which escalates, with the offender going into the crime without a clear or sustained intent to kill or be killed.[42][46] Overall robbery and assault rates in the United States are also comparable to other developed countries, such as Australia and Finland, notwithstanding the much lower levels of gun ownership in those countries.[9][46]

See also Assault with a deadly weapon

Suicides involving firearms

Some research shows an association between household firearm ownership and gun suicide rates,[12][47] while other research indicates no such association between firearm ownership and gun suicide rates.[48][49] During the 1980s and early 1990s, there was a strong upward trend in adolescent suicides with a gun,[20] as well as a sharp overall increase in a suicides among those age 75 and over.[50] Firearms remain the most common method of suicide, accounting for 53.7% of all suicides committed in the United States during 2003.[51]

Gun ownership

The General Social Survey (GSS) is a primary source for data on firearm ownership, with surveys periodically done by other organizations such as Harris Interactive.[52] In 2004, 36.5% of Americans reported having a gun in their home, which is down from 46% as reported in 1989.[53] Philip J. Cook suggests that increased numbers of female-headed households may be a factor in declining household ownership figures.[19] A National Survey on Private Ownership and Use of Firearms (NSPOF), conducted in 1994, indicates that Americans own 192 million guns, with 36% of these consisting of rifles, 34% handguns, 26% shotguns, and 4% other types of long guns.[54] Most firearm owners own multiple firearms, with the NSPOF survey indicating 25% of adults own firearms.[54] In the United States, 11% of households report actively being involved in hunting,[53] with the remaining firearm owners having guns for self protection and other reasons. Throughout the 1970s and much of the 1980s, the rate of gun ownership in the home ranged from 45-50%.[53] Gun ownership also varies across geographic regions, ranging from 25% rates of ownership in the Northeastern United States to 60% rates of ownership in the East South Central States.[55] The GSS survey and other proxy measures of gun ownership do not provide adequate macro-level detail to allow conclusions on the relationship between overall firearm ownership and gun violence.[19] Criminologist Gary Kleck compared various survey and proxy measures and found no correlation between overall firearm ownership and gun violence.[48]

Self protection

Between 1987 and 1990, David McDowall found that guns were used in defense during a crime incident 64,615 times annually.[56] This equates to two times out of 1,000 incidents (0.2%) that occurred in this time frame.[56] For violent crimes (assault, robbery, and rape), guns were used 0.83% of the time in self defense.[56] Of the times that guns were used in self defense, 71% of the crimes were committed by strangers, with the rest of the incidents evenly divided between offenders that were acquaintances or persons well known to the victim.[56] Of all incidents where a gun was used for self defense, victims shot at the offender 28% of the time.[56] In 20% of the self defense incidents, the guns were used by police officers.[56] During the same time period, there were 46,319 gun homicides,[57] and the National Crime Victimization Survey estimates that 2,628,532 nonfatal crimes involving guns occurred.[56]

The findings of the McDowall study contrast with the findings of a 1993 study by Gary Kleck, who finds that as many as 2.45 million crimes are thwarted each year in the United States, and in most cases, the potential victim never fires a shot in these cases where firearms are used constructively for self protection. [58] The results of the Kleck studies have been cited many times in scholarly and popular media.[59]

McDowell cites methodological issues with the Kleck studies, which used a very small sample size and did not confine self defense to attempted victimizations where physical attacks had already commenced.[56] A study of gun use in the 1990s, by David Hemenway at the Harvard Injury Control Research Center, found that criminal use of guns is far more common than self defense use of guns.[60] By the Kleck study, however, most successful preventions of victimizations are accomplished without a shot being fired, which are not counted as a self-defense firearm usage by either the Hemenway or McDowell studies.[61][56][60]

Public policy

Main article: Gun politics in the United States

Research and statistics have shown that guns intensify crime situations, and increase the likelihood of a more violent or lethal outcome.[9] Public policy approaches generally focus on ways that law enforcement and regulatory agencies may intervene.[9] This includes intervention when a gun is acquired, as with policies prohibiting youths and those with criminal records from buying guns.[9] Policies can also make it more difficult for guns to be brought to a crime scene, as in restriction or regulation of who may carry concealed weapons.[9] Policies can also focus on use, by mandating increased sentences for those who use guns in crime, or by requiring guns to have certain safety features.[9]

Gun control proponents often cite the relatively high number of homicides committed with firearms as reason to support stricter gun control laws.[62] Firearm laws are a subject of great debate in the United States, with firearms also widely used for recreational purposes, and for personal protection.[12] Gun rights advocates cite the use of firearms for self protection and to deterre violent crime as reasons why more guns can reduce crime.[63] Gun rights advocates also say criminals are the least likely to obey firearms laws, and so limiting access to guns by law abiding people makes them more vulnerable to armed crimanals.[56]

Criminologist Philip J. Cook argues for public policy goals of keeping guns out of violent encounters, and recommends approaches that limit the availability of guns to high-risk groups and the accessibility of guns in volatile situations.[9] Cook suggests measures such as background checks for gun purchasers; banning small, easily-concealed handguns; intensive enforcement of illegal gun carrying; and tougher sentences imposed on those convicted of using a gun in a crime.[9]

Access to guns

The most common type of gun confiscated by police and traced by the ATF are .38 special revolvers, such as this Smith and Wesson Model 60 .38 Special revolver with a 3-inch barrel.[64]

U.S. policy aims to maintain the right of legitimate users to own most types of firearms, while restricting access to firearms by those individuals in high risk groups.[9] Gun dealers in the United States are prohibited from selling handguns to those under age 21, and long guns to those under age 18 (21 in Illinois).[9] There are also restrictions on selling guns to out-of-state residents.[9]

