THC Science

The genocide of Indigenous peoples, colonial genocide,^[1] or settler genocide^[2]^[3]^{[note 1]} is the intentional elimination of Indigenous peoples as a part of the process of colonialism.^{[note 2]}

According to certain genocide experts, including Raphael Lemkin – the individual who coined the modern concept of genocide – colonization is intrinsically genocidal.^[7]^[8] Other scholars view genocide as associated with but distinct from settler colonialism.^[4]^[9] Lemkin saw genocide via colonialism as a two-stage process: (1) the destruction of the Indigenous group's way of life, followed by (2) the settlers' imposition of their way of life on the Indigenous group.^[10]^[11]

The expansion of various Western European colonial powers such as the British and Spanish empires and the subsequent establishment of colonies on Indigenous territories frequently involved acts of genocidal violence against Indigenous groups in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania.

The designation of specific events as genocidal is frequently controversial.^[12]^[13] Some scholars, among them Lemkin,^[7]^[14] have argued that cultural genocide, sometimes called ethnocide, should also be recognized. Others scholars contend that genocide should be thought of exclusively in physical and biological terms according to the 1948 Genocide Convention, with cultural genocide being addressed as a human rights issue.^[13]

Genocide debate

The determination of whether a historical event should be considered a genocide is a matter of scholarly debate. Issues of contention include what construes genocidal intent and whether or not cultural destruction (sometimes called cultural genocide or "ethnic cleansing") constitutes genocide.^[15]^[16]

Broader conceptions of genocide

Certain scholars and genocide experts draw on broader definitions such as Lemkin's, which considers colonialist violence against Indigenous peoples as inherently genocidal.^[17] For Lemkin, genocide included all attempts to destroy a specific ethnic group, whether they are strictly physical, through mass killings, or whether they are strictly cultural or psychological, through oppression and through the destruction of Indigenous ways of life.^[18]

A people group may continue to exist, but if it is prevented from perpetuating its group identity by prohibitions of its cultural and religious practices, practices which are the basis of its group identity, this may also be considered a form of genocide. Examples of this include the treatment of Tibetans and Uyghurs by the Government of China, the treatment of Native Americans by the United States Government, and the treatment of First Nations peoples by the Canadian government.^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22]

The modern concept of genocide was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin:^[23]

New conceptions require new terms. By "genocide" we mean the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group. This new word, coined by the author to denote an old practice in its modern development, is made from the ancient Greek word genos (race, tribe) and the Latin cide (killing), thus corresponding in its formation to such words as tyrannicide, homicide, infanticide, etc. Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups. Genocide is directed against the national group as an entity, and the actions involved are directed against individuals, not in their individual capacity, but as members of the national group.

Lemkin wrote: "Genocide has two phases: one, destruction of the national pattern of the oppressed group: the other, the imposition of the national pattern of the oppressor. This imposition, in turn, may be made upon the oppressed population which is allowed to remain, or upon the territory alone, after removal of the population and the colonization of the area by the oppressor’s own nationals." Some genocide scholars separate the population declines of indigenous peoples which are due to disease from the genocidal aggression of one group towards another.^[24]^[25]^[26] Some scholars argue that an intent to commit a genocide is not needed, because a genocide may be the cumulative result of minor conflicts in which settlers, colonial agents or state agents perpetrate violent acts against minority groups.^[6] Others argue that the dire consequences of European diseases among many New World populations were exacerbated by different forms of genocidal violence, and they also argue that intentional deaths and unintentional deaths cannot easily be separated from each other.^[27]^[28] Some scholars regard the colonization of the Americas as genocide, since they argue it was largely achieved through systematically exploiting, removing and destroying specific ethnic groups, which would create environments and conditions for such disease to proliferate.^[29]^[30]^[31]

According to a 2020 study by Tai S Edwards and Paul Kelton, recent scholarship shows "that colonizers bear responsibility for creating conditions that made natives vulnerable to infection, increased mortality, and hindered population recovery. This responsibility intersected with more intentional and direct forms of violence to depopulate the Americas... germs can no longer serve as the basis for denying American genocides."^[32]

Other scholars have said that the population decline cannot be explained by disease only. The vectors of death raised by displacement, warfare, slavery, and famine played an important role.^[33]^[34]

United Nations' definition of Genocide

The UN's 1948 definition, which is used in international law, is narrower than Lemkin's definition. According to the UN, for an act to be classified as genocide, it is essential to demonstrate that the perpetrators had a specific intent to physically destroy the group, in whole or in part, based on its real or perceived nationality, ethnicity, race, or religion. Intention to destroy the group's culture or intending to scatter the group does suffice.^[35] The following five acts comprise the physical element of the crime: ^[36]

(a) "Killing members of the group;"

(b) "Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;"

(c) "Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;"

(d) "Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;"

(e) "Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."

The United Nations’ definition of genocide does not offer a broad enough explanation of all that goes into a genocide, especially in the case of Indigenous peoples. The destruction of nonhuman animals, land, water, and other nonhuman beings constitute forms of genocide according to Indigenous metaphysics. ^[37]

Indigenous peoples of Europe (pre-1947)

British colonization of Ireland

The numerous massacres and widespread starvation that accompanied the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland (1649–1653) has led to it being called a genocide^{[by whom?]}; hundreds of thousands of Irish civilians died, and about 50,000 Irish were sold into indentured servitude. In the aftermath of the conquest, thousands of native Irish were forcibly deported to Connacht in accordance with the Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652.^[38]^[39]

The Plantations of Ireland were attempts to expel the native Irish from the best land of the island, and settle it with loyal British Protestants; they too have been described as genocidal.^[40] The Great Famine (1845–1850) has also been blamed on British policy and called genocidal.^[41] Writing in Indian Country Today, Christina Rose drew parallels between the Irish and Native American experience of dispossession and genocide^{[citation needed]}; Katie Kane has compared the Sand Creek massacre with the Drogheda massacre. R. Barry O'Brien compared the Irish Rebellion of 1641 with the American Indian Wars, writing "The slaughter of Irishmen was looked upon as literally the slaughter of wild beasts. Not only the men, but even the women and children who fell into the hands of the English were deliberately and systematically butchered. Year after year, over a great part of all Ireland, all means of human subsistence was destroyed, no quarter was given to prisoners who surrendered, and the whole population was skillfully and steadily starved to death."^[42] Similar to the European Colonization of the Americas, the death toll under the British Empire is estimated to be as high as 150 million, a figure questioned by a sizeable number of British historians.^[43]^[44]

Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks, Karaites

Deportation of Crimean Tatars on May 18, 1944. Most of the Crimean Tatars were forcibly transported from Crimea to Central Asia in freight wagons. The Soviet authorities tried to drown the Crimean Tatars from the Arabat spit in the sea on a barge, and those Crimean Tatars who tried to swim ashore were shot.^[45]

The Krymchaks and part of the Karaites became victims of the Holocaust during World War II and Stalin's deportation.

During the years of the USSR, the cultural and historical heritage of the Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks, and Karaites was either massively destroyed, or it was exported from the Crimea to Russia, or it was stolen by the Russian-Soviet invaders.

Circassian genocide

Throughout the 19th century, the Russian Empire conducted a genocidal campaign against the Circassians and other Muslim populations in the North Caucasus. During the genocide, many Circassians were subjected to massacres and mass rapes as well as scientific experimentation, while others were deported from their homeland and resettled in the Ottoman Empire.^[46]^[47]^[48]^[49]

Cultural genocide in Scandinavia

During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Norwegian and Swedish governments imposed assimilation policies on indigenous peoples such as the Sámi, Kven and Finns.^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53]

Nazi Germany

During World War II the indigenous Slavs and other ethnic groups such as Jews were mass murdered and ethnically cleansed under the Nazi regime to pave the way for Germanic settlers to colonize the region in accordance with Adolf Hitler's ideologies of Lebensraum. The overall program has led to the deaths of 11 million Slavs.^[54]

Hitler's version of Lebensraum that spearheaded Germany's colonization of Eastern Europe was modeled from Imperial German colonialism during the Scramble for Africa as well as the U.S. colonial ideology of manifest destiny. Hitler compared Nazi expansion to American expansion westward, stating, "there's only one duty: to Germanize this country [Russia] by the immigration of Germans and to look upon the natives as Redskins."^[55]

Indigenous peoples of the Americas (pre-1948)

It is estimated that during the initial Spanish conquest of the Americas, up to eight million Indigenous people died, primarily through the spread of Afro-Eurasian diseases, wars, and atrocities.^[56] ^[57]^[58] The population of Indigenous Americans is estimated to have decreased from approximately 145 million to around 7-15 million between the late 15th and late 17th centuries, representing a decline of around 90-95%.^[59]

Mistreatment and killing of Native Americans continued for centuries, in every area of the Americas, including the areas that would become Canada, the United States, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile. In the United States, some scholars (examples listed below) state that the American Indian Wars and the doctrine of manifest destiny contributed to the genocide, with one major event cited being the Trail of Tears.

In contrast, a 2019 book by Jeffrey Ostler at the University of Oregon has argued that genocide is not a majority viewpoint in the scholarship on the subject and he writes that,

Since 1992, the argument for a total, relentless, and pervasive genocide in the Americas has become accepted in some areas of Indigenous studies and genocide studies. For the most part, however, this argument has had little impact on mainstream scholarship in U.S. history or American Indian history. Scholars are more inclined than they once were to gesture to particular actions, events, impulses, and effects as genocidal, but genocide has not become a key concept in scholarship in these fields.^[60]

Causes of Indigenous Deaths

According to scholars Tai S. Edwards and Paul Kelton, colonizers bear responsibility for creating conditions that made natives vulnerable to infection, increased mortality, and hindered population recovery. This responsibility intersected with more intentional and direct forms of violence to depopulate the Americas. It is false to blame Indigenous deaths on the spread of germs and diseases when intentional and genocidal forces were at play. Kelton and Edwards explain that Native peoples did not die from accidentally introduced ‘virgin’ soil epidemics. They died because U.S. colonization, removal policies, reservation confinement, and assimilation programs severely and continuously undermined physical and spiritual health. Disease was the secondary killer.”^[61]

Some scholars view the term ethnic cleansing as a more appropriate designation. As detailed in Ethnic Cleansing: The Crime That Should Haunt America, historian Gary Anderson insists that genocide does not apply to any of American history since “policies of mass murder on a scale similar to events in central Europe, Cambodia, or Rwanda were never implemented" but argues that ethnic cleansing occurred.^[62]

As detailed in Genocide Against Indigenous Peoples, David Maybury-Lewis insists that a categorization of a genocide is accurate because of the deliberate attempts to massacre entire societies and fatal circumstances imposed by the colonizers.^[63]

Categorization as a genocide

Historians and scholars whose work has examined this history in the context of genocide have included historian Jeffrey Ostler,^[64] historian David Stannard,^[65] anthropological demographer Russell Thornton^[66] (Cherokee Nation), historian Vine Deloria, Jr. (Standing Rock Dakota), as well as activists such as Russell Means (Oglala Lakota) and Ward Churchill. In his book, American Holocaust, Stannard compares the events of colonization in the Americas to the definition of genocide which is written in the 1948 UN convention, and he writes that,

In light of the U.N. language—even putting aside some of its looser constructions—it is impossible to know what transpired in the Americas during the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries and not conclude that it was genocide.

Thornton describes the direct consequences of warfare, violence, and massacres as genocides, many of which had the effect of wiping out entire ethnic groups.^[67] Political scientist Guenter Lewy states that "even if up to 90 percent of the reduction in Indian population was the result of disease, that leaves a sizeable death toll caused by mistreatment and violence."^[68] Ethnic studies professor Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz states,

Proponents of the default position emphasize attrition by disease despite other causes equally deadly, if not more so. In doing so they refuse to accept that the colonization of America was genocidal by plan, not simply the tragic fate of populations lacking immunity to disease.^[69]

By 1900, the Indigenous population in the Americas declined by more than 80%, and by as much as 98% in some areas. The effects of diseases such as smallpox, measles and cholera during the first century of colonialism contributed greatly to the death toll, while violence, displacement, and warfare against the Indians by colonizers contributed to the death toll in subsequent centuries.^[70] As detailed in American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present (2015),

It is also apparent that the shared history of the hemisphere is one which is framed by the dual tragedies of genocide and slavery, both of which are part of the legacy of the European invasions of the past 500 years. Indigenous people both north and south were displaced, died of disease, and were killed by Europeans through slavery, rape, and war. In 1491, about 145 million people lived in the western hemisphere. By 1691, the population of Indigenous Americans had declined by 90–95 percent, or by around 130 million people.^[71]

However, pre-Columbian population figures are difficult to estimate due to the fragmentary nature of the evidence. Estimates range from 8 to 112 million.^[72] Russel Thornton has pointed out that there were disastrous epidemics and population losses during the first half of the sixteenth century "resulting from incidental contact, or even without direct contact, as disease spread from one American Indian tribe to another."^[73] Thornton has also challenged higher Indigenous population estimates, which are based on the Malthusian assumption that "populations tend to increase to, and beyond, the limits of the food available to them at any particular level of technology."^[74]

According to geographers from University College London, the colonization of the Americas by Europeans killed so many people, approximately 55 million or 90% of the local populations,^[75] it resulted in climate change and global cooling.^[76] UCL Geography Professor Mark Maslin, one of the co-authors of the study, states that the large death toll also boosted the economies of Europe: "the depopulation of the Americas may have inadvertently allowed the Europeans to dominate the world. It also allowed for the Industrial Revolution and for Europeans to continue that domination."^[77]

It has proven a controversial question whether the drastic population decline can be considered an example of genocide, and scholars have argued whether the process as a whole or specific periods and local processes qualify under the legal definition. Raphael Lemkin, the originator of the term "genocide", considered the colonial replacement of Native Americans by English and later British colonists to be one of the historical examples of genocide.^[78]

Spanish colonization of the Americas

It is estimated that during the initial Spanish conquest of the Americas up to eight million Indigenous people died, primarily through the spread of Afro-Eurasian diseases,^[80] in a series of events that have been described as the first large-scale act of genocide of the modern era.^[81]

Acts of brutality and systematic annihilation against the Taíno people of the Caribbean prompted Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas to write Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias ('A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies') in 1542—an account that had a wide impact throughout the western world as well as contributing to the abolition of Indigenous slavery in all Spanish territories the same year it was written.

Las Casas wrote that the native population on the Spanish colony of Hispaniola had been reduced from 400,000 to 200 in a few decades.^[82] His writings were among those that gave rise to Spanish Black Legend, which Charles Gibson describes as "the accumulated tradition of propaganda and Hispanophobia according to which the Spanish Empire is regarded as cruel, bigoted, degenerate, exploitative and self-righteous in excess of reality".^[83]^[84]

Historian Andrés Reséndez at the University of California, Davis asserts that even though disease was a factor, the Indigenous population of Hispaniola would have rebounded the same way Europeans did following the Black Death if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to.^[85] He says that "among these human factors, slavery was the major killer" of Hispaniola's population, and that "between 1492 and 1550, a nexus of slavery, overwork and famine killed more natives in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza or malaria."^[86]

Noble David Cook said about the Black Legend conquest of the Americas: "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact." Instead, he estimates that the death toll was caused by diseases like smallpox,^[87] which according to some estimates had an 80–90% fatality rate in Native American populations.^[70] However, historian Jeffrey Ostler has argued that Spanish colonization created conditions for disease to spread, for example, "careful studies have revealed that it is highly unlikely that members" of Hernando de Soto's 1539 expedition in the American South "had smallpox or measles. Instead, the disruptions caused by the expedition increased the vulnerability of Native people to diseases including syphilis and dysentery, already present in the Americas, and malaria, a disease recently introduced from the eastern hemisphere."^[64]

With the initial conquest of the Americas completed, the Spanish implemented the encomienda system in 1503. In theory, the encomienda placed groups of Indigenous peoples under Spanish oversight to foster cultural assimilation and conversion to Catholicism, but in practice it led to the legally sanctioned forced labor and resource extraction under brutal conditions with a high death rate.^[88] Though the Spaniards did not set out to exterminate the Indigenous peoples, believing their numbers to be inexhaustible, their actions led to the annihilation of entire tribes such as the Arawak.^[89] Many Arawaks died from lethal forced labor in the mines, where a third of workers died every six months.^[90] According to historian David Stannard, the encomienda was a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths."^[91]

The Spanish and Portuguese genocides of Indigenous peoples of the Americas wiped out approximately 90% of the Indigenous population, and most agriculture and infrastructure.^[92]^: 3 According to ecologist Simon Lewis and geologist Mark Maslin, the scope of these genocides was so extensive that it prompted the global temperature decrease between 1550 and 1700 as forest regeneration resulted in additional carbon sequestration.^[92]^: 3

According to Clifford Trafzer, UC Riverside professor, in the 1760s, an expedition dispatched to fortify California, led by Gaspar de Portolà and Junípero Serra, was marked by slavery, forced conversions, and genocide through the introduction of disease.^[93]

According to sociologist Anibal Quijano, Bolivia and Mexico have undergone limited decolonialization through a revolutionary process. Quijano has described the colonial attacks on Indigenous peoples, African slaves and people with mixed ethnicity:

A limited but real process of colonial (racial) homogenization, as in the Southern Cone (Chile, Uruguay, Argentina), by means of a massive genocide of the aboriginal population.
An always frustrated attempt at cultural homogenization through the cultural genocide of American Indians, blacks, and mestizos, as in Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Central America, and Bolivia.

Quijano adds that in Colombia, nearly exterminated Indigenous peoples were replaced by African slaves, while black people are discriminated in Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia in a "racial democracy".^[94]

British colonization of the Americas

Beaver Wars

During the Beaver Wars of the seventeenth century, the Iroquois effectively destroyed several large tribal confederacies, including the Mohicans, Huron (Wyandot), Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock (Conestoga), and northern Algonquins, with the extreme brutality and exterminatory nature of the mode of warfare practiced by the Iroquois causing some historians to label these wars as acts of genocide committed by the Iroquois Confederacy.^[95]

Kalinago genocide

The Kalinago genocide was the massacre of some 2,000 Island Caribs in St. Kitts by English and French settlers in 1626.

The Carib chief Tegremond became uneasy with the increasing number of English and French settlers occupying St. Kitts. This led to confrontations, which led him to plot the settlers' elimination with the aid of other Island Caribs. However, his scheme was betrayed by an Indian woman called Barbe, to Thomas Warner and Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc. Taking action, the English and French settlers invited the Caribs to a party where they became intoxicated. When the Caribs returned to their village, 120 were killed in their sleep, including Chief Tegremond. The following day, the remaining 2,000–4,000 Caribs were forced into the area of Bloody Point and Bloody River, where over 2,000 were massacred, though 100 settlers were also killed. One Frenchman went mad after being struck by a manchineel-poisoned arrow. The remaining Caribs fled. Later, by 1640, those not already enslaved were removed to Dominica.^[96]^[97]

Attempted extermination of the Pequot

The Pequot War was an armed conflict that took place between 1636 and 1638 in New England between the Pequot tribe and an alliance of the colonists of the Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Saybrook colonies and their allies from the Narragansett and Mohegan tribes.

The war concluded with the decisive defeat of the Pequots. The colonies of Connecticut and Massachusetts offered bounties for the heads of killed hostile Indians, and later for just their scalps, during the Pequot War in the 1630s;^[99] Connecticut specifically reimbursed Mohegans for slaying the Pequot in 1637.^[100] At the end, about 700 Pequots had been killed or taken into captivity.^[101]

The English colonists imposed a harshly punitive treaty on the estimated 2,500 Pequots who survived the war; the Treaty of Hartford of 1638 sought to eradicate the Pequot cultural identity—with terms prohibiting the Pequots from returning to their lands, speaking their tribal language, or even referring to themselves as Pequots—and effectively dissolved the Pequot Nation, with many survivors executed or enslaved and sold away.^[98] Hundreds of prisoners were sold into slavery to the West Indies;^[102] other survivors were dispersed as captives to the victorious tribes. The result was the elimination of the Pequot tribe as a viable polity in Southern New England, the colonial authorities classifying them as extinct. However, members of the Pequot tribe still live today as a federally recognized tribe.^[103]

Massacre of the Narragansett people

The Great Swamp Massacre was committed during King Philip's War by colonial militia of New England on the Narragansett tribe in December 1675. On December 15 of that year, Narraganset warriors attacked the Jireh Bull Blockhouse and killed at least 15 people. Four days later, the militias from the English colonies of Plymouth, Connecticut, and Massachusetts Bay were led to the main Narragansett town in South Kingstown, Rhode Island. The settlement was burned, its inhabitants (including women and children) killed or evicted, and most of the tribe's winter stores destroyed. It is believed that at least 97 Narragansett warriors and 300 to 1,000 non-combatants were killed, though exact figures are unknown.^[104] The massacre was a critical blow to the Narragansett tribe during the period directly following the massacre.^[105] However, much like the Pequot, the Narragansett people continue to live today as a federally recognized tribe.^[106]

French and Indian War and Pontiac's War

On 12 June 1755, during the French and Indian War, Massachusetts governor William Shirley issued a bounty of £40 for a male Indian scalp, and £20 for scalps of Indian females or of children under 12 years old.^[107]^[108] In 1756, Pennsylvania lieutenant-governor Robert Hunter Morris, in his declaration of war against the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) people, offered "130 Pieces of Eight, for the Scalp of Every Male Indian Enemy, above the Age of Twelve Years", and "50 Pieces of Eight for the Scalp of Every Indian Woman, produced as evidence of their being killed."^[107]^[109] During Pontiac's War, Colonel Henry Bouquet conspired with his superior, Sir Jeffrey Amherst, to infect hostile Native Americans through biological warfare with smallpox blankets.^[110]

Canada

Between 1640 and 1649, among the Indigenous peoples in Canada, the Iroquois Indians committed a "genocidal annihilation" of the Huron Indians, during which settlements were burned and taken over. Of the 30,000 Hurons, a few thousand were able to flee and avoid the ethnic genocide.^[111]^[112]^[113]^[114]

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.^[115] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.^[116] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to dispossession of lands through treaties.^[117]^[118] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.^[119] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations.^[120]

As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent.^[121] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity,^[122]^[123] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.^[124]^[125] Surviving Indigenous groups continued to suffer from severe racially motivated discrimination from their new colonial societies.^[126]

With the death of Shanawdithit in 1829, the Beothuk people, and the Indigenous people of Newfoundland were officially declared extinct after suffering epidemics, starvation, loss of access to food sources, and displacement by English and French fishermen and traders.^[127] Scholars disagree in their definition of genocide in relation to the Beothuk, and the parties have different political agendas.^[128] While some scholars believe that the Beothuk died out due to the elements noted above, another theory is that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against them.^[129] More recent understandings of the concept of "cultural genocide" and its relation to settler colonialism have led modern scholars to a renewed discussion of the genocidal aspects of the Canadian states' role in producing and legitimating the process of physical and cultural destruction of Indigenous people.^[130] In the 1990s some scholars began pushing for Canada to recognize the Canadian Indian residential school system as a genocidal process rooted in colonialism.^[131]^[132] This public debate led to the formation of the Canadian Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which was formed in 2008 after the Canadian government apologized for its historical "attitudes of racial and cultural superiority" and "suppression" of the First Nations, including its role in residential schools.^[133]^[134]^[135]

The Canadian Indian residential school system was established following the passage of the Indian Act in 1876. The system was designed to remove children from the influence of their families and culture with the aim of assimilating them into the dominant Canadian culture.^[136] The final school closed in 1996.^[137] Over the course of the system's existence, about 30% of native children, or roughly 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally; at least 6,000 of these students died while in attendance.^[138]^[139] The system has been described as cultural genocide: "killing the Indian in the child".^[140]^[141]^[142] Part of this process during the 1960s through the 1980s, dubbed the Sixties Scoop, was investigated and the child seizures deemed genocidal by Judge Edwin Kimelman, who wrote: "You took a child from his or her specific culture and you placed him into a foreign culture without any [counselling] assistance to the family which had the child. There is something dramatically and basically wrong with that."^[143] Another aspect of the residential school system was its use of forced sterilization on Indigenous women who chose not to follow the schools advice of marrying non-Indigenous men. Indigenous women made up only 2.5% of the Canadian population, but 25% of those who were sterilized under the Canadian eugenics laws (such as the Sexual Sterilization Act of Alberta) – many without their knowledge or consent.^[144]

The Executive Summary of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that the state pursued a policy of cultural genocide through forced assimilation.^[145] The ambiguity of the phrasing allowed for the interpretation that physical and biological genocide also occurred. The commission, however, was not authorized to conclude that physical and biological genocide occurred, as such a finding would imply a difficult-to-prove legal responsibility for the Canadian government. As a result, the debate about whether the Canadian government also committed physical and biological genocide against Indigenous populations remains open.^[133]^[134]

The use of cultural genocide is used to differentiate from the Holocaust: a clearly accepted genocide in history. Some argue that this description negates the biological and physical acts of genocide that occurred in tandem with cultural destruction.^[146] When engaged within the context of international law, colonialism in Canada has inflicted each criterion for the United Nations definition of the crime of genocide. However, all examples below of physical genocide are still highly debated as the requirement of intention and overall motivations behind the perpetrators actions is not widely agreed upon as of yet.^[147]

Canada's actions toward Indigenous peoples can be categorized under the first example of the UN definition of genocide, "killing members of the group", through the spreading of deadly diseases such as during the 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic, in which the First Nations population of British Columbia decreased by 75%.^[148] Further examples from other parts of the country include the Saskatoon's freezing deaths,^[149] the epidemic of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women, Girls and Two-Spirited people,^[150] and the scalping bounties offered by the governor of Nova Scotia, Edward Cornwallis.^[151]

Secondly, as affirmed by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the residential school system was a clear example of (b) and (e) and similar acts continue to this day through the Millennium Scoop, as Indigenous children are disproportionately removed from their families and placed into the care of others who are often of different cultures through the Canadian child welfare system.^[152] Once again this repeats the separation of Indigenous children from their traditional ways of life. Moreover, children living on-reserve are subject to inadequate funding for social services which has led to filing of a ninth non-compliance order in early 2021 to the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal in attempts to hold the Canadian government accountable.^[153]

Subsection (c) of the UN definition: "deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part" is an act of genocide that has historic legacies, such as the near and full extrapolation of caribou and bison that contributed to mass famines in Indigenous communities,^[154]^[155] how on reserve conditions infringe on the quality of life of Indigenous peoples as their social services are underfunded and inaccessible, and hold the bleakest water qualities in the first world country.^[156] Canada also situates precarious and lethal ecological toxicities that pose threats to the land, water, air and peoples themselves near or on Indigenous territories.^[157] Indigenous people continue to report (d), the "imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group", within more recent years. Specifically through the avoidance of informed consent surrounding sterilization procedures with Indigenous people like the case of D.D.S. represented by lawyer Alisa Lombard from 2018 in Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan.^[158] Examples such as the ones listed above have led to widespread physical and virtual action across the country to protest the historical and current genocidal harms faced by Indigenous peoples.^[159]^[160]

Canada has been accused of genocide for its historical compulsory sterilization of Indigenous peoples in Alberta during the fears of jobs being stolen by immigrants and living lives of poverty provoked by the Great Depression.^[161] The Final Report (2019) from the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women argued that Canada's policies, actions, and inactions (i.e., failures to act) regarding Indigenous Peoples – including the Indian Act, residential schools, and systemic under-funding – together constitute an "ongoing" genocide.^[162]^[163]

On July 28, 2022, during the visit by Pope Francis to Canada at the Notre-Dame de Québec Cathedral, the Pope stated: "And thinking about the process of healing and reconciliation with our indigenous brothers and sisters, never again can the Christian community allow itself to be infected by the idea that one culture is superior to others, or that it is legitimate to employ ways of coercing others."^[164] Pope Francis on his return flight to Rome on July 30, 2022, after a week-long trip to Canada, responded to a question from a journalist: "It's true, I didn't use the word because it didn't occur to me, but I described the genocide and asked for pardon, forgiveness for this work that is genocidal. For example, I condemned this too: Taking away children and changing culture, changing mentalities, changing traditions, changing a race, let's say, a whole culture. Yes, it's a technical word, genocide, but I didn't use it because it didn't come to mind, but I described it. It is true; yes, it's genocide. Yes, you all, be calm. You can say that I said that, yes, that it was genocide."^[165]