Assuming access to guns, the top ten types of guns involved in crime in the U.S. show a definite trend in favoring handguns over long guns. The top ten guns used in crime, as reported by the ATF in 1993, included the Smith & Wesson .38 Special and .357 revolvers; Raven Arms .25 caliber, Davis P-380 .380 caliber, Ruger .22 caliber, Lorcin L-380 .380 caliber, and Smith & Wesson semi-automatic handguns; Mossberg and Remington 12 gauge shotguns; and the Tec DC-9.[65] An earlier 1985 study of 1,800 incarcerated felons showed that criminals prefer revolvers and other non-semi-automatic firearms over semi-automatic firearms.[66] In Pittsburgh, a change in preferences towards pistols occurred in the early 1990s, coinciding with the arrival of crack cocaine and rise of violent youth gangs.[67] Background checks in California, during 1998 to 2000, resulted in 1% of sales being initially denied.[68] The types of guns most often denied included semiautomatic pistols with short barrels and of medium caliber.[68]

Among juveniles (i.e., minors under the age of 16, 17, or 18, depending on legal jurisdiction) serving in correctional facilities, 86% owned a gun at some point, with 66% acquiring their first gun by age 14.[5] There is also a tendency for juvenile offenders to own many firearms, with 65% owning three or more.[5] Juveniles most often acquire guns from family, friends, drug dealers, and street contacts.[5] Inner-city youths cite "self-protection from enemies" as the top reason for carrying a gun.[5] In Rochester, New York, 22% of young males have carried an illegal gun, though most for only a short period of time.[69] There is little overlap between legal gun ownership and illegal gun carrying among youths.[69]

Firearms market

Source of firearms possessed by Federal inmates, 1997[70]

Policy that is targeted at the supply side of the firearms market is based on limited research, with this an active area of ongoing research.[12] One important consideration is that only 60-70% of firearms sales in the United States are transacted through federally licensed firearm dealers, with the remainder taking place in the "secondary market".[71][72] Most sales to youths and convicted felons take place in the "secondary market", in which previously-owned firearms are transferred by unlicensed individuals.[73][74] Access to "secondary markets" is generally less convenient and involves such risks as the gun perhaps having been used previously in a homicide.[75] The sale of firearms at gun shows exploits the legality of unlicensed private sales of firearms from their owner's private collection, which some view as a loophole in the law.[6] Unlicensed private sellers are permitted by law to sell privately-owned guns at gun shows, or at private locations, in 24 states (as of 1998).[76] Regulations that limit the number of handgun sales in the primary, regulated market to one handgun a month per customer have been shown to be effective at reducing illegal gun trafficking by reducing the supply into the "secondary market".[77] Taxes on firearms and ammunition purchases are another means for government to influence the primary market.[78]

ATF inspector at a federally licensed gun dealer

Federally licensed firearm dealers in the primary (new and used gun) market are regulated by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF). Firearm manufacturers are required to put serial numbers on all new firearms. This allows the ATF to trace guns involved in crimes back to their last Federal Firearms License (FFL) reported change of ownership transaction, although not past the first private sale involving any particular gun. A report by the ATF released in 1999, found that 0.4 percent of federally-licensed dealers sold approximately half of the guns used criminally in 1996 and 1997.[6][79] This is sometimes done through "straw purchases".[6] State laws, such as those in Virginia and California, that restrict the number of gun purchases in a month may help stem such "straw purchases".[6] An estimated 500,000 guns are also stolen each year, allowing them to get into the hands of prohibited users.[78][71] During the ATF's Youth Crime Gun Interdiction Initiative (YCGII), which involved expanded tracing of firearms recovered by law enforcement agencies,[80] only 18% of guns used criminally that were recovered in 1998 were in possession of the original owner.[81] Guns recovered by police during criminal investigations often have been previously sold by legitimate retail sales outlets to legal owners and then diverted to criminal use over elapsed times ranging from just a few months to just a few years,[81][82][83] which makes them relatively new compared with firearms in general circulation.[78][84]

Federal legislation

The first Federal legislation related to firearms was the Second Amendment, ratified in 1791. For 143 years, this was the only Federal legislation regarding firearms. The next Federal firearm legislation was the National Firearms Act of 1934. This Act created regulations for the sale of firearms, established taxes on their sale, and required registration of some types of firearms such as machine guns.[85]

In the aftermath of the Robert F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr. assassinations, the Gun Control Act of 1968 was enacted. This Act regulated gun commerce, restricting mail order sales and allowing shipments only to licensed firearm dealers. The Act also prohibited felons, those under indictment, fugitives, illegal aliens, drug users, those dishonorably discharged from the military, and those in mental institutions from owning guns.[9] The law also restricted importation of Saturday night specials and other types of guns, and limited the sale of automatic weapons and semi-automatic weapons conversion kits.[6]

The Firearm Owners Protection Act, also known as the McClure-Volkmer Act, was passed in 1986. It changed some restrictions in the 1968 Act, allowing federally-licensed gun dealers, as well as individual unlicensed private sellers, to sell at gun shows, while continuing to require licensed gun dealers to require background checks.[6] The 1986 Act also restricted the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms from conducting repetitive inspections, reduced the amount of recordkeeping required of gun dealers, raised the burden of proof for convicting gun law violators, and changed restrictions on convicted felons from owning firearms.[6]

In the years following the passage of the Gun Control Act of 1968, people buying guns were required to show identification and sign a statement affirming that they were not in any of the prohibited categories.[9] Many states enacted background check laws that went beyond the federal requirements.[86] The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act passed by Congress in 1993 imposed a waiting period before the purchase of a handgun, allowing a background check.[87] The Brady Act also required the establishment of a national system to provide instant criminal background checks, with checks to be done by firearms dealers.[88] Restrictions, such as waiting periods, are opposed by many, who argue that they impose costs and inconveniences on legitimate gun purchasers, such as hunters.[78]

AK47 assault rifle

The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, enacted in 1994, included the Federal Assault Weapons Ban, and was a response to public concern over mass shootings.[89] This provision prohibited the manufacture and importation of some military-style semiautomatic firearms, as well as magazines holding more than ten rounds.[89] A grandfather clause was included that allowed firearms manufactured before 1994 to remain legal. A short-term evaluation by University of Pennsylvania criminologists, Christopher S. Koper and Jeffrey A. Roth, did not find any clear impact of this legislation on gun violence.[90] However, Koper and Roth cite the grandfather clause and the infrequent use of these weapons in crimes as factors limiting the effectiveness of the ban, making it difficult to discern an effect.[90] Given the short study time period of the evaluation, the National Academy of Sciences also advised caution in drawing any conclusions.[78] In September 2004, the assault weapon ban expired, with its sunset clause.[91]

The Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban, 'the Lautenberg Amendment' , prohibited anyone previously convicted of a misdemeanor crime of domestic violence from owning a firearm.[92] It also banned shipment, transport, ownership and use of guns or ammunition by individuals convicted of misdemeanor or felony domestic violence. This law also outlawed the sale or gift of a firearm or ammunition to such a person. It was passed in 1996, and became effective in 1997. Some opponents believe that the law conflicts with the right to bear arms protected by the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution, and this law has modified the Second Amendment to a revocable privilege from a fundamental protection. Opponents of this law tend to describe the law by the name 'the Lautenberg Amendment' . The law applies to everyone, including police officers and military personnel, and can cause difficulties by prohibiting active duty military and police from carrying guns, due to prior civilian misdemeanor convictions. [3]

In the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, police and National Guard units in New Orleans confiscated firearms from private citizens in an attempt to prevent violence. In reaction, Congress passed the Disaster Recovery Personal Protection Act of 2006 in the form of an amendment to Department of Homeland Security Appropriations Act, 2007. Section 706 of the Act prohibits federal employees and those receiving federal funds from confiscating legally-possessed firearms during a disaster.[93]

State legislation

Main article: Gun (Firearm) laws in the United States (by state)

Right-to-carry

Right-to-carry laws expanded in the 1990's as homicide rates from gun violence in the United States increased, largely in response to incidents such as the Luby's massacre of 1991 in Texas which directly resulted in the passage of a carrying concealed weapon, or CCW, law in Texas in 1995.[94] As Rorie Sherman, staff reporter for the National Law Journal wrote in an article published on April 18, 1994, "It is a time of unparalleled desperation about crime. But the mood is decidedly 'I'll do it myself' and 'Don't get in my way.'"[95]

The result was laws that permitted persons to carry firearms openly, known as open carry, often without any permit required, in 22 states by 1998. [96] Laws that permitted persons to carry concealed handguns, sometimes termed a concealed handgun license, CHL, in some jurisdictions instead of CCW, existed in 34 states in the United States by 2004.[12] Since then, the number of states with CCW laws has increased; as of late 2006, 48 states have some form of CCW laws on the books. [97]

Economist John Lott has argued that right-to-carry laws create a perception that more potential crime victims might be carrying firearms, and thus serve as a deterrent against crime.[98] Lott's study has been criticized for not adequately controlling for other factors, including other state laws also enacted, such as Florida's laws requiring background checks and waiting period for handgun buyers.[99] When Lott's data was re-analyzed by some researchers, the only statistically significant effect of concealed-carry laws found was an increase in assaults,[99] with similar findings by Jens Ludwig.[100] Since concealed-carry permits are only given to adults, Philip J. Cook suggests that analysis should focus on the relationship with adult and not juvenile gun incident rates.[9] He finds a small, positive effect of concealed-carry laws on adult homicide rates, but states the effect is not statistically significant.[9] The National Academy of Science has found no evidence that shows right-to-carry laws have an impact, either way, on rates of violent crime.[12] NAS suggests that new analytical approaches and datasets at the county or local level are needed to evaluate adequately the impact of right-to-carry laws.[101]

Child Access Prevention (CAP)

Child Access Prevention (CAP) laws, enacted by many states, require parents to store firearms safely, to minimize access by children to guns, while maintaining ease of access by adults.[102] CAP laws hold gun owners liable should a child gain access to a loaded gun that is not properly stored.[102] In most states, CAP law violations are considered misdemeanors.[102] Florida's CAP law, enacted in 1989, permits felony prosecution of violators.[102] Research indicates that CAP laws have reduced unintentional gun deaths by 23%,[103] and gun suicides among those age 14-17 by 11%.[104] A study by Lott did not detect a relationship between CAP laws and accidental gun deaths or suicides among those age 19 and under between 1979 and 1996.[105] The National Bureau of Economic Research has found that CAP laws reduce non-fatal gun injuries among both children and adults by 30-40%.[102] Research also indicates that CAP laws are most effective in states where violations are considered felonies, whereas in states that consider violations as misdemeanors, the impact of CAP laws is not statistically significant.[106]

Local restrictions

Some local jurisdictions in the United States have more restrictive laws, such as Washington, D.C.'s Firearms Control Regulations Act, enacted in 1976, that bans residents from owning handguns. New York City is also known for its strict gun control laws. Despite local laws, guns are often trafficked into these cities from other parts of the United States, particularly the southern states.[79][107] Results from the ATF's Youth Crime Gun Interdiction Initiative indicate that the percentage of imported guns involved in crimes is tied to the stringency of local firearm laws.[80]

Prevention programs

Violence prevention and educational programs have been established in many schools and communities across the United States. These programs aim to change personal behavior of both children and their parents, encouraging children to stay away from guns, ensure parents store guns safely, and encourage children to solve disputes without resorting to violence.[108] Programs aimed at altering behavior range from passive (requiring no effort on part of the individual) to active (supervising children, or placing a trigger lock on a gun).[108] The more effort required of people, the more difficult it is to implement a prevention strategy.[109][110] Prevention strategies focused on modifying the situational environment and the firearm itself may be more effective.[108] Empirical evaluation of gun violence prevention programs has been limited.[12] Of the evaluations that have been done, results indicate such programs have minimal effectiveness.[108]

Gun safety parent counseling

One of the most widely used parent counseling programs is Steps to Prevent Firearm Injury program (STOP), which was developed in 1994 by the Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence.[108] STOP was superseded by STOP 2 in 1998, which has a broader focus including more communities and health care providers.[108] STOP has been evaluated and found not to have a significant effect on gun ownership or firearm storage practices by inner-city parents.[111] Marjorie S. Hardy suggests further evaluation of STOP is needed, as this evaluation had a limited sample size and lacked a control group.[108]