Mexico

Apaches

In 1835, the government of the Mexican state of Sonora put a bounty on the Apache which, over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each scalp of a male 14 or more years old.^[166]^[167] In 1837, the Mexican state of Chihuahua also offered a bounty on Apache scalps, 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman, and 25 pesos per child.^[166]

Mayas

The Caste War of Yucatán was caused by encroachment of colonizers on communal land of Mayas in Southeast Mexico.^[168] According to political scientist Adam Jones: "This ferocious race war featured genocidal atrocities on both sides, with up to 200,000 killed."^[169]

Yaquis

The Mexican government's response to the various uprisings of the Yaqui tribe have been likened to genocide particularly under Porfirio Diaz.^[170] Due to massacre, the population of the Yaqui tribe in Mexico was reduced from 30,000 to 7,000 under Diaz's rule. One source estimates at least 20,000 out of these Yaquis were victims of state murders in Sonora.^[171]^[172]

Argentina

Argentina launched campaigns of territorial expansion in the second half of the 19th century, at the expense of Indigenous peoples and neighbor state Chile.^[173] Mapuche people were forced from their ancestral lands by Argentinian military forces, resulting in deaths and displacements. During the 1870s, President Julio Argentino Roca implemented the Conquest of the Desert (Spanish: Conquista del desierto) military operation, which resulted in the subjugation, enslavement, and genocide of Mapuche individuals residing in the Pampas area.^[174]^[175]

In southern Patagonia, both Argentina and Chile occupied Indigenous lands and waters, and facilitated the genocide implemented by sheep farmers and businessmen in Tierra del Fuego.^[176] Starting in the late 19th century, during the Tierra del Fuego gold rush, European settlers, in concert with the Argentine and Chilean governments, systematically exterminated the Selk'nam people, Yaghan, and Haush peoples. Their decimation is known today as the Selk'nam genocide.^[177]

Argentina also expanded northward, dispossessing several Chaco peoples for example in the Napalmi massacre through a policy that may be considered as genocidal.^[178]

Paraguay

The War of the Triple Alliance (1865-1870) was launched by the Empire of Brazil, in alliance with the Argentinian government of Bartolomé Mitre and the Uruguayan government of Venancio Flores, against Paraguay. The governments of Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay signed a secret treaty in which the "high contracting parties" solemnly bind themselves to overthrow the government of Paraguay. In the five years of war, the Paraguayan population was reduced, including civilians, women, children, and the elderly. Julio José Chiavenato, in his book American Genocide, affirms that it was "a war of total extermination that only ended when there were no more Paraguayans to kill" and concludes that 99.5% of the adult male population of Paraguay died during the war. Out of a population of approximately 420,000 before the war, only 14,000 men and 180,000 women remained.^[179]

Author Steven Pinker wrote:^[180]

Among its many wars (19th century) is the War of the Triple Alliance, which may have killed 400,000 people, including more than 60 percent of the population of Paraguay, making it proportionally the most destructive war in modern times.

Chile

The so-called Pacification of the Araucania by the Chilean army dispossessed the up-to-then independent Mapuche people between the 1860s and the 1880s. First during the Arauco War and then during the Occupation of Araucanía, there was a long-running conflict with the Mapuche people, mostly fought in the Araucanía. Chilean settlers also participated in the Selk'nam genocide during the Tierra del Fuego gold rush.

Putumayo genocide

Amazonian Indians enslaved during the rubber boom in the Putumayo region of Peru

From 1879 to 1912, the world experienced a rubber boom. Rubber prices skyrocketed, and it became increasingly profitable to extract rubber from rainforest zones in South America and Central Africa. Rubber extraction was labor-intensive, and the need for a large workforce had a significant negative effect on the Indigenous population across Brazil, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia and the Congo. The owners of the plantations or rubber barons were rich, but those who collected the rubber made very little, as a large amount of rubber was needed to be profitable. Rubber barons rounded up all the natives and forced them to tap rubber out of the trees. Slavery and gross human rights abuses were widespread, and in some areas, 90% of the indigenous population was wiped out. One plantation started with 50,000 indigenous peoples and when the killings were discovered, only 8,000 were still alive. These rubber plantations were part of the Brazilian rubber market which declined as rubber plantations in Southeast Asia became more effective.^[181]

Roger Casement, an Irishman travelling the Putumayo region of Peru as a British consul during 1910–1911, documented the abuse, slavery, murder, and use of stocks for torture against the native Indians: "The crimes charged against many men now in the employ of the Peruvian Amazon Company are of the most atrocious kind, including murder, violation, and constant flogging."^[182]

United States colonization of Indigenous territories

Stacie Martin states that the United States has not been legally admonished by the international community for genocidal acts against its Indigenous population, but many historians and academics describe events such as the Mystic massacre, the Trail of Tears, the Sand Creek massacre and the Mendocino War as genocidal in nature.^[183]

Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz states that U.S. history, as well as inherited Indigenous trauma, cannot be understood without dealing with the genocide that the United States committed against Indigenous peoples. From the colonial period through the founding of the United States and continuing in the twentieth century, this has entailed torture, terror, sexual abuse, massacres, systematic military occupations, removals of Indigenous peoples from their ancestral territories via Indian removal policies, forced removal of Native American children to military-like boarding schools, allotment, and a policy of termination.^[184]

The letters exchanged between Bouquet and Amherst during the Pontiac War show Amherst writing to Bouquet the Indigenous people needed to be exterminated:

"You will do well to try to inoculate the Indians by means of blankets, as well as to try every other method that can serve to extirpate this execreble race."

Historians regard this as evidence of a genocidal intent by Amherst, as well as part of a broader genocidal attitude frequently displayed against Native Americans during the colonization of the Americas.^[185]^[186]^[187]^[25]^[188]^[189] When smallpox swept the northern plains of the U.S. in 1837, the U.S. Secretary of War Lewis Cass ordered that no Mandan (along with the Arikara, the Cree, and the Blackfeet) be given smallpox vaccinations, which were provided to other tribes in other areas.^[190]^[191]^[192]

The United States has to date not undertaken any truth commission nor built a memorial for the genocide of Indigenous people.^[193] It does not acknowledge nor compensate for the historical violence against Native Americans that occurred during territorial expansion to the West Coast.^[193] American museums such as the Smithsonian Institution do not dedicate a section to the genocide.^[193] In 2013, the National Congress of American Indians passed a resolution to create a space for the National American Indian Holocaust Museum inside the Smithsonian, but it was ignored by the latter.^[193]

Sterilization of Native women

The Family Planning Services and Population Research Act was passed in 1970, which subsidized sterilizations for patients receiving healthcare through the Indian Health Service. In the six years after the act was passed, an estimated 25% of childbearing-aged Native American women were sterilized. Some of the procedures were performed under coercion, or without understanding by those sterilized.^[194] In 1977, Marie Sanchez, chief tribal judge of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation told the United Nations Convention on Indigenous Rights in Geneva, that Native American women suffered involuntary sterilization which she equated with modern genocide.^[194]

Native American boarding schools

The Native American boarding school system was a 150-year program and federal policy that separated Indigenous children from their families and sought to assimilate them into white society. It began in the early 19th century, coinciding with the start of Indian Removal policies.^[195] A Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative Investigative Report was published on May 11, 2022, which officially acknowledged the federal government's role in creating and perpetuating this system.^[196] According to the report, the U.S. federal government operated or funded more than 408 boarding institutions in 37 states between 1819 and 1969. 431 boarding schools were identified in total, many of which were run by religious institutions.^[196] The report described the system as part of a federal policy aimed at eradicating the identity of Indigenous communities and confiscating their lands. Abuse was widespread at the schools, as was overcrowding, malnutrition, disease and lack of adequate healthcare.^[197]^[196] The report documented over 500 child deaths at 19 schools, although it is estimated the total number could rise to thousands, and possibly even tens of thousands.^[195] Marked or unmarked burial sites were discovered at 53 schools.^[197] The school system has been described as a cultural genocide and a racist dehumanization.^[196]

Indian Removal

Following the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the American government began forcibly relocating East Coast tribes across the Mississippi. The removal included many members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations, among others in the United States, from their homelands to the Indian Territory in the eastern sections of the present-day state of Oklahoma. About 2,500–6,000 died along the Trail of Tears.^[198]

Chalk and Jonassohn assert that the deportation of the Cherokee tribe along the Trail of Tears would almost certainly be considered an act of genocide today.^[199] The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaves, were removed from their homes.^[200] The number of people who died as a result of the Trail of Tears has been variously estimated. American doctor and missionary Elizur Butler, who made the journey with one party, estimated 4,000 deaths.^[201]

Historians such as David Stannard^[202] and Barbara Mann^[203] have noted that the army deliberately routed the march of the Cherokee to pass through areas of a known cholera epidemic, such as Vicksburg. Stannard estimates that during the forced removal from their homelands, following the Indian Removal Act signed into law by President Andrew Jackson in 1830, 8,000 Cherokee died, about half the total population.^[202]

American Indian Wars

During the American Indian Wars, the American Army carried out a number of massacres and forced relocations of Indigenous peoples that are sometimes considered genocide.^{[citation needed]} The 1864 Sand Creek Massacre, which caused outrage in its own time, has been regarded as a genocide. Colonel John Chivington led a 700-man force of Colorado Territory militia in a massacre of 70–163 peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho, about two-thirds of whom were women, children, and infants. Chivington and his men took scalps and other body parts as trophies, including human fetuses and male and female genitalia.^[204] In defense of his actions, Chivington stated,

Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians! ... I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God's heaven to kill Indians. ... Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make lice.
— - Col. John Milton Chivington, U.S. Army^[205]

United States acquisition of California

The U.S. colonization of California started in earnest in 1845, with the Mexican–American War. With the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, it gave the United States authority over 525,000 square miles of new territory. In addition to the Gold Rush slaughter, there was also a large number of state-subsidized massacres by colonists against Native Americans in the territory, causing several entire ethnic groups to be wiped out.

In one such series of conflicts, the so-called Mendocino War and the subsequent Round Valley War, the entirety of the Yuki people was brought to the brink of extinction. From a previous population of some 3,500 people, fewer than 100 members of the Yuki tribe were left. According to Russell Thornton, estimates of the pre-Columbian population of California may have been as high as 300,000.

By 1849, due to a number of epidemics, the number had decreased to 150,000. But from 1849 and up until 1890 the Indigenous population of California had fallen below 20,000, primarily because of the killings.^[206] At least 4,500 California Indians were killed between 1849 and 1870, while many more perished due to disease and starvation.^[207] 10,000 Indians were also kidnapped and sold as slaves.^[208] In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books."^[209]

One California law made it legal to declare any jobless Indian a vagrant, then auction his services off for up to four months. It also permitted whites to force Indian children to work for them until they were eighteen, provided that they first obtain permission from what the law referred to as a 'friend'. Whites hunted down adult Indians in the mountains, kidnapped their children, and sold them as apprentices for as little as $50. Indians could not complain in court because of another California statute that stated that 'no Indian or Black or Mulatto person was permitted to give evidence in favor of or against a white person'. One contemporary wrote, "The miners are sometimes guilty of the most brutal acts with the Indians... such incidents have fallen under my notice that would make humanity weep and men disown their race".^[210] The towns of Marysville and Honey Lake paid bounties for Indian scalps. Shasta City offered $5 for every Indian head brought to City Hall; California's State Treasury reimbursed many of the local governments for their expenses.

Politics of modern Brazil

Over 80 Indigenous tribes disappeared between 1900 and 1957. During this period, out of a population of over one million, 80% had been killed through deculturalization,^[how?] disease, or murder.^[211] It has also been argued that genocide has occurred during the modern era with the ongoing destruction of the Jivaro, Yanomami, and other tribes.^[212]^[213]

Indigenous peoples of Africa (pre-1948)

French colonization of Africa

Algeria

Over the course of the French conquest of Algeria and immediately after it, a series of demographic catastrophes ensued in Algeria between 1830 and 1871. Because the demographic crisis was so severe, Dr. René Ricoux, head of demographic and medical statistics at the statistical office of the General Government of Algeria, foresaw the simple disappearance of Algerian "natives as a whole".^[214]^{[better source needed]} The demographic change in Algeria can be divided into three phases: an almost constant decline during the conquest period, up until its heaviest drop from an estimated 2.7 million in 1861 to 2.1 million in 1871, and finally moving into a gradual increase^[215] to a level of three million inhabitants by 1890. The causes range from a series of famines, diseases, and emigration^[216] to the violent methods used by the French army during their Pacification of Algeria, which historians^[which?] argue constitute acts of genocide.^[217]

Congo Free State

Under Leopold II of Belgium, the population loss in the Congo Free State is estimated at sixty percent, up to 15 million people having been killed.^[218] The Congo Free State was hit especially hard by sleeping sickness and smallpox epidemics.^[219]

Spanish colonization of the Canary Islands

The conquest of the Canary Islands by the Crown of Castille took place between 1402 and 1496. Initially carried out by members of the Castilian nobility in exchange for a covenant of allegiance to the crown, the process was later carried out by the Spanish crown itself during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs. Various scholars have used the term "genocide" to describe the conquest of the Canary Islands.^[220]^[221]^[222]^[223]^[224] Mohamed Adhikhari argues that the Canary Islands were the scene of "Europe's first overseas settler colonial genocide", and that the mass killing and enslavement of natives, along with forced deportation, sexual violence and confiscation of land and children constituted an attempt to "destroy in whole" the Guanche people.^[222] The tactics used in the Canary Islands in the 15th century served as a model for the Iberian colonization of the Americas.^[222]^[220]

Genocide in German South West Africa

Atrocities against the Indigenous African population by the German colonial empire can be dated to the earliest German settlements on the continent. The German colonial authorities carried out a genocide in German South-West Africa (GSWA) and incarcerated the survivors in concentration camps. It was also reported that, between 1885 and 1918, the Indigenous population of Togo, German East Africa (GEA). and the Cameroons suffered from various human rights abuses, including starvation from scorched earth tactics and forced relocation for use as labor.

The German Empire's action in GSWA against the Herero tribe is considered by Howard Ball to be the first genocide of the 20th century.^[225] After the Herero, Namaqua and Damara began an uprising against the colonial government,^[226] General Lothar von Trotha, appointed as head of the German forces in GSWA by Emperor Wilhelm II in 1904, gave German forces the order to push them into the desert where they would die.^[227] Germany apologized for the genocide in 2004.^[228]

While many^[who?] argue that the military campaign in Tanzania to suppress the Maji Maji Rebellion in GEA between 1905 and 1907 was not an act of genocide, as the military did not have as an intentional goal the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Africans, according to Dominik J. Schaller, the statement ^{[note 3]} released at the time by Governor Gustav Adolf von Götzen did not exculpate him from the charge of genocide, but was proof that the German administration knew that their scorched earth methods would result in famine.^[229] 200,000 Africans are estimated to have died from famine, with some areas having been left completely and permanently devoid of human life.^[230]^[231]^[232]

Italian occupied Libya

The Pacification of Libya,^[233] also known as the Libyan Genocide^[234]^[235]^[236]^[237] or Second Italo-Senussi War,^[238] was a prolonged conflict in Italian Libya between Italian military forces and indigenous rebels associated with the Senussi Order that lasted from 1923 until 1932,^[239]^[240] when the principal Senussi leader, Omar Mukhtar, was captured and executed.^[241] The pacification resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica—one quarter of Cyrenaica's population of 225,000 people died during the conflict.^[234] Italy committed major war crimes during the conflict; including the use of chemical weapons, episodes of refusing to take prisoners of war and instead executing surrendering combatants, and mass executions of civilians.^[237] Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing by forcibly expelling 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements that were slated to be given to Italian settlers.^[233]^[242] Italy apologized in 2008 for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule, and went on to say that this was a "complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era."^[243]

Indigenous peoples of Asia (pre-1947)

Armenian genocide

The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily through the mass murder of around one million Armenians during death marches to the Syrian Desert and the forced Islamization of others, primarily women and children. ^{[citation needed]}.

Before World War I, Armenians occupied a somewhat protected, but subordinate, place in Ottoman society. Large-scale massacres of Armenians had occurred in the 1890s and 1909. The Ottoman Empire suffered a series of military defeats and territorial losses—especially during the 1912–1913 Balkan Wars—leading to fear among CUP leaders that the Armenians would seek independence. During their invasion of Russian and Persian territory in 1914, Ottoman paramilitaries massacred local Armenians. Ottoman leaders took isolated instances of Armenian resistance as evidence of a widespread rebellion, though no such rebellion existed. Mass deportation was intended to permanently forestall the possibility of Armenian autonomy or independence. ^{[citation needed]}.

On 24 April 1915, the Ottoman authorities arrested and deported hundreds of Armenian intellectuals and leaders from Constantinople. At the orders of Talaat Pasha, an estimated 800,000 to 1.2 million Armenians were sent on death marches to the Syrian Desert in 1915 and 1916. Driven forward by paramilitary escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to robbery, rape, and massacres. In the Syrian Desert, the survivors were dispersed into concentration camps. In 1916, another wave of massacres was ordered, leaving about 200,000 deportees alive by the end of the year. Around 100,000 to 200,000 Armenian women and children were forcibly converted to Islam and integrated into Muslim households. Massacres and ethnic cleansing of Armenian survivors continued through the Turkish War of Independence after World War I, carried out by Turkish nationalists. ^{[citation needed]}.

This genocide put an end to more than two thousand years of Armenian civilization in eastern Anatolia. It enabled the creation of an ethnonationalist Turkish state, the Republic of Turkey. The Turkish government maintains that the deportation of Armenians was a legitimate action that cannot be described as genocide. As of 2023, 34 countries have recognized the events as genocide, concurring with the academic consensus.^{[citation needed]}.

The Armenian Genocide laid the groundwork for the Ottoman Empire to become more homogeneous. By the end of World War I, over 90 percent of the Armenians in the region were gone with most traces of their existence erased. The women and children survivors were frequently forced to give up their Armenian identities.^[244]

Russian tsarist conquest of Siberia

The Russian conquest of Siberia was accompanied by massacres due to Indigenous resistance to colonization by the Russian Cossacks, who savagely crushed the natives. At the hands of people like Vasilii Poyarkov in 1645 and Yerofei Khabarov in 1650, some peoples like the Daur were slaughtered by the Russians to the extent that it is considered genocide. In Kamchatka, out of a previous population of 20,000, only 8,000 remained after being subjected to half a century of Cossack slaughter.^[245]

In the 1640s the Yakuts were subjected to massacres during the Russian advance into their land near the Lena River, and on Kamchatka in the 1690s the Koryak, Kamchadals, and Chukchi were also subjected to massacres by the Russians.^[246] When the Russians did not obtain the demanded amount of fur tribute from the natives, Yakutsk Governor Peter Golovin, who was a Cossack, used meat hooks to hang the native men. In the Lena basin, 70% of the Yakut population died within 40 years, native women and children having been raped and enslaved in order to force the tribe to pay the tribute.^[247]

In Kamchatka, the Russians savagely crushed the Itelmens uprisings against their rule in 1706, 1731, and 1741. The first time the Itelmen were armed with stone weapons and were unprepared. However, the second time, they used gunpowder weapons. The Russians faced tougher resistance when from 1745 to 1756 they tried to exterminate the gun and bow-equipped Koraks until their victory. The Russian Cossacks also faced fierce resistance and were forced to give up when trying unsuccessfully to wipe out the Chukchi through genocide in 1729, 1730–1731, and 1744–1747.^[248]

After the Chukchi defeated the Russians in 1729, Russian commander Major Pavlutskiy waged war against them. Chukchi women and children were mass-slaughtered and enslaved in 1730–1731.^[249] Empress Elizabeth ordered the Chukchis and the Koraks be genocided in 1742 to totally expel them from their native lands and erase their culture through war. Her command was that the natives be "totally extirpated", with Pavlutskiy leading the war from 1744 to 1747. The Chukchi ended the campaign and forced the Russian army to give up by killing Pavlitskiy and decapitating him.^[250]

The Russians also waged war and slaughtered the Koraks in 1744 and 1753–1754. After the Russians tried to force them to convert to Christianity, the different native peoples (the Koraks, Chukchis, Itelmens, and Yukagirs) all united to drive them out of their land in the 1740s, culminating in the assault on Nizhnekamchatsk fort in 1746.^[251]

Nowadays, Kamchatka is European in demographics and culture. Indigenous Kamchatkans only make up 2.5% of the population, which accounts for around 10,000 people out of a previous number of 150,000. The genocide committed by the Cossacks, as well as the fur trade which devastated local wildlife, exterminated much of the Native population.^[252]^[253] In addition, the Cossacks also devastated the local wildlife by slaughtering massive numbers of animals for fur.^[254] Between the eighteenth and the nineteenth century, 90% of the Kamchadals and half of the Vogules were killed. The rapid genocide of the Indigenous population led to entire ethnic groups being entirely wiped out, with around 12 exterminated groups which could be named by Nikolai Iadrintsev as of 1882.^[255]^[256]

In the Aleutian islands, the Aleut natives were subjected to genocide and slavery by the Russians for the first 20 years of Russian rule, Aleut women and children being captured by the Russians and Aleut men slaughtered.^[257]

The Russian colonization of Siberia and the treatment of the Indigenous peoples has been compared to the European colonization of the Americas, with similar negative impacts on the Indigenous Siberians as upon the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. One of these commonalities is the appropriation of Indigenous peoples' land.^[258]

Japanese Empire

Colonization of Hokkaido

The Ainu are an Indigenous people in Japan, specifically Hokkaidō.^[259] In a 2009 news story, Japan Today reported, "Many Ainu were forced to work, essentially as slaves, for Wajin (ethnic Japanese), resulting in the breakup of families and the introduction of smallpox, measles, cholera and tuberculosis into their community. In 1869, the new Meiji government renamed Ezo as Hokkaido and unilaterally incorporated it into Japan. It banned the Ainu language, took Ainu land away, and prohibited salmon fishing and deer hunting."^[260]

Roy Thomas wrote: "Ill treatment of native peoples is common to all colonial powers, and, at its worst, leads to genocide. Japan's native people, the Ainu, have, however, been the object of a particularly cruel hoax, as the Japanese have refused to accept them officially as a separate minority people."^[261]

The Ainu have emphasized that they were the natives of the Kuril islands and the southern half of Sakhalin, which both Japan and Russia invaded.^[262] In 2004, the small Ainu community living in Kamchatka Krai, Russia wrote a letter to Vladimir Putin, urging him to reconsider any move to award the Southern Kuril islands to Japan. In the letter, they blamed the Japanese, the Tsarist Russians and the Soviets for crimes against the Ainu such as killings and assimilation, and also urged him to recognize the Japanese genocide against the Ainu people, which Putin turned down.^[263]

Colonization of Ryukyu

Ryukyuans are an Indigenous people to the islands to the west of Japan, originally known as the Ryukyu Islands.^[264] With skeletons dating back 32,000 years, the Okinawan or Ryukyu people have a long history on the islands that includes a kingdom of its own known as the Ryukyu Kingdom.^[265] The kingdom established trade relationships with China and Japan that began in the late 1500s and lasted until the 1860s.^[266]

In the 1590s, Japan made its first attempt at subjecting the Ryukyu Kingdom by sending a group of 3,000 samurai armed with muskets to conquer the Ryukyu Kingdom.^[264] Indefinite take over was not achieved; however, the Ryukyu Kingdom became an acting colony of Japan. As a result, it paid homage to the Japanese while feigning their own independence to China to maintain trade.^[264]

In 1879, after a small rebellion by the Ryukyu people was squelched, the Japanese government (the Ryukyu people had requested help from China to break all bonds from Japan) punished Ryukyu by officially naming it a state of Japan and re branding the kingdom as Okinawa.^[266] Much like the Ainu, Ryukyuans were punished for speaking their own language, forced to identify with Japanese myths and legends (forgoing their own legends), adopt Japanese names, and reorient their religion around the Japanese Emperor. Their homeland was also renamed Okinawa.^[264] Japan had officially expanded their colonization to the Okinawan islands, where natives didn't play a significant role in Japan's history until the end of World War II.^[266]

When America brought the war to Japan, the first area that was effected were the Okinawan Islands.^[267] Okinawan citizens forced into becoming soldiers were told that Americans would take no prisoners. In addition to the warnings, Okinawans were given a grenade per household, its use reserved in case Americans gained control of the island, with the standing orders to have a member of the household gather everyone and pull the pin for mass suicide.^[267] Okinawans were told this was to avoid the "inevitable" torture that would follow any occupation.^[267] In addition, the Japanese army kicked any natives out of their homes that weren't currently serving in the army (women and children included) and forced them into open, unprotected, spaces such as beaches and caves. These happened to be the first places the Americans arrived on the island. As a result, more than 120,000 Okinawans (between a quarter and a third of the population) died, soldiers and civilians alike.^[264]^[267] Americans took over the island and the war was soon over. America launched its main base in Asia from Okinawa and the Emperor of Japan approved, giving Okinawa to America for an agreed 25–50 years to move the majority of Americans out of mainland Japan.^[264] In the end, Americans stayed in Okinawa for 74 years, without showing any signs of leaving.^[264] During the occupation, Okinawan natives were forced to give up their best cultivating land to Americans which they keep to this day.^[264]

Issues in Okinawa have yet to be resolved regarding the expired stay of American soldiers. Although Okinawa was given back to Japan, the American base still stays. The Japanese government has yet to take action, despite Okinawans raising the Issue.^[264] However, this is not the only problem that the Japanese government has refused to take action on. Okinawans were ruled an Indigenous people in 2008 by the committee of the United Nations (UN), in addition to their original languages being recognized as endangered or severely endangered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The UN has encouraged that Okinawan history and language be mandatorily taught in schools in Okinawa, but nothing has been done so far.^[264] Okinawans are still in a cultural struggle that matches that of the Ainu people.^[259] They are not allowed to be Japanese-Okinawan, with Japanese being the only nationally or legally accepted term.^[268]

Cultural genocide in Korea

Shortly after Japan annexed the Korean Empire in 1910, Korean citizens were subject to a policy of forced assimilation to abandon their culture and adopt Japanese names. In 1942, Japanese colonial police forces arrested and tortured members of the Korean Language Society in response to their advocacy for Korean independence and banned the Korean language.^[269]

Vietnamese conquest of Champa

The Cham and Vietnamese had a long history of conflict, with many wars ending due to economic exhaustion. It was common that the antagonists of the wars would rebuild their economies simply to go to war again.^[270] In 1471, Champa was particularly weakened prior to the Vietnamese invasion by a series of civil wars. The Vietnamese conquered Champa and settled its territory with Vietnamese migrants during the march to the south after fighting repeated wars with Champa, shattering Champa in the invasion of Champa in 1471 and finally completing the conquest in 1832 under Emperor Minh Mang. 100,000 Cham soldiers besieged a Vietnamese garrison which led to anger from Vietnam and orders to attack Champa. 30,000 Chams were captured and over 40,000 were killed.^[271]

Qing dynasty

Dzungar genocide

Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar (Western Mongol) population (600,000 or more) was destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease in the Dzungar genocide perpetrated during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate (1755–1757). There, Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha Mongols exterminated the Dzungar Oirat Mongols.^[272] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide,^[273] has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth-century genocide par excellence".^[274]

Anti-Zunghar Uyghur rebels from the Turfan and Hami oases had submitted to Qing rule as vassals and requested Qing help for overthrowing Zunghar rule. Uyghur leaders like Emin Khoja were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and these Uyghurs helped supply the Qing military forces during the anti-Zunghar campaign.^[275] The Qing employed Khoja Emin in its campaign against the Dzungars and used him as an intermediary with Muslims from the Tarim Basin to inform them that the Qing were only aiming to kill Oirats (Zunghars) and that they would leave the Muslims alone, and also to convince them to kill the Oirats (Dzungars) themselves and side with the Qing since the Qing noted the Muslims' resentment of their former experience under Zunghar rule at the hands of Tsewang Araptan.^[276]

Bandanese massacre

Under the command of Jan Pieterszoon Coen, Dutch soldiers and Japanese mercenaries massacred and enslaved thousands of Bandanese islanders and destroyed several villages in order to force the natives to surrender.