Children

Prevention programs geared towards children have also not been greatly successful.[108] Many inherent challenges arise when working with children, including their tendency to perceive themselves as invulnerable to injury,[112] limited ability to apply lessons learned,[113][114] their innate curiosity,[113] and peer pressure that may encourage reckless behavior.[113]

The goal of gun safety programs, usually administered by local firearms dealers and shooting clubs, is to teach older children and adolescents how to handle firearms safely.[108] There has been no systematic evaluation of the effect of these programs on children.[108] For adults, no positive effect on gun storage practices has been found as a result of these programs.[115][116] Also, researchers have found that gun safety programs for children may likely increase a child's interest in obtaining and using guns, which they cannot be expected to use safely all the time, even with training.[117]

Another approach taken is gun avoidance. The Eddie Eagle Gun Safety Program, administered by the National Rifle Association (NRA), is geared towards younger children from pre-kindergarden to Grade 6, and teaches kids that real guns are not toys by emphasizing a "just say no" approach.[108] Other programs include Straight Talk about Risks (STAR), administered by the Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence, and Hands without Guns, run by the Joshua Horwitz Educational Fund to End Handgun Violence.[108]

Community programs

Programs targeted at entire communities, such as gun-free school zones, community revitalization, after-school programs, and media campaigns, may be more effective in reducing the general level of violence that children are exposed to.[118][119] Community-based programs that have specifically targeted gun violence include Safe Kids/Healthy Neighborhoods Injury Prevention Program in New York City,[120][121] and Safe Homes and Havens in Chicago.[108] Evaluation of such community-based programs is difficult, due to many confounding factors and the multifaceted nature of such programs.[108]

Intervention programs

Sociologist James D. Wright suggests that to convince inner-city youths not to carry guns "requires convincing them that they can survive in their neighborhood without being armed, that they can come and go in peace, that being unarmed will not cause them to be victimized, intimidated, or slain."[5]

Intervention programs, such as Operation Ceasefire in Boston and Project Exile in Richmond, Virginia during the 1990s, have been shown to be effective.[12][122] Other intervention strategies, such as gun "buy-back" programs have been demonstrated to be ineffective.[78]

Gun "buy-back" programs

Gun "buy-back" programs are a strategy aimed at influencing the firearms market by taking guns off the streets.[78] Gun "buy-back" programs have been shown to be ineffective,[123][124] with the National Academy of Sciences citing theory underlying these programs as "badly flawed".[78] Guns surrendered tend to be those least likely to be involved in crime, such as old, malfunctioning guns with little resale value, muzzleloading or other blackpowder guns, antiques chambered for obsolete cartridges that are no longer commercially manufactured or sold, or guns that individuals inherit but have little value in possessing.[125] Other limitations of gun "buy-back" programs include the fact that it is relatively easy to obtain gun replacements, often of better guns than were relinquished in the "buy-back".[78] Also, the number of handguns used in crime (approximately 7,500 per year) is very small compared to the approximately 70 million handguns in the United States (i.e., 0.011%).[78]

Operation Ceasefire

In 1995, Operation Ceasefire was established in Boston, as a strategy for stemming the epidemic of youth gun violence in Boston. Violence was particularly concentrated in poor, inner-city neighborhoods including Roxbury, Dorchester, and Mattapan.[126] There were 22 youths (under age 24) killed in Boston in 1987, with that figure rising to 73 in 1990.[126] Operation Ceasefire entailed a problem-oriented policing approach, and focused on specific places that were crime hot spots — two strategies that when combined have been shown to be quite effective.[127] Particular focus was placed on two elements of the gun violence problem, including illicit gun trafficking[128] and gang violence.[126] Within two years of implementing Operation Ceasefire in Boston, the number of youth homicides dropped to ten, with only one handgun-related youth homicide occurring in 1999 and 2000.[6] The Operation Ceasefire strategy has since been replicated in other cities, including Los Angeles.[129]

Project Exile

Federally-supported gun violence intervention program

Project Exile, conducted in Richmond, Virginia during the 1990's, was a coordinated effort involving Federal, state, and local officials that targeted gun violence. The strategy entailed prosecution of gun violations in Federal courts, where sentencing guidelines were tougher. Project Exile also involved outreach and education efforts through media campaigns, getting the message out about the crackdown.[130] Project Exile was evaluated and shown to be effective, however researchers also point out that Richmond might have experienced declining homicide trends anyway during the evaluation period, owing to overall national trends.[130]

Project Safe Neighborhoods

Project Safe Neighborhoods (PSN) is a national strategy for reducing gun violence that builds on the strategies implemented in Operation Ceasefire and Project Exile.[131] PSN was established in 2001, with support from the Bush administration, channelled through the United States Attorney's Offices in the United States Department of Justice. The Federal government has spent over $1.5 billion since the program's inception on the hiring of prosecutors, and providing assistance to state and local jurisdictions in support of training and community outreach efforts.[132][133]

Research limitations

In the United States, research into firearms and violent crime is fraught with difficulties, associated with limited data on gun ownership and use,[55] firearms markets, and aggregation of crime data.[12] Research studies into gun violence have primarily taken one of two approaches: case-control studies and social ecology.[12] Gun ownership is usually determined through surveys, proxy variables, and sometimes with production and import figures.[19] In statistical analysis of homicides and other types of crime which are rare events, these data tend to have poisson distributions, which also presents methodological challenges to researchers. With data aggregation, it is difficult to make inferences about individual behavior.[134] This problem, known as ecological fallacy, is not always handled properly by researchers, leading some to jump to conclusions that their data do not necessarily support.[135]