March across Samar

During the Philippine–American War, on September 28, 1901, Filipino forces defeated and nearly wiped out a US company in the Battle of Balangiga. In response, US forces carried out widespread atrocities during the March across Samar, which lasted from December, 1901 to February, 1902. US forces killed between 2,000 and 2,500 Filipino civilians, according to most sources, and carried out an extensive scorched-earth policy, which included burning down villages. Some Filipino historians have called these killings genocidal. U.S. Brigadier General Jacob H. Smith instructed his soldiers to "kill everyone over ten years old", including children who were capable of bearing arms, and to take no prisoners. However, Major Littleton Waller, commanding officer of a battalion of 315 US Marines, refused to follow his orders.^[277]^[278] Some Filipino historians estimate higher at 5,000 killed during the campaign, while other estimates are as high as 50,000, albeit the higher estimates have since been discredited, and are now known to be a result of typographical errors and the misreading of documents.^[279]

Famines in British India

Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World is a book by Mike Davis about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns, particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries, Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism, and the relation with famine in particular. Davis argues that "Millions died, not outside the 'modern world system', but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures. They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism; indeed, many were murdered... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith, Bentham and Mill."^[280]

Davis characterizes the Indian famines under the British Raj as "colonial genocide". Some scholars, including Niall Ferguson, have disputed this judgment, while others, including Adam Jones, have affirmed it.^[281]^[282]

Indigenous peoples of Oceania (pre-1945)

Australia

In a similar manner to the United States and Canada, the British colonization of Australia was conducted under the pretense of indigenous lands being deemed "empty" in order to justify their acquisition of Aboriginal lands and deny them sovereignty or property rights.^[283] Colonization also caused a large decrease in the Indigenous population from war, newly introduced diseases, massacre by colonists, and attempts at forced assimilation. The European settlers grew rapidly in number and created entirely new societies. The Aboriginal population became an oppressed minority in their own country. The overall gradual violent expansion of colonies into Indigenous land during the Australian frontier wars lasted for centuries.^[284]^[285]

The virtual extinction of the Aboriginal Tasmanians is regarded as a classic case of near genocide by Lemkin, most comparative scholars of genocide, and many general historians, including Robert Hughes, Ward Churchill, Leo Kuper and Jared Diamond, who base their analysis on previously published histories.^[286] Between 1824 and 1908 White settlers and Native Mounted Police in Queensland, according to Raymond Evans, killed more than 10,000 Aboriginal people, who were regarded as vermin and sometimes even hunted for sport.^[287]

Prior to the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788, which marked the beginning of Britain's colonization of Australia, the Aboriginal population had been estimated by historians to be around roughly 500,000 people; by 1900, that number had plummeted to fewer than 50,000. While most died due to the introduction of infectious diseases that accompanied colonization, up to 20,000 were killed during the Australian frontier wars by British settlers and colonial authorities through massacres, mass poisonings and other actions.^[288] Ben Kiernan, an Australian historian of genocide, treats the Australian evidence over the first century of colonization as an example of genocide in his 2007 history of the concept and practice, Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur.^[289] Historian Niall Ferguson has referred to the case in Tasmania as follows: "In one of the most shocking of all the chapters in the history of the British Empire, the Aborigines in Van Diemen's Land were hunted down, confined, and ultimately exterminated: an event which truly merits the now overused term 'genocide'.",^[290] and mentions Ireland and North America as areas that suffered ethnic cleansing at the hands of the British.^[291] According to Patrick Wolfe in the Journal of Genocide Research, the "frontier massacring of indigenous peoples" by the British constitutes a genocide.^[292] Widespread population decline occurred following conquest principally from introduction of infectious disease. The number of Australian Aboriginal Australians declined by 84% after British colonization.^[293]

The Australian practice of removing the children of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent from their families throughout most of the 20th century, has been described as genocidal.^[294]^[295] The 1997 report Bringing Them Home, which examined the fate of the "stolen generations" concluded that the forced separation of Aboriginal children from their family constituted an act of genocide.^[296] In the 1990s a number of Australian state institutions, including the state of Queensland, apologized for its policies regarding forcible separation of Aboriginal children.^[297] Another allegation against the Australian state is the use of medical services to Aboriginal people to administer contraceptive therapy to Aboriginal women without their knowledge or consent, including the use of Depo Provera, as well as tubal ligations. Both forced adoption and forced contraception would fall under the provisions of the UN genocide convention.^[298] Aboriginal Australians were only granted the right to vote in some states in 1962.^[299] Some Australian scholars, including historians Geoffrey Blainey and Keith Windschuttle and political scientist Ken Minogue, reject the view that Australian Aboriginal policy was genocidal.^[300]

New Zealand

During the New Zealand Wars and the subsequent land confiscations, the Maori population suffered a 57% drop from its highest point as a result of Old World diseases introduced by the British colonists.^[301]

Moriori genocide

During the intertribal Musket Wars, two Maori tribes displaced from Taranaki arrived in the Chatham Islands, where they massacred and enslaved the indigenous Moriori people.^[302]^[303]^[304] In the aftermath of the genocide, the Native Land Court awarded the Maori invaders ownership of the Chatham islands in 1870 and denied the Moriori any sovereignty over the islands.^[305]

Blackbirding in the Pacific Islands

Throughout the 19th century, several Pacific Islander nations such as Fiji, New Caledonia and Easter Island fell victim to foreign diseases such as smallpox and measles as a result of blackbirding by European and American colonists. The Peruvian slave raids in particular led to the near extinction of the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island and the depopulation of ʻAta in Tonga.^[306]

Contemporary examples

The genocide of Indigenous tribes is still an ongoing feature in the modern world,^[307] with the ongoing depopulation of the Jivaro, Yanomami, and other tribes in Brazil having been described as genocide.^[213] Multiple incidents of rioting against the minority communities in Afghanistan,^[308] Bangladesh,^[309]^[310] Pakistan,^[311]^[312] Sri Lanka,^[313] Myanmar^[314] and India^[315]^[316]^[317]^[318]^[319]^[320] have been documented. Paraguay has also been accused of carrying out a genocide against the Aché whose case was brought before the Inter-American Human Rights Commission. The commission gave a provisional ruling that genocide had not been committed by the state but expressed concern over "possible abuses by private persons in remote areas of the territory of Paraguay".^[321] Yazadi genocide in Iraq remains a case of major concern.^[322]

Hitchcock and Twedt say that even though genocidal actions against Indigenous peoples continue, most states and even the United Nations avoid criticizing other nations for this.^[323]

Afghanistan

For many years the indigenous Hazaras in Afghanistan have been subjected to genocide.^[324] One of the most tragic example is the 1998 Mazar-i-Sharif massacre that left from 2,000 to 20,000 during that event alone.^[325]^[326]

Bangladesh

According to Amnesty International and Reference Services Review, the Indigenous Chakma people of the Chittagong hill tracts were allegedly subjected to genocidal violence between the 1970s and the 1990s. Their population had been dwindling since the military rule launched by dictator Major General Ziaur Rahman, who took control of the country after a military coup in 1975 and reigned from 1975 to 1981. Later, his successor Lieutenant General HM Ershad who reigned from 1982 to 1990.^[327]^[328] In response, the Indigenous Chakma rebels led by M.N. Larma (killed in 1983) started an insurgency in the region in 1977. The Bangladeshi government had settled hundreds of thousands of Bengali people in the region who now constitute the majority of the population there.^[329]^[330] On 11 September 1996, the Indigenous rebels reportedly abducted and killed 28 to 30 Bengali woodcutters.^[331] After democracy was reestablished in the country, fresh rounds of talks began in 1996 with the newly elected prime minister Sheikh Hasina Wajed of the Awami League, the daughter of the late Father of the Nation Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and the representatives of the Indigenous rebels.^[332] A peace treaty was signed between the Government and the Indigenous people on 2 December 1997, ending the 20-year-long insurgency and all hostilities in the region.^[333]

Brazil

From the late 1950s until 1968, the state of Brazil submitted their Indigenous peoples to violent attempts to integrate, pacify and acculturate their communities. In 1967, public prosecutor Jader de Figueiredo Correia submitted the Figueiredo Report to the then-ruling dictatorship. The report, which comprised seven thousand pages, was not released until 2013. It documents genocidal crimes against the Indigenous peoples of Brazil, including mass murder, torture, bacteriological and chemical warfare, reported slavery, and sexual abuse. The rediscovered documents are being examined by the National Truth Commission which has been tasked with the investigations of human rights violations that occurred between 1947 and 1988. The report reveals that the Indian Protection Service (IPS) had enslaved Indigenous people, tortured children, and stolen land. The Truth Commission considers that entire tribes in Maranhão were eradicated and that in Mato Grosso an attack on 30 Cinturão Largo left only two survivors. The report also states that landowners and members of the IPS had entered isolated villages and deliberately introduced smallpox. Of the 134 people accused in the report, the state has until date not tried a single one,^[334] since the Amnesty Law passed in the end of the dictatorship does not allow trials for abuses that happened in that period. The report also details instances of mass killings, rapes, and torture, Figueiredo stated that the actions of the IPS had left Indigenous peoples near extinction. The state abolished the IPS following the release of the report. The Red Cross launched an investigation after further allegations of ethnic cleansing were made after the IPS had been replaced.^[335]^[336]

Canada

In 2019 a government inquiry reported that Canada was complicit in a race-based genocide against indigenous women, where indigenous women are twelve times more likely to be killed or to disappear than other women in Canada.^[337]

Research done in 2017 has shown that Indigenous peoples in Canada suffer from a disproportionate burden of mental illness. Colonialism plays a large role in the mental health of Indigenous people, leading to an increase in suicide and substance abuse. Colonialism as a structure can construct mental illness due to its set of norms. Health outcomes such as infant mortality, high rates of acute or chronic pain and high rates of injury with social inequalities have been linked to poverty and racism colonialism.^[338]

China

Tibet

On 5 June 1959, Shri Purshottam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate of the Indian Supreme Court presented a report on Tibet to the International Commission of Jurists (an NGO):

From the facts stated above the following conclusions may be drawn: ... (e) To examine all such evidence obtained by this Committee and from other sources and to take appropriate action thereon and in particular to determine whether the crime of Genocide – for which already there is strong presumption – is established and, in that case, to initiate such action as envisaged by the Genocide Convention of 1948 and by the Charter of the United Nations for suppression of these acts and appropriate redress;^[339]

According to the Tibet Society of the UK, "In all, over one million Tibetans, a fifth of the population, had died as a result of the Chinese occupation right up until the end of the Cultural Revolution."^[340]

Xinjiang

The Chinese government is accused of having committed a series of human rights abuses against the native Uyghur people and other ethnic and religious minorities, both inside and around the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) of the People's Republic of China, that have frequently been characterized as a genocide.^[341]^[342]^[343] Since 2014,^[344] the Chinese government, under the direction of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during the administration of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping, has pursued policies which have led to the imprisonment of more than one million Muslims^[345]^[346]^[347]^[348]^[349] (most of them Uyghurs) in secretive internment camps without any legal process^[350]^[351] in what has become the largest-scale detention of ethnic and religious minorities since World War II and The Holocaust.^[352]^[353] Critics of the policy have described it as forced assimilation and they have also called it an ethnocide or a cultural genocide,^[360] and some governments, activists, independent NGOs, human rights experts, academics, government officials, independent researchers, and the East Turkistan Government-in-Exile have called it a genocide.^[365]^[366] In particular, critics have highlighted the concentration of Uyghurs in state-sponsored internment camps,^[369] the suppression of Uyghur religious practices,^[372] political indoctrination,^[373] severe ill-treatment,^[374] and extensive evidence^[375]^[376] of human rights abuses including forced sterilization, contraception,^[377]^[378] and abortion.^[382] Chinese authorities confirmed reports which state that birth rates in Xinjiang dropped by almost a third in 2018, but they denied reports of forced sterilization and genocide.^[383]

Inner Mongolia

In 1966 Mao Zedong accused the Inner Mongolian People's Party (IMPP) led by the Mongol Ulanhu as a “political movement aiming to divide the motherland, China”.^[384]^[385] That accusation was used to eliminate the Mongol elite and to begin the genocide of the Mongols.^[384]^[385] The number of Mongol casualties during the Cultural Revolution is estimated between 16,222 (Chinese government) and 50,000 (independent study).^[384]^[385]^[386] The Office of the Inner Mongolia Communist Party Committee published statistics in 1989 which stated the total number of incarcerated Mongols were 480,000.^[386] Independent surveys overseas estimate around half a million arrested and 100,000 deaths.^[386] When including delayed deaths (returning home after imprisonment) is an estimated 300,000 casualties.^[386] The cultural revolution became ingrained among the peasantry who caused torturing, humiliation and genocide of the Mongols.^[385] Chinese propaganda teams of the CCP came from outside to Inner Mongolia and perpetrated major atrocities in the 1970s.^[386] The CCP also imposed abortions on the Mongolians.^[385]

Colombia

In the protracted conflict in Colombia,I groups such as the Awá, Wayuu, Pijao, and Paez people have become subjected to intense violence by right-wing paramilitaries, leftist guerrillas, and the Colombian army.^[387]^[388] Drug cartels, international resource extraction companies and the military have also used violence to force the Indigenous groups out of their territories.^[389]^[390]^[391] The National Indigenous Organization of Colombia argues that the violence is genocidal in nature, but others question whether there is a "genocidal intent" as required in international law.^[392]^[393]

Congo (DRC)

In the Democratic Republic of Congo, genocidal violence against the Indigenous Mbuti, Lese, and Ituri peoples has reportedly been endemic for decades. During the Congo Civil War (1998–2003), Pygmies were hunted down and eaten by both sides in the conflict, who regarded them as subhuman.^[394] Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti pygmies, asked the UN Security Council to recognize cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.^[395] According to a report by Minority Rights Group International, there is evidence of mass killings, cannibalism, and rape. The report, which labeled these events as a campaign of extermination, linked much of the violence to beliefs about special powers held by the Bambuti.^[396] In the Ituri district, rebel forces ran an operation code-named "Effacer le Tableau" (to wipe the slate clean). The aim of the operation, according to witnesses, was to rid the forest of pygmies.^[397]^[398]^[399]

Darfur

The Darfur genocide is the systematic killing of ethnic Darfuri people by the Al-Bashir regime of the Sudanese government, which has occurred during the War in Darfur and the ongoing War in Sudan (2023–present) in Darfur.^[400]

East Timor

Indonesia invaded East Timor or Timor-Leste, which had previously been a Portuguese colony, in 1975. Following the invasion, the Indonesian government implemented repressive military policies in an attempt to quell ethnic protests and armed resistance in the area. People from other parts of Indonesia were encouraged to settle in the region. The violence which occurred between 1975 and 1993 claimed between 120,000 and 200,000 lives. The repression entered the international spotlight in 1991 when a protest in Dili was disrupted by Indonesian forces which killed over 250 people and disappeared hundreds of others. The Santa Cruz massacre, as the event became known, drew a significant amount of international attention to the issue (it was highlighted when the 1996 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Catholic Bishop Carlos Belo and resistance leader José Ramos-Horta).

Following the international outcry, the Indonesian government began to organize a host of paramilitary groups which continued to harass and kill pro-independence activists in East Timor. At the same time, the Indonesian government significantly increased its population resettlement efforts in the area and intensified the destruction of the infrastructure and the environment used by East Timorese communities. In response to this policy, an international intervention force was eventually deployed to East Timor in order to monitor a vote for the independence of East Timor by its population in 1999. The vote was significantly in favor of independence and the Indonesian forces withdrew, but paramilitaries continued to carry out reprisal attacks for a few years.^[401]^[402] A UN Report on the Indonesian occupation identified starvation, defoliant and napalm use, torture, rape, sexual slavery, disappearances, public executions, and extrajudicial killings as sanctioned by the Indonesian government and the entire colflict. As a result, East Timorese population declined to a third of its original size of 1975.^[403]

Guatemala

During the Guatemalan Civil War (1960–1996), state forces carried out violent atrocities against Mayans. The government considered them to be aligned with the communist insurgents. Guatemalan armed forces carried out three campaigns that have been described as genocidal.

The first was a scorched earth policy which was also accompanied by mass killing, including the forced conscription of Mayan boys into the military where they were sometimes forced to participate in massacres against their own home villages. The second was to hunt down and exterminate those who had survived and evaded the army; and the third was the forced relocation of survivors to "reeducation centers" and the continuous pursuit of those who had fled into the mountains.^[404]

The armed forces used genocidal rape of women and children as a deliberate tactic. Children were bludgeoned to death by beating them against walls or being thrown alive into mass graves where they would be crushed by the weight of an adult corpse thrown atop them.^[405] An estimated 200,000 people, most of them Mayans, disappeared during the Guatemalan Civil War.^[399]

After the 1996 peace accords, a legal process to determine the legal responsibility of the atrocities and to locate and identify the disappeared ones began. In 2013, former president Efraín Ríos Montt was convicted of genocide and crimes against humanity. He was sentenced to 80 years of imprisonment^[406] but the Constitutional Court of Guatemala overturned his conviction only ten days later.^[407]^[408]

Indonesia

From the time of its independence until the late 1960s, the Indonesian government sought control of the western half of the island of New Guinea, which had remained under the control of the Netherlands.^[409] When it finally achieved internationally recognized control of the area, several clashes occurred between the Indonesian government and the Free Papua Movement. The government of Indonesia began a series of measures aimed to suppress the organization in the 1970s, which reached high levels in the mid-1980s.^[410]^[411]

The resulting human rights abuses included extrajudicial killings, torture, disappearances, rape, and harassment of Indigenous people throughout the province.^[412] A 2004 report by the Allard K. Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic at Yale Law School identified both the mass violence and the transmigration policies which encouraged mostly Balinese and Javanese families to relocate to the area as strong evidence "that the Indonesian government has committed proscribed acts with the intent to destroy the West Papuans as such, in violation of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide."^[413]

Genocide against Indigenous people in the region was key to claims made in the U.S. case of Beanal v. Freeport, one of the first lawsuits where Indigenous people outside the U.S. petitioned to get a ruling against a multinational corporation for environmental destruction outside of the U.S. While the petitioner, an Indigenous leader, claimed that the mining company Freeport-McMoRan had committed genocide through environmental destruction which "resulted in the purposeful, deliberate, contrived and planned demise of a culture of indigenous people", the court found that genocide pertains only to the destruction of an Indigenous people and did not apply to the destruction of the culture of Indigenous people; however, the court did leave open the opportunity for the petitioners to amend their filings with an additional claim.^[414]

Israel

Throughout the extended Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the State of Israel has been accused of committing a genocide against Palestinians. Events such as the Nakba, the Sabra and Shatila massacre, the blockade of the Gaza Strip, the 2014 Gaza War, and the 2023 Israel–Hamas war have been used as examples of evidence for a genocide committed by Israel.^[415] Statements made by Israeli officials have also been described by genocide scholars as dehumanizing the population of Gaza and used as evidence for "genocidal intent."^[416]

Myanmar/Burma

In Myanmar (Burma), the long-running civil war between the Military Junta and the insurgents has resulted in widespread atrocities against the Indigenous Karen people, some of whom are allied with the insurgents. These atrocities have been described as genocidal.^[417] Burmese General Maung Hla stated that one day the Karen will only exist "in a museum"^[418] The government has deployed 50 battalions in the Northern sector systematically attacking Karen villages with mortar and machine gun fire, and landmines. At least 446,000 Karen have been displaced from their homes by the military.^[417]^[419] The Karen are also reported to have been subjected to forced labor, genocidal rape, child labor, and the conscription of child soldiers.^[420] The Rohingya people have also been subjected to persecution mass killings, genocidal mass rapes and forced displacement. The Myanmar army burned their villages and forced them to flee the country. Mass graves which contain the remains of many victims of genocide were discovered. By 2017 over 700,000 Rohingya people fled to Bangladesh, whose government was praised for giving shelter to them.^[421]^[422]

Paraguay

In 2002, the numbers of the 17 Indigenous tribes, who primarily live in the Chaco region of Paraguay, were estimated to be 86,000. Between 1954 and 1989, when the military dictatorship of General Alfredo Stroessner ruled Paraguay, the Indigenous population of the country suffered from more loss of territory and human rights abuses than at any other time in the nation's history. In early 1970, international groups claimed that the state was complicit in the genocide of the Aché, the charges being kidnappings, sale of children, withholding medicines and food, slavery, and torture.^[423]

During the 1960s and 1970s, 85% of the Aché people were killed, often hacked to death with machetes, in order to make room for the timber industry, mining, farming, and ranchers.^[212] According to Jérémie Gilbert, the situation in Paraguay has proven that it is difficult to provide the proof required to show "specific intent", in support of a claim that genocide had occurred. The Aché, whose cultural group is now seen as extinct, fell victim to development by the state which had promoted the exploration of their territories by transnational companies for natural resources. Gilbert concludes that although a planned and voluntary destruction had occurred, it is argued by the state that there was no intent to destroy the Aché, as what had happened was due to development and was not a deliberate action.^[424]^[425]

Peru

Between 1996 and 2000, while under the leadership of President Alberto Fujimori, the Peruvian government carried out coercive sterilizations on approximately 300,000 Peruvian women. The state specifically targeted rural, impoverished, and Indigenous populations through the use of bribes, threats, and deceitful tactics in order to perform tubal ligations and vasectomies without the individuals' informed consent.^[426]

Sri Lanka

The crackdown on the Sri Lankan Tamils during the 1958 anti-Tamil pogrom and the Sri Lankan Civil War have been described as genocidal in nature by the United Nations.^[427] Sri Lankan mobs brutally butchered thousands of Tamil people in 1958, starting a series of genocides over the years that eventually led to a civil war in 1983.^[428] Since the end of the civil war in 2009, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violating human rights by bombing civilian targets, using of heavy weaponry, abducting and killing of Sri Lankan Tamils and using sexual violence.^[429]^[430]^[431]

Human Rights Watch was the first to accuse the Sri Lankan government of genocide under international law in December 2009. Leading American expert in international law Professor Francis A. Boyle held an emergency meeting with U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon to urge to stop the Tamil genocide by providing evidence of crimes against humanity, genocide against Tamils and the international community's failure to stop the slaughter of Tamil civilians in Sri Lanka.^[432]^[433] In February 2020, the US State Department and US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announced that General Shavendra Silva, current commander of the Sri Lankan Army, was banned from entering the United States due to war crimes committed by the 53rd division of the Sri Lankan army, in which he has involved through command responsibility ^[434]

Yazidi genocide in Iraq

Yazidis are an Indigenous minority group in the Middle East that practices its own monotheistic religion. They have frequently been stigmatized and targeted for violence by Islamist extremists in Iraq (most recently by ISIL, but other Islamist groups also perpetrated acts of violence against Yazidis in the past), with multiple studies leading researchers to conclude that acts of genocide have been perpetrated against the Yazidi community in Iraq, including mass killings and rape.^[435]^[436]

While acts of violence against Yazidis have been documented for centuries, recent acts of violence against them include deadly terrorist attacks such as the 2007 Yazidi communities bombings and the August 2014 Sinjar massacre. Yazidi women and girls have frequently been kept as sex slaves and have been subjected to slave trading by ISIL terrorists during the recent events of the genocide of Yazidis by ISIL. This resulted in the forcible displacement of over 500,000 Yazidis from Iraq. In 2014 alone, 5000 Yazidis were killed, but long before that year, the genocide was already being committed against the Yazidis. It is still going on nowadays.^[437]^[438] In February 2021, the remains of 104 Yazidis killed by ISIL were found and laid to rest.^[439]

Notes

^ Other names proposed for the type of genocide often faced by Indigenous peoples include "structural genocide"^[4] and "systemic genocide".^[5]
^ Indigenous peoples are understood to be people whose historical and current territory has become occupied as a result of colonial expansion, or it has become occupied as a result of the formation of a state by a dominant group such as a colonial power.^[6]
^ "As in all wars against uncivilized nations the systematic damage to hostile people's goods and chattels was indispensable in this case. The destruction of economic values like the burning of villages and food supplies might seem barbaric. If one considers, however, on the one hand, in what short time African Negro huts are erected anew and the luxuriant growth of tropic nature gives rise to new field crops, and on the other hand the subjection of the enemy was only possible through a procedure like this, then one will consequently take a more favourable view of this dira necessitas."