Notes and references

  1. ^ a b "Self-inflicted Injury/Suicide". National Center for Health Statistics. Retrieved 2006-11-06.
  2. ^ a b c d "Expanded Homicide Data Table 3, Murder Victims by Age by Weapon, 2005".
  3. ^ a b "WISQARS Nonfatal Injury Reports". National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Retrieved 2006-11-10.
  4. ^ Bjerregaard, Beth, Alan J. Lizotte (1995). "Gun Ownership and Gang Membership". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 86(1): pp. 37-58. NCJ 162688. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ a b c d e f Wright, James D., Joseph F. Sheley, and M. Dwayne Smith (1992). "Kids, Guns, and Killing Fields". Society. 30(1). NCJ 140211.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Rushefsky, Mark E. (2002). "Criminal Justice: To Ensure Domestic Tranquility (Chapter 7)". Public Policy in the United States: At the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century. M.E. Sharpe, Inc.
  7. ^ a b c "The Seventh United Nations Survey on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (1998 - 2000)". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Retrieved 2006-11-08.
  8. ^ a b c "Firearm Crimes, Canada Vs. U.S." Canada Firearms Centre.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Cook, Philip J., Jens Ludwig (2000). "Chapter 3". Gun Violence: The Real Costs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513793-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ "Expanded Homicide Data Table 6 - Murder, Types of Weapons Used Percent Distribution within Region, 2005". Federal Bureau of Investigation.
  11. ^ U.S. Center for Disease Control, National Center for Injury Prevention & Control, 2003 [1]
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Committee on Law and Justice (2004). "Executive Summary". Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. National Academy of Science.
  13. ^ "The Seventh United Nations Survey on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (1998 - 2000)". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Retrieved 2006-11-08.
  14. ^ "Homicide trends in the U.S. - Weapons used". Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  15. ^ a b c "Homicide trends in the U.S. - Age trends". Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  16. ^ Friedman, Lawrence M. (1993). "Chapter 8: Lawful Law and Lawless Law: Forms of American Violence". Crime and Punishment in American History. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-01461-5.
  17. ^ Lane, Roger (1999). Violent Death in the City: Suicide, Accident, and Murder in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0-8142-5021-1.
  18. ^ Fox, James Alan, Marianne W. Zawitz. "Homicide trends in the United States". Bureau of Justice Statistics.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ a b c d e f Committee on Law and Justice (2004). "Chapter 3". Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. National Academy of Science.
  20. ^ a b c d Cook, Philip J., Jens Ludwig (2000). "Chapter 2". Gun Violence: The Real Costs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513793-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Cork, Daniel (1999). "Examining Time-Space Interaction in City-Level Homicide Data: Crack Markets and the Diffusion of Guns Among Youth". Journal of Quantitative Criminology. 15: pp. 379-406. NCJ 180974. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  22. ^ Grogger, Jeff, Mike Willis (1998). "The Introduction of Crack Cocaine and the Rise of Urban Crime Rates". National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 6352. National Bureau of Economic Research. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Blumstein, Alfred (1995). "Youth Violence, Guns and the Illicit-Drug Industry". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 86(1): pp. 10-36. NCJ 162687. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  24. ^ "Crime comparisons between Canada and the United States". Statistics Canada.
  25. ^ Fingerhut, L.A., J. C. Kleinman (1990). "International and interstate comparisons of homicide among young males". Journal of the American Medical Association. 263(24). NCJ 161685.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ Krug, E.G, K.E. Powell, L.L. Dahlberg (1998). "Firearm-related deaths in the United States and 35 other high- and upper-middle income countries". International Journal of Epidemiology. 7: pp. 214-221. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ "Crime in the United States by Community Type, 2005". Federal Bureau of Investigation.
  28. ^ "Rate: Number of Crimes per 100,000 Inhabitants by Population Group, 2005". Federal Bureau of Investigation.
  29. ^ "Murder, Types of Weapons Used Percent Distribution within Region, 2005". Federal Bureau of Investigation.
  30. ^ Butts, Jeffrey A., Howard N. Snyder (November 2006). "Too Soon to Tell: Deciphering Recent Trends in Youth Violence". Issue Brief. Chapin Hall Center for Children, University of Chicago. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ a b "American Fact Finder". United States Census Bureau.
  32. ^ a b c "Expanded Homicide Data Table 3, Murder Offenders by Age, Sex, and Race, 2005".
  33. ^ Kennedy, David M., Anne M. Piehl, Anthony A. Braga (1996). "Youth Violence in Boston: Gun Markets, Serious Youth Offenders, and a Use-Reduction Strategy". Law and Contemporary Problems. 59(1): pp. 147-183. NCJ 162687. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ McGonigal, Michael D., John Cole, C. William Schwab, Donald R. Kauder, Michael F. Rotondo, Peter B. Angood (1993). "Urban Firearm Deaths: A Five-Year Perspective". Journal of Trauma. 35(4): pp. 532-536. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ McLaughlin, Colleen R., Jack Daniel, Scott M. Riener, Dennis E. Waite; et al. "Factors Associated with Assault-Related Firearm Injuries in Male Adolescents". Working paper. Virginia Department of Juvenile Justice. {{cite conference}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ "Expanded Homicide Data Table 7 - Murder Victims by Weapon, 2001-2005". Federal Bureau of Investigation.
  37. ^ Cook, Philip J., Mark H. Moore (1995). "Gun Control". In Wilson, James Q., Joan Petersilia (ed.). Crime. Institute of Contemporary Studies Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ^ Asensio J.A., J. Murray, D. Demetriades; et al. (1998). "Penetrating cardiac injuries: A prospective study of variables predicting outcome". J Am Coll Surg. 186: pp. 24-34. PMID 9449597. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ a b Koller, Larry (1957). Handguns. Random House. p. 4.
  40. ^ a b Cook, Philip J. (1987). "Robbery Violence". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 70(2). NCJ 108118.
  41. ^ Kleck, Gary, K. McElrath (1991). "The Effects of Weaponry on Human Violence". Social Forces. 69: pp. 669-692. NCJ 134329. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  42. ^ a b Zimring, Franklin E. (1972). "The Medium is the Message: Firearm Caliber as a Determinant of Death from Assault". Journal of Legal Studies. 1: pp. 97-123. NCJ 47874. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  43. ^ Saltzman, L., J.A. Mercy; et al. (1992). "Weapon Involvement and Injury Outcomes in Family and Intimate Assaults". Journal of the American Medical Association. 267: pp. 3043-3047. PMID 1588718. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ Cook, Philip J. (1979). "The Effect of Gun Availability on Robbery and Robbery Murder: A Cross-Section Study of Fifty Cities". Policy Studies Review Annual. 3: pp. 743-781. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  45. ^ Kleck, Gary (1997). Targeting guns: Firearms and their control. Aldine de Gruyter.
  46. ^ a b Zimring, Franklin E., Gordon Hawkins (1997). Crime Is Not the Problem: Lethal Violence in America. Oxford University Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ Kellermann, A.L., F.P. Rivara, G. Somes; et al. (1992). "Suicide in the home in relation to gun ownership". New England Journal of Medicine. 327: pp. 467-472. PMID 1308093. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ^ a b Kleck, Gary (2004). "Measures of Gun Ownership Levels of Macro-Level Crime and Violence Research". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 41: pp. 3-36. NCJ 203876. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  49. ^ Lott, John, John E. Whitley (2001). "Safe-Storage Gun Laws: Accidental Deaths, Suicides, and Crime". Journal of Law and Economics. 44(2): pp. 659–689. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Ikeda, Robin M., Rachel Gorwitz, Stephen P. James, Kenneth E. Powell, James A. Mercy (1997). Fatal Firearm Injuries in the United States, 1962-1994: Violence Surveillance Summary Series, No. 3. National Center for Injury and Prevention Control.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  51. ^ "U.S.A. Suicide: 2000 Official Final Data" (PDF). American Association of Suicidology.
  52. ^ "Gun Ownership: Two in Five Americans Live in Gun-Owning Households". Harris Interactive. Retrieved 2006-11-08.
  53. ^ a b c General Social Survey. "GSS Cumulative Data Set (1972-2004)".
  54. ^ a b "National Survey on Private Ownership and Use of Firearms" (PDF). National Institute of Justice. May 1997.
  55. ^ a b Azrael, Deborah, Philip J. Cook, Matthew Miller (2004). "State and Local Prevalence of Firearms Ownership Measurement, Structure, and Trends". Journal of Quantitative Criminology. 20(1): pp. 43-62. NCJ 205033. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ^ a b c d e f g h i j McDowall, David, Brian Wiersema (1994). "The Incidence of Defensive Firearm Use by US Crime Victims, 1987 through 1990". American Journal of Public Health. 84: pp. 1982-1984. PMID 7998641. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  57. ^ Uniform Crime Reports, 1987-1990. Federal Bureau of Investigation.
  58. ^ LaPierre, Wayne (1994). Guns, Crime, and Freedom. Regnery Publishing, Inc., Washington, DC. pp. p. 23. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  59. ^ Suter, E.A. (1992). "Firearms and the killing threshold (Letter)". New England Journal of Medicine. 326: pp. 1159. PMID 1552925. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
    • Kates, D.B. (1991). "The value of civilian handgun possession as a deterrent to crime or a defense against crime". American Journal of Criminal Law. 18: pp. 113-167. NCJ 132948. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
    • "Go ahead, make our day". The New Republic. February 22, 1988. pp. pp. 7-9. {{cite news}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
    • "Do guns save lives?". Time. August 12, 1988. pp. pp. 25-26. {{cite news}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
    • "Are we "a nation of cowards"?". Newsweek. November 15, 1993. pp. pp. 93-94. {{cite news}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
    • Kopel, D.B. (1993). "Hold your fire: gun control won't stop rising violence". 63. Policy Review: pp. 58-65. NCJ 153748. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  60. ^ a b Hemenway, D., D. Azrael, M. Miller (2000). "Gun use in the United States: results from two national surveys". Injury Prevention. 6: pp. 263-267. PMID 11144624. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ^ LaPierre, Wayne (1994). Guns, Crime, and Freedom. Regnery Publishing, Inc., Washington, DC. pp. p. 23. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  62. ^ Kassirer, Jerome P. (1991). "Firearms and the killing threshold. (Editorial)". New England Journal of Medicine. 325(23): pp. 1647-1651. PMID 1944455. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  63. ^ Baker, James Jay (July 1992). "Second amendment message in Los Angeles". American Riflemen: pp. 32-34. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  64. ^ LaPierre, Wayne (1994). Guns, Crime, and Freedom. Regnery Publishing, Inc., Washington, DC. pp. p. 58. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  65. ^ LaPierre, Wayne (1994). Guns, Crime, and Freedom. Regnery Publishing, Inc., Washington, DC. pp. p. 58. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  66. ^ James D. Wright and Peter H. Rossi (1986). ARMED AND CONSIDERED DANGEROUS: A Survey of Felons and their Firearms. Aldine De Gruyter.
  67. ^ Cohen, Jacqueline, Wilpen Gorr, Piyusha Singh (December 2002). "Guns and Youth Violence: An Examination of Crime Guns in One City". Final report. National Institute of Justice / Carnegie Mellon University. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  68. ^ a b Wright, M.A., G.J. Wintemute, B E Claire (2005). "People and guns involved in denied and completed handgun sales". Injury Prevention. 11: pp. 247-250. PMID 16081756. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  69. ^ a b Lizotte, Alan J., Gregory J. Howard, Marvin D. Krohn, Terence P. Thornberry (1997). "Patterns of Illegal Gun Carrying Among Urban Young Males". Valparaiso University Law Review. 31(2).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  70. ^ "Federal Firearm Offenders, 1992-98" (PDF). Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  71. ^ a b Cook, Philip J., S.Molliconi, T.B. Cole (1995). "Regulating Gun Markets". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 86: pp. 59-92. NCJ 162689. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  72. ^ Cook, Philip J., Jens Ludwig (1996). Guns in America: Results of a Comprehensive Survey of Gun Ownership and Use. Police Foundation.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  73. ^ Wright, James D., Peter H. Rossi (1994). Armed and Considered Dangerous: A Survey of Felons and Their Firearms. Aldine de Gruyter.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  74. ^ Ash, Peter, Arthur L. Kellermann; et al. (1996). "Gun Acquisition and Use by Juvenile Offenders". Journal of the American Medical Association. 275(22): pp. 1754-1758. PMID 8637174. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  75. ^ Cook, Philip J., Jens Ludwig (2000). "Chapter 9". Gun Violence: The Real Costs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513793-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  76. ^ Boston T. Party (Kenneth W. Royce) (1998). Boston on Guns & Courage. Javelin Press. pp. 3:15.