References

Citations

^ Benvenuto, Jeff; Woolford, Andrew; Hinton, Alexander Laban (2014). Introduction. Jeff Benvenuto, Andrew Woolford, and Alexander Laban Hinton Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. doi:10.1515/9780822376149-002. ISBN 978-0-8223-7614-9. S2CID 243002850. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
^ Adhikari, Mohamed (2021). Civilian-Driven Violence and the Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Settler Societies. Routledge. p. Acknowledgements. ISBN 978-1-000-41177-5. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
^ Anderson, E. N.; Anderson, Barbara (2020). Complying with Genocide: The Wolf You Feed. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-7936-3460-3. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
^ ^a ^b Wolfe, Patrick (2006). "Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native". Journal of Genocide Research. 8 (4): 387–409. doi:10.1080/14623520601056240. S2CID 143873621.
^ Browning, Christopher R. (2022). "Yehuda Bauer, the Concepts of Holocaust and Genocide, and the Issue of Settler Colonialism". The Journal of Holocaust Research. 36 (1): 30–38. doi:10.1080/25785648.2021.2012985. ISSN 2578-5648. S2CID 246652960. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
^ ^a ^b Maybury-Lewis 2002, p. 45.
^ ^a ^b Irvin-Erickson, Douglas (2020), "Raphaël Lemkin: Genocide, cultural violence, and community destruction", Cultural Violence and the Destruction of Human Communities, Routledge, doi:10.4324/9781351267083-3, ISBN 978-1-351-26708-3, S2CID 234701072, In a footnote, he added that genocide could equally be termed 'ethnocide', with the Greek ethno meaning 'nation'.
^ Short, Damien (2016). Redefining Genocide: Settler Colonialism, Social Death and Ecocide. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-84813-546-8. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
^ Maybury-Lewis 2002, p. 48.
^ Forge 2012, p. 77.
^ Moses 2004, p. 27.
^ Hitchcock & Koperski 2008, pp. 577–82.
^ ^a ^b Novic, Elisa (20 October 2016), "The Concept of Cultural Genocide", Oxford University Press, p. 8, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198787167.003.0002, ISBN 978-0-19-878716-7, retrieved 17 January 2024, Doctrinal opinions can be split into two categories: those who advocate for a broader understanding of the crime, as Larry May does, and those who consider, on the basis of the 1948 Genocide Convention, that genocide should be thought of exclusively in physical and biological terms while cultural genocide should rather be addressed as a human rights issue, per William A. Schabas. {{citation}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ "Cultural Genocide and the Protection of Cultural Heritage". www.getty.edu. Retrieved 17 January 2024. Lemkin did refer to "cultural genocide" from time to time, and he expressed regret that certain related provisions were not retained in the Genocide Convention as it was adopted in 1948.
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Warren, Jonathan W. (2001). Racial Revolutions: Antiracism and Indian Resurgence in Brazil. Duke University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0822327417.
Watts, Jonathan; Rocha, Jan (19 May 2013). "Brazil's 'lost report' into genocide surfaces after 40 years". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
Weiser, Martin (2008). The Herero War – the First Genocide of the 20th Century?. GRIN Verlag. ISBN 978-3638946285.
Williams, Dianne (2012). Race, Ethnicity, and Crime. Algora Publishing. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-87586-915-5.
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Yearbook. International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. 1992. Archived from the original on 9 July 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2014.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{short description|genocide of native inhabitants of a region}}
+{{short description|Genocide of native indigenous inhabitants of a territory}}
+<noinclude>{{User:RMCD bot/subject notice|1=Genocide of indigenous peoples|2=Talk:Genocide of Indigenous peoples#Requested move 25 May 2024}}
+</noinclude>{{Merge from|Canadian genocide of the First Nations|discuss=Talk:Genocide of Indigenous peoples#Proposed merge of Canadian genocide of the First Nations into Genocide of Indigenous peoples#Canada|date=May 2024}}
 {{use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
-{{genocide of Indigenous peoples}}
+{{genocide of Indigenous peoples|expanded=all}}{{Indigenous rights}}
-The '''genocide of indigenous peoples''' is the mass destruction of entire communities of [[indigenous peoples]].<ref group="Note">The definition of ''indigenous peoples'' is controversial. This article uses a definition of ''indigenous peoples'' which is similar to the definition which is included in international legislation which was promulgated by the [[United Nations]] (including [[UNESCO]]) and the [[World Trade Organization]], as well as the definition which has been accepted by the majority of relevant scholarship and applied to those ethnic minorities which were indigenous to a territory prior to its incorporation into a national state, and are politically and culturally separate from the ethnic identity of the majority of the inhabitants of the state which they are a part of. It does not dictate that indigenous people were simply the first known inhabitants of a territory.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}</ref> Indigenous peoples are understood to be people whose historical and current territory has become occupied by colonial expansion, or the formation of a [[State (polity)|state]] by a dominant group such as a [[colonial power]].{{sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|page=45}}
+The '''genocide of Indigenous peoples''', '''colonial genocide''',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Benvenuto |first1=Jeff |last2=Woolford |first2=Andrew |last3=Hinton |first3=Alexander Laban |author-link3=Alexander Laban Hinton |title=Introduction. Jeff Benvenuto, Andrew Woolford, and Alexander Laban Hinton Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America |date=2014 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |doi=10.1515/9780822376149-002 |isbn=978-0-8223-7614-9 |s2cid=243002850 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780822376149-002/html |language=en |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528004637/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780822376149-002/html |url-status=live}}</ref> or '''settler genocide'''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adhikari |first1=Mohamed |author-link1=Mohamed Adhikari |title=Civilian-Driven Violence and the Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Settler Societies |date=2021 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-000-41177-5 |page=Acknowledgements |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xEMoEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22settler+genocides%22&pg=PT6 |language=en |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173816/https://books.google.com/books?id=xEMoEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22settler+genocides%22&pg=PT6 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=E. N. |author-link1=E. N. Anderson |last2=Anderson |first2=Barbara |title=Complying with Genocide: The Wolf You Feed |date=2020 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-1-7936-3460-3 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4aIQEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22settler+genocide%22&pg=PA12 |language=en |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173821/https://books.google.com/books?id=4aIQEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22settler+genocide%22&pg=PA12 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{NoteTag|Other names proposed for the type of genocide often faced by Indigenous peoples include "structural genocide"<ref name=Wolfe/> and "systemic genocide".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Browning |first1=Christopher R. |author-link1=Christopher Browning |title=Yehuda Bauer, the Concepts of Holocaust and Genocide, and the Issue of Settler Colonialism |journal=[[The Journal of Holocaust Research]] |date=2022 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=30–38 |doi=10.1080/25785648.2021.2012985 |s2cid=246652960 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/25785648.2021.2012985 |issn=2578-5648 |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528001323/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/25785648.2021.2012985 |url-status=live}}</ref>}} is the [[Genocide|intentional elimination]] of [[Indigenous peoples]] as a part of the process of [[colonialism]].{{NoteTag|Indigenous peoples are understood to be people whose historical and current territory has become occupied as a result of colonial expansion, or it has become occupied as a result of the formation of a [[State (polity)|state]] by a dominant group such as a [[colonial power]].{{sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|page=45}}}}
-While the concept of [[genocide]] was formulated by [[Raphael Lemkin]] in the mid-20th century, the expansion of various European colonial powers such as the [[British Empire|British]] and [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] empires and the subsequent establishment of [[colonies]] on indigenous territory frequently involved acts of genocidal violence against indigenous groups in the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Americas]], [[Indigenous Australians|Australia]], [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|Africa]], and [[List of indigenous peoples#Asia|Asia]].{{sfn|Jones|2010|p=139}} According to Lemkin, [[colonization]] was in itself "intrinsically genocidal". He saw this genocide as a two-stage process, the first being the destruction of the indigenous population's way of life. In the second stage, the newcomers impose their way of life on the indigenous group.{{sfn|Forge|2012|p=77}}{{sfn|Moses|2004|p=27}} According to [[David Maybury-Lewis]], imperial and colonial forms of genocide are enacted in two main ways, either through the deliberate clearing of territories of their original inhabitants in order to make them exploitable for purposes of resource extraction or colonial settlements, or through enlisting indigenous peoples as [[forced laborers]] in colonial or imperialist projects of resource extraction.{{sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|page=48}} The designation of specific events as genocidal is often controversial.{{sfn|Hitchcock|Koperski|2008|pp=577–82}}
+According to certain genocide experts, including [[Raphael Lemkin]] – the individual who coined the modern concept of genocide – [[colonization]] is intrinsically genocidal.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |last=Irvin-Erickson |first=Douglas |title=Raphaël Lemkin: Genocide, cultural violence, and community destruction |date=2020 |url=https://ebrary.net/225031/sociology/rapha_l_lemkin_genocide_cultural_violence_community_destruction |work=Cultural Violence and the Destruction of Human Communities |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781351267083-3 |isbn=978-1-351-26708-3 |s2cid=234701072 |quote=In a footnote, he added that genocide could equally be termed ‘ethnocide’, with the Greek ethno meaning ‘nation’.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Short |first1=Damien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ywE1EAAAQBAJ&q=inherently+genocidal&pg=PP1 |title=Redefining Genocide: Settler Colonialism, Social Death and Ecocide |date=2016 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-84813-546-8 |page=69 |language=en |access-date=1 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173819/https://books.google.com/books?id=ywE1EAAAQBAJ&q=inherently+genocidal&pg=PP1 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Other scholars view genocide as associated with but distinct from [[settler colonialism]].<ref name="Wolfe">{{cite journal |last1=Wolfe |first1=Patrick |author-link1=Patrick Wolfe |date=2006 |title=Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=387–409 |doi=10.1080/14623520601056240 |s2cid=143873621 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|page=48}} Lemkin saw genocide via colonialism as a two-stage process: (1) the destruction of the Indigenous group's way of life, followed by (2) the settlers' imposition of their way of life on the Indigenous group.{{sfn|Forge|2012|p=77}}{{sfn|Moses|2004|p=27}}
-Some scholars, among them Lemkin, have argued that [[cultural genocide]], sometimes called [[ethnocide]], should also be recognized. A people group may continue to exist, but if it is prevented from perpetuating its group identity by prohibitions of its cultural and religious practices, practices which are the basis of its group identity, this may also be considered a form of genocide. Examples of this form of genocide include the treatment of [[Tibetans]] and [[Uyghurs]] by the [[Government of China]], and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] by the government of the United States and [[First Nations|First Nations peoples]] by the Canadian government.{{sfn|Mehta|2008|p=19}}{{sfn|Attar|2010|p=20}}{{sfn|Sautman|2003|pp=174–240}}<ref name="AIRFA">{{cite web |author=presidency.ucsb.edu|title=President Carter on the AIRFA|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=31173|access-date=1 August 2006}}</ref>
+The expansion of various Western European colonial powers such as the [[British Empire|British]] and [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] empires and the subsequent establishment of [[colonies]] on Indigenous territories frequently involved acts of genocidal violence against Indigenous groups in [[Ethnic groups in Europe|Europe]], the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Americas]], [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|Africa]], [[List of indigenous peoples of Asia|Asia]], and [[Indigenous peoples of Oceania|Oceania]].
+The designation of specific events as genocidal is frequently controversial.{{sfn|Hitchcock|Koperski|2008|pp=577–82}}<ref name=":8">{{Citation |last=Novic |first=Elisa |chapter=The Concept of Cultural Genocide |date=2016-10-20 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198787167.003.0002 |page=8 |access-date=2024-01-17 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198787167.003.0002 |isbn=978-0-19-878716-7 |quote=Doctrinal opinions can be split into two categories: those who advocate for a broader understanding of the crime, as Larry May does, and those who consider, on the basis of the 1948 Genocide Convention, that genocide should be thought of exclusively in physical and biological terms while cultural genocide should rather be addressed as a human rights issue, per William A. Schabas.}}</ref> Some scholars, among them Lemkin,<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cultural Genocide and the Protection of Cultural Heritage |url=https://www.getty.edu/ |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=www.getty.edu |language=en |quote=Lemkin did refer to “cultural genocide” from time to time, and he expressed regret that certain related provisions were not retained in the Genocide Convention as it was adopted in 1948.}}</ref> have argued that [[cultural genocide]], sometimes called [[ethnocide]], should also be recognized. Others scholars contend that genocide should be thought of exclusively in physical and biological terms according to the [[Genocide Convention|1948 Genocide Convention]], with cultural genocide being addressed as a human rights issue.<ref name=":8" />
 == Genocide debate ==
+{{genocide}}{{Main articles|Genocide definitions}}
-The concept of genocide was coined in 1944 by [[Raphael Lemkin]]:<ref>Lemkin, Raphael (2008). Axis rule in occupied Europe : laws of occupation, analysis of government, proposals for redress. Clark, NJ: Lawbook Exchange. ISBN 978-1-58477-901-8, page 79</ref>
+The determination of whether a historical event should be considered a genocide is a matter of scholarly debate. Issues of contention include what construes [[genocidal intent]] and whether or not cultural destruction (sometimes called [[cultural genocide]] or "[[ethnic cleansing]]") constitutes genocide.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Watch |first=Genocide |date=2023-09-10 |title="Ethnic Cleansing" is a Euphemism Used for Genocide Denial |url=https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/ethnic-cleansing-is-a-euphemism-used-for-genocide-denial-1 |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=genocidewatch |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='Ethnic cleansing' bleaches the atrocities of genocide |url=https://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/18/2/204/449611 |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=academic.oup.com}}</ref>
-{{quote|New conceptions require new terms. By ‘‘genocide” we mean the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group. This new word, coined by the author to denote an old practice in its modern development, is made from the ancient Greek word genos (race, tribe) and the Latin tide (killing), thus corresponding in its formation to such words as tyrannicide, homicide, infanticide, etc. Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups. Genocide is directed against the national group as an entity, and the actions involved are directed against individuals, not in their individual capacity, but as members of the national group.}}
+=== Broader conceptions of genocide ===
-After [[World War II]], it was adopted by the United Nations in 1948. For Lemkin, genocide was broadly defined and included all attempts to destroy a specific ethnic group, whether strictly physical through mass killings, or cultural or psychological through oppression and destruction of indigenous ways of life.{{sfn|Lemkin|2008|p=79|ps= "By 'genocide' we mean the destruction of an ethnic group ... Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups."}}
+{{Further|Colonialism and genocide}}
+Certain scholars and genocide experts draw on broader definitions such as Lemkin's, which considers colonialist violence against Indigenous peoples as inherently genocidal.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mcdonnell |first1=Michael A. |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk |date=December 2005 |title=Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623520500349951 |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=501–29 |doi=10.1080/14623520500349951 |s2cid=72663247 |access-date=4 November 2023}}</ref> For Lemkin, genocide included all attempts to destroy a specific ethnic group, whether they are strictly physical, through mass killings, or whether they are strictly cultural or psychological, through oppression and through the [[Cultural genocide|destruction of Indigenous ways of life]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lemkin|2008|p=79}} "By 'genocide' we mean the destruction of an ethnic group ... Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups."</ref>
+A people group may continue to exist, but if it is prevented from perpetuating its group identity by prohibitions of its cultural and religious practices, practices which are the basis of its group identity, this may also be considered a form of genocide. Examples of this include the treatment of [[Tibetans]] and [[Uyghurs]] by the [[Government of China]], the treatment of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] by the United States Government, and the treatment of [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations peoples]] by the Canadian government.{{sfn|Mehta|2008|p=19}}{{sfn|Attar|2010|p=20}}{{sfn|Sautman|2003|pp=174–240}}<ref name="AIRFA">{{cite web |author=presidency.ucsb.edu |title=President Carter on the AIRFA |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=31173 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311042258/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=31173 |archive-date=11 March 2007 |access-date=1 August 2006}}</ref>