  77. ^ Weil, Douglas S., Rebecca C. Knox (1996). "Effects of Limiting Handgun Purchases on Interstate Transfer of Firearms". Journal of the American Medical Association. 275(22): pp. 1759-1761. PMID 8637175. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  78. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Committee on Law and Justice (2004). "Chapter 4". Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. National Academy of Science.
  79. ^ a b Butterfield, Fox (July 1, 1999). "Gun Flows to Criminals Laid to Tiny Fraction of Dealers". The New York Times.
  80. ^ a b "Youth Crime Gun Interdiction Initiative (1998)". Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives.
  81. ^ a b Cook, Philip J., Anthony A. Braga (2001). "Comprehensive firearms tracing: Strategic and investigative uses of new data on firearms markets". Arizona Law Review. 43: pp. 277-309. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  82. ^ Kennedy, D.M., A.A. Braga, A.M. Piehl (1996). "Youth violence in Boston: Gun markets, serious youth offenders, and a use-reduction strategy". Law and Contemporary Problems. 59: pp. 147-196. NCJ 169549. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  83. ^ Wachtel, J. (1998). "Sources of crime guns in Los Angeles, California". Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management. 21: pp. 220-239. NCJ 174254. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  84. ^ Pierce, G.L., A.A. Braga, C. Koper, J. McDevitt, D. Carlson, J. Roth, A. Saiz (2001). The Characteristics and Dynamics of Gun Markets: Implications for a Supply-Side Enforcement Strategy (Final Report) (PDF). Center for Criminal Justice Policy Research, Northeastern University and the National Institute of Justice.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  85. ^ Friedman, Lawrence M. (1993). Crime and Punishment in American History. Basic Books. pp. p. 267. ISBN 0-465-01461-5. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  86. ^ Cook, Philip J., James Blose (1981). "State Programs for Screening Handgun Buyers". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. May 1981: pp. 80-91. NCJ 79101. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  87. ^ The Brady Act did not require background checks, but mandates the waiting period so that background checks can be done. The background check provision has been challenged on grounds that it violates the Tenth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States. In the 1997 case, Printz v. United States, the Supreme Court voided that part of the Brady Act. (Rushefsky, 2002)
  88. ^ "Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act" (PDF). Congress of the United States / Government Printing Office.
  89. ^ a b Roth, Jeffrey A., Christopher S. Koper (1999). Impacts of the 1994 Assault Weapons Ban: 1994–96 (PDF). National Institute of Justice.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  90. ^ a b Koper, Christopher S., Jeffrey A. Roth (2001). "The impact of the 1994 federal assault weapon ban on gun markets: An assessment of short-term primary and secondary market effects". Journal of Quantitative Criminology. 18(3): pp. 239-266. NCJ 196844. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  91. ^ Lawrence, Jill (September 12, 2004). "Federal ban on assault weapons expires". USA Today.
  92. ^ This was ex post facto, in the opinion of then-representative Bob Barr, [2] House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Crime, Committee on the Judiciary, March 5, 1997
  93. ^ "House Report 109-699 - Making Appropriations For The Department Of Homeland Security For The Fiscal Year Ending September 30, 2007, And For Other Purposes". The Library of Congress> THOMAS Home > Bills, Resolutions.
  94. ^ "Guns in America, Part II". San Antonio Express-News. Retrieved 2006-11-15. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  95. ^ LaPierre, Wayne (1994). Guns, Crime, and Freedom. Regnery Publishing, Inc. pp. p.98. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  96. ^ Boston T. Party (Kenneth W. Royce) (1998). "Chapter 3". Boston on Guns & Courage. Javelin Press. pp. 3:15.
  97. ^ "Packing.org Concealed Carry Database". Retrieved 2006-11-15.
  98. ^ Lott, Jr., John R., David B. Mustard (1997). "Crime, Deterrence, and Right-to-Carry Concealed Handguns". Journal of Legal Studies. 26(1): pp. 1-68. NCJ 174718. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  99. ^ a b Black, Dan, Daniel Nagin (1998). "Do 'Right to Carry' Laws Reduce Violent Crime?". Journal of Legal Studies. 27(1): 209–219. NCJ 177169.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  100. ^ Ludwig, Jens (1998). "Concealed-Gun-Carrying Laws and Violent Crime: Evidence from State Panel Data". International Review of Law and Economics. 18: 239–254.
  101. ^ Committee on Law and Justice (2004). "Chapter 6". Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. National Academy of Science.
  102. ^ a b c d e DeSimone, Jeff, Sara Markowitz (September 2005). "The Effect of Child Access Prevention Laws on Non-Fatal Gun Injuries". NBER Working Paper No. 11613. National Bureau of Economic Research.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  103. ^ Cummings, Peter, David C. Grossman, Frederick P. Rivara, Thomas D. Koepsell (1997). "State Gun Safe Storage Laws and Child Mortality Due to Firearms". Journal of the American Medical Association. 278(13): pp. 1084–1086. PMID 9315767. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  104. ^ Webster, Daniel, John Vernick; et al. (2004). "Association between Youth-Focused Firearm Laws and Youth Suicides". Journal of the American Medical Association. 292(5): pp. 594-601. PMID 15292085. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  105. ^ Lott, John, John E. Whitley (2001). "Safe-Storage Gun Laws: Accidental Deaths, Suicides, and Crime". Journal of Law and Economics. 44(2): pp. 659–689. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  106. ^ Webster, D.W., M. Starnes (2000). "Reexamining the association between child access prevention gun laws and unintentional shooting deaths of children". Pediatrics. 106(6): pp. 1466-1469. PMID 11099605. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  107. ^ Wintemute, Garen (2000). "Guns and Gun Violence". In Blumstein, Alfred, Joel Wallman (ed.). The Crime Drop in America. Cambridge University Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  108. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Hardy, Marjorie S. (2002). "Behavior-Oriented Approaches to Reducing Gun Violence". The Future of Children. 12(2). Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University and The Brookings Institution: pp. 101-118. NCJ 196785. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  109. ^ Christophersen, E.R. (1993). "Improving compliance in childhood injury control". Developmental aspects of health compliance behavior. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. pp. 219-231. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  110. ^ Williams, A.F. (1982). "Passive and active measures for controlling disease and injury". Health Psychology. 1: pp. 399-409. PMID 11586556. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  111. ^ Oatis, Pamela J., Nancy M. Fenn Buderer, Peter Cummings, Rosemarie Fleitz (1999). "Pediatric practice based evaluation of the Steps to Prevent Firearm Injury program". Injury Prevention. 5(1): pp. 48-52. PMID 10323570. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  112. ^ Benthin, A., P. Slovic, H. Severan (1993). "A psychometric study of adolescent risk perception". Journal of Adolescence. 16: pp. 153-168. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  113. ^ a b c Hyson, M.C., G.G. Bollin (1990). "Children's appraisal of home and neighborhood risks: Questions for the 1990s". Children's Environments Quarterly. 7(3): pp. 50-60. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  114. ^ Coppens, N.M. (1985). "Cognitive development and locus of control as predictors of preschoolers' understanding of safety and prevention". Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. 6: pp. 43-55. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  115. ^ Cook, P.J., J. Ludwig (May 1997). "Guns in America: National survey on private ownership and use of firearms" (PDF). Research in Brief. National Institute of Justice. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  116. ^ Hemenway, D., S. Solnek, D.R. Azrael (1995). "Firearm training and storage". Journal of the American Medical Association. 273(1): 46–50. PMID 7996649.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  117. ^ Wilson, M.H., S.P. Baker, S.P. Teret; et al. (1991). Saving children: A guide to injury prevention. Oxford University Press. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  118. ^ Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, Committee on Preventative Psychiatry (1999). "Violent behavior in children and youth: Preventative intervention from a psychiatric perspective". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 38(3): pp. 235-241. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  119. ^ Arrendondo, S., T. Aultman-Bettride, T.P. Johnson; et al. (1999). Preventing youth handgun violence: A national study with trends and patterns for the state of Colorado. Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  120. ^ Davidson, L.L., M S Durkin, L Kuhn, P O'Connor, B Barlow, M C Heagarty (1994). "The impact of the Safe Kids/Healthy Neighborhoods Injury Prevention Program in Harlem, 1988 through 1991". American Journal of Public Health. 84(4): pp. 580-586. PMID 8154560. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  121. ^ Klassen, T.P., I.M. MacKay, A.W. Moher, A. I. Jones (2000). "Community-based prevention interventions". The Future of Children. 10(1): pp. 83-110. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  122. ^ Braga, Anthony A., David M. Kennedy, Elin J. Waring, Anne M. Piehl (2001). "Problem-Oriented Policing, Deterrence, and Youth Violence: An Evaluation of Boston's Operation Ceasefire". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 38(3). NCJ 189562.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  123. ^ Callahan, C.M., F.P. Rivara, T.D. Koepsell (1994). "Money for guns: Evaluation of the Seattle gun "buy-back" program". Public Health Reports. 109: pp. 472-477. PMID 8041845. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  124. ^ Rosenfeld, R. (1996). "Gun buy-backs: Crime control or community mobilization?". In M.R. Plotkin (ed.). Under Fire: Gun Buy-Backs, Exchanges, and Amnesty Programs. Police Executive Research Forum. NCJ 161877.
  125. ^ Kennedy, David M., Anne M. Piehl, Anthony A. Braga (1996). "Gun buy-backs: Where do we stand and where do we go?". In M.R. Plotkin (ed.). Under Fire: Gun Buy-Backs, Exchanges, and Amnesty Programs. Police Executive Research Forum. NCJ 161877.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  126. ^ a b c Kennedy, David M., Anthony A. Braga, Anne M. Piehl (2001). Reducing Gun Violence: The Boston Gun Project's Operation Ceasefire (PDF).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  127. ^ Committee on Law and Justice (2004). "Chapter 6, The Effectiveness of Police Activities in Reducing Crime, Disorder, and Fear". Fairness and Effectiveness in Policing: The Evidence. National Academy of Science.
    • Braga, Anthony A., David L. Weisburd; et al. (1999). "Problem-oriented policing in violent crime places: A randomized controlled experiment". Criminology. 7: pp. 541-580. NCJ 178770. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    • Weisburd, D., L. Green (1995). "Policing drug hot spots: The Jersey City drug market analysis experiment". Justice Quarterly. 12: pp. 711-735. NCJ 167667. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    • Sherman, L.W., D. Rogan (1995). "Effects of gun seizures on gun violence: "Hot spots" patrol in Kansas City". Justice Quarterly. 12(4): 673–694. NCJ 167665.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  128. ^ Braga, Anthony A., Glenn L. Pierce (2005). "Disrupting Illegal Firearms Markets in Boston: The Effects of Operation Ceasefire on the Supply of New Handguns to Criminals". Criminology & Public Policy. 4(4). NCJ 212303.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  129. ^ National Institute of Justice (February 2005). Research Report: Reducing Gun Violence - Operation Ceasefire in Los Angeles (PDF).
  130. ^ a b Raphael, Stephen, Jens Ludwig (2003). "Prison Sentence Enhancements: The Case of Project Exile". In Ludwig, Jens, Philip I. Cook (ed.). Evaluating Gun Policy: Effects on Crime and Violence. Brookings Institution Press. NCJ 203345.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  131. ^ U.S. Department of Justice (May 13, 2003). "Project Safe Neighborhoods - Fact Sheet" (PDF).
  132. ^ "Project Safe Neighborhoods: FAQs". U.S. Department of Justice.
  133. ^ Committee on Law and Justice (2004). "Chapter 9". Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. National Academy of Science.
  134. ^ Committee on Law and Justice (2004). "Chapter 1". Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. National Academy of Science.
  135. ^ Committee on Law and Justice (2004). "Chapter 2". Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review. National Academy of Science.

External links

  • Gun violence - National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS)
source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gun_violence_in_the_United_States&oldid=99377344

Leave a Reply