-The UN definition, which is used in [[international law]], is narrower than Lemkin's, and states that genocide is:
-"any of the following acts committed with [[Genocidal intent to destroy|intent to destroy]], [[Genocide#In part|in whole or in part]], a national, ethnic, racial or religious group," as such:<ref>[[Convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide|Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]], Article 2</ref>
+The modern concept of genocide was coined in 1944 by [[Raphael Lemkin]]:{{sfn|Lemkin|2008|p=79}}
+{{blockquote|New conceptions require new terms. By "genocide" we mean the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group. This new word, coined by the author to denote an old practice in its modern development, is made from the ancient Greek word ''genos'' (race, tribe) and the Latin cide (killing), thus corresponding in its formation to such words as tyrannicide, homicide, infanticide, etc. Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups. Genocide is directed against the national group as an entity, and the actions involved are directed against individuals, not in their individual capacity, but as members of the national group.}}Lemkin wrote: "Genocide has two phases: one, destruction of the national pattern of the oppressed group: the other, the imposition of the national pattern of the oppressor. This imposition, in turn, may be made upon the oppressed population which is allowed to remain, or upon the territory alone, after removal of the population and the colonization of the area by the oppressor’s own nationals." Some genocide scholars separate the population declines of indigenous peoples which are due to [[disease]] from the genocidal aggression of one group towards another.{{sfn|Grenke|2005|p=199|ps="For the most part, however, the diseases that decimated the Natives were caused by natural contact. These Native peoples were greatly weakened, and as a result, they were less able to resist the Europeans. However, diseases themselves were rarely the sources of the genocides nor were they the sources of the deaths which were caused by genocidal means. The genocides were caused by the aggressive actions of one group towards another."}}<ref name="jama.ama-assn.org">{{cite journal |last1=Henderson |first1=Donald A. |author1-link=Donald Henderson |last2=Inglesby |first2=T. V. |last3=Bartlett |first3=J. G. |last4=Ascher |first4=M. S. |last5=Eitzen |first5=E. |last6=Jahrling |first6=P. B. |last7=Hauer |first7=J. |last8=Layton |first8=M. |last9=McDade |first9=J. |last10=Osterholm |first10=M. T. |last11=O'Toole |first11=T. |last12=Parker |first12=G. |last13=Perl |first13=T. |last14=Russell |first14=P. K. |last15=Tonat |first15=K. |year=1999 |title=Smallpox as a Biological Weapon. Medical and Public Health Management |journal=[[JAMA (journal)|JAMA]] |volume=281 |issue=22 |pages=2127–2137 |doi=10.1001/jama.281.22.2127 |pmid=10367824}}</ref>{{sfn|Edwards|Kelton|2020|p=66}} Some scholars argue that an intent to commit a genocide is not needed, because a genocide may be the cumulative result of minor conflicts in which settlers, colonial agents or state agents perpetrate violent acts against minority groups.{{sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|page=45}} Others argue that the dire consequences of [[Native American disease and epidemics|European diseases among many New World populations]] were exacerbated by different forms of genocidal violence, and they also argue that intentional deaths and unintentional deaths cannot easily be separated from each other.{{sfn|Cave|2008|p=273-74}}{{sfn|Barkan|2003}} Some scholars regard the colonization of the Americas as genocide, since they argue it was largely achieved through systematically exploiting, removing and destroying specific ethnic groups, which would create environments and conditions for such disease to proliferate.{{sfn|Stannard|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RzFsODcGjfcC&pg=PR12 xii]}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ostler |first1=Jeffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EoOVDwAAQBAJ |title=Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas |date=2019 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=9780300245264 |pages=13–17, 381 |access-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212145124/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Surviving_Genocide/EoOVDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover |archive-date=12 December 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Resendez |first1=Andres |title=The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America |date=2016 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |pages=216–217}}</ref>
+According to a 2020 study by Tai S Edwards and Paul Kelton, recent scholarship shows "that colonizers bear responsibility for creating conditions that made natives vulnerable to infection, increased mortality, and hindered population recovery. This responsibility intersected with more intentional and direct forms of violence to depopulate the Americas... germs can no longer serve as the basis for denying American genocides."{{sfn|Edwards|Kelton|2020|pp=54–55}}
+Other scholars have said that the population decline cannot be explained by disease only. The vectors of death raised by displacement, warfare, slavery, and famine played an important role.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunbar-Ortiz |first=Roxanne |date=2016-05-12 |title=Yes, Native Americans Were the Victims of Genocide {{!}} History News Network |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/162804 |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=historynewsnetwork.org |quote=If disease could have done the job, it is not clear why the United States found it necessary to carry out unrelenting wars against Indigenous communities in order to gain every inch of land they took from them—along with the prior period of British colonization, nearly three hundred years of eliminationist warfare.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Reséndez |first=Andrés |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ |title=The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America |date=2016-04-12 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-544-60267-0 |pages=21 |language=en |quote=...between 1492 and 1550, a nexus of slavery, overwork, and famine killed more Indians in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza, and malaria. And among these human factors, slavery has emerged as a major killer.}}</ref>
+=== United Nations' definition of Genocide ===
+{{Main article|Genocide Convention}}
+The UN's 1948 definition, which is used in [[international law]], is narrower than Lemkin's definition. According to the UN, for an act to be classified as genocide, it is essential to demonstrate that the perpetrators had a specific [[Genocidal intent to destroy|intent to physically destroy]] the group, [[Genocide#In part|in whole or in part]], based on its real or perceived nationality, ethnicity, race, or religion. [[Cultural genocide|Intention to destroy the group's culture]] or intending to scatter the group does suffice.<ref>{{Cite web |title=United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect |url=https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/genocide.shtml |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=www.un.org}}</ref> The following five acts comprise the physical element of the crime: <ref>[[Convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide|Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]], Article 2</ref>
 :(a) "Killing members of the group;"
 :(b) "Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;"
@@ Line 22: / Line 40: @@
 :(d) "Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;"
 :(e) "Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."
+The United Nations’ definition of genocide does not offer a broad enough explanation of all that goes into a genocide, especially in the case of Indigenous peoples. The destruction of nonhuman animals, land, water, and other nonhuman beings constitute forms of genocide according to Indigenous metaphysics. <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Eichler |first=Lauren J. |date=2020 |title=Ecocide is genocide: decolonizing the definition of genocide |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention: An International Journal |volume=14 |issue=2}}</ref>
+== Indigenous peoples of Europe (pre-1947) ==
+=== British colonization of Ireland ===
+{{Main|Plantations of Ireland|Cromwellian conquest of Ireland}}
+The numerous massacres and widespread starvation that accompanied the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]] (1649–1653) has led to it being called a genocide{{By whom|date=February 2024}}; hundreds of thousands of Irish civilians died, and about 50,000 Irish were sold into [[indentured servitude]]. In the aftermath of the conquest, thousands of native Irish were forcibly deported to [[Connacht]] in accordance with the [[Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sauer |first=Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lRXrAQAAQBAJ&q=++%22ethnic+cleansing%22&pg=PA65 |title=Milton, Toleration, and Nationhood |date=23 June 2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107041943 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>"Rather the region was chosen out of exaggerated respect for the impermeability of the Shannon line". Lenihan p141</ref>[[File:An gorta Mor.jpg|thumb|''Ireland's Holocaust'' mural in [[Belfast]]. British government policy during the time of [[Great Famine (Ireland)|The Great Famine]] in [[Ireland]] remains controversial.]]The [[Plantations of Ireland]] were attempts to expel the native Irish from the best land of the island, and settle it with loyal British Protestants; they too have been described as genocidal.<ref>{{cite news |last=Daly |first=Susan |title=Irish Famine 'Tribunal' to probe if it was crime against humanity |url=https://www.thejournal.ie/irish-famine-tribunal-british-crimes-against-humanity-871169-Apr2013/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307004132/https://www.thejournal.ie/irish-famine-tribunal-british-crimes-against-humanity-871169-Apr2013/ |archive-date=7 March 2021 |access-date=7 November 2020 |work=[[TheJournal.ie]]}}</ref> The [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] (1845–1850) has also been blamed on British policy and called genocidal.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gosling |first=Tony |date=17 January 2019 |title=What the 'Irish famine' genocide teaches us about Palestine |url=https://mondoweiss.net/2019/01/genocide-teaches-palestine/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104203138/http://tlio.org.uk/what-the-irish-famine-genocide-teaches-us-about-palestine/ |archive-date=4 November 2020 |access-date=7 November 2020}}</ref> Writing in ''[[Indian Country Today]]'', Christina Rose drew parallels between the Irish and Native American experience of dispossession and genocide{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}; Katie Kane has compared the [[Sand Creek massacre]] with the [[Drogheda massacre]]. R. Barry O'Brien compared the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641]] with the [[American Indian Wars]], writing "The slaughter of Irishmen was looked upon as literally the slaughter of wild beasts. Not only the men, but even the women and children who fell into the hands of the English were deliberately and systematically butchered. Year after year, over a great part of all Ireland, all means of human subsistence was destroyed, no quarter was given to prisoners who surrendered, and the whole population was skillfully and steadily starved to death."<ref>{{cite news |title=10 Stunning Similarities Between Irish and Native Historic Experiences |url=https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/10-stunning-similarities-between-irish-and-native-historic-experiences-1UQOnTBtk0aLKFOqy_Xtpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212133842/https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/10-stunning-similarities-between-irish-and-native-historic-experiences?redir=1 |archive-date=12 December 2021 |access-date=7 November 2020 |newspaper=Ict News}}</ref> Similar to the European Colonization of the Americas, the death toll under the British Empire is estimated to be as high as 150 million, a figure questioned by a sizeable number of British historians.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k0LQAwAAQBAJ&q=%22killed+may+be+as+high+as+150+million%22&pg=PA182 |title=Civilization & Violence: Islam, the West, and the Rest |date=5 March 2014 |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |isbn=9781493120246 |access-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003012252/https://books.google.com/books?id=k0LQAwAAQBAJ&q=%22killed+may+be+as+high+as+150+million%22&pg=PA182 |archive-date=3 October 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Colley |first1=Linda |year=1986 |title=The Politics of Eighteenth-Century British History |journal=[[Journal of British Studies]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=359–379 |doi=10.1086/385871 |jstor=175562 |s2cid=154499446}}</ref>
+===Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks, Karaites===
+[[Deportation of the Crimean Tatars|Deportation of Crimean Tatars on May 18, 1944]].
+Most of the [[Crimean Tatars]] were forcibly transported from Crimea to Central Asia in freight wagons. The Soviet authorities tried to drown the Crimean Tatars from the [[Arabat Spit|Arabat spit]] in the sea on a barge, and those Crimean Tatars who tried to swim ashore were shot.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-18 |title=У Львові вшанували пам'ять жертв депортації кримських татар |url=https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-regions/3248144-u-lvovi-vsanuvali-pamat-zertv-deportacii-krimskih-tatar.html |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=www.ukrinform.ua |language=uk}}</ref>
+The [[Krymchaks]] and part of the [[Crimean Karaites|Karaites]] became victims of the Holocaust during World War II and Stalin's deportation.
+During the years of the USSR, the cultural and historical heritage of the Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks, and Karaites was either massively destroyed, or it was exported from the Crimea to Russia, or it was stolen by the Russian-Soviet invaders.
+=== Circassian genocide ===
+{{Main|Circassian genocide}}
+Throughout the 19th century, the [[Russian Empire]] conducted a genocidal campaign against the [[Circassians]] and other Muslim populations in the [[North Caucasus]]. During the genocide, many Circassians were subjected to massacres and mass rapes as well as scientific experimentation, while others were deported from their homeland and resettled in the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |title=The Circassian Genocide |series=Genocide, Political Violence, Human Rights |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LHlwZwpA70cC |year=2013 |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] |access-date=3 May 2016 |isbn=978-0-8135-6069-4 |at=back cover}}</ref><ref name=":102">{{Cite web |last=Dönmez |first=Yılmaz |date=2018-05-31 |title=General Zass'ın Kızının Adigeler Tarafından Kaçırılışı |trans-title=Kidnapping of General Zass's Daughter by the Adygs |url=https://cerkesfed.org/arastirma/general-zassin-kizinin-adigeler-tarafindan-kacirilisi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114124820/https://cerkesfed.org/arastirma/general-zassin-kizinin-adigeler-tarafindan-kacirilisi/ |archive-date=14 January 2021 |access-date=2021-08-13 |website=ÇERKES-FED |language=tr}}</ref><ref name=":52">Capobianco, Michael (2012). ''Blood on the Shore: The Circassian Genocide''</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Gazetesi |first=Jıneps |date=2 September 2013 |title=Velyaminov, Zass ve insan kafası biriktirme hobisi |trans-title=Velyaminov, Zass and his hobby of collecting human heads |url=https://jinepsgazetesi.com/2013/09/velyaminov-zass-ve-insan-kafasi-biriktirme-hobisi/ |access-date=26 September 2020 |website=Jıneps Gazetesi |language=tr}}</ref>
+=== Cultural genocide in Scandinavia ===
+{{Main|Norwegianization of the Sámi|Swedification}}
+During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Norwegian and Swedish governments imposed assimilation policies on indigenous peoples such as the [[Sámi peoples|Sámi]], [[Kven people|Kven]] and [[Finns]].<ref name="Minde 20192">{{Cite web |last=Minde |first=Henry |title=Fornorskinga av Samene: hvorfor, hvordan og hvilke følger? |trans-title=The Norwegianisation of the Sami: why, how and what are the consequences? |url=https://samiskeveivisere.no/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/3-2005-fornorskning-av-samene-henry-minde.pdf |language=no}}</ref><ref name=":53">{{Cite book |last=Nergård |first=Jens Ivar |url=http://www.nb.no/nbsok/nb/01c6a82a9ba7a1d6e3ab02ee9ef30f7b?index=1#0 |title=Det skjulte Nord-Norge |publisher=ad Notam Gyldendal |language=no |trans-title=It hid Northern Norway}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Gignac |first=Julien |date=14 September 2016 |title=Sami Blood addresses the assimilation of indigenous children in Scandinavia |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/awards-and-festivals/tiff/sami-blood-shines-spotlight-on-assimilation-of-indigenous-children-in-scandinavia/article31892290/ |access-date=16 June 2020 |work=The Globe and Mail |location=Toronto, Ontario}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/IPS_Boarding_Schools.pdf |title=Indigenous Peoples and Boarding Schools: A comparative study |last=Smith |first=Andrea |date=2009 |publisher=United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues |access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>
+=== Nazi Germany ===
+{{Main|Generalplan Ost}}
+During World War II the indigenous [[Slavs|Slavs and other ethnic groups such as Jews]] were mass murdered and ethnically cleansed under the Nazi regime to pave the way for Germanic settlers to colonize the region in accordance with [[Adolf Hitler]]'s ideologies of ''[[Lebensraum]]''. The overall program has led to the deaths of 11 million Slavs.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://studenttheses.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/75106 | title=The Forgotten Holocaust: The systematic genocide on the Slavic people by the Nazis during the Second World War &#124; Student Repository | access-date=19 January 2024 | archive-date=25 June 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625154049/https://studenttheses.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/75106 | url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>
+Hitler's version of ''Lebensraum'' that spearheaded Germany's colonization of Eastern Europe was modeled from [[German colonial empire|Imperial German colonialism]] during the [[Scramble for Africa]] as well as the U.S. colonial ideology of [[manifest destiny]]. Hitler compared Nazi expansion to American expansion westward, stating, "there's only one duty: to Germanize this country [Russia] by the immigration of Germans and to look upon the natives as [[Redskin|Redskins]]."<ref>[https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/lebensraum#:~:text=In%20the%20Nazi%20state%2C%20Lebensraum,American%20expansion%20in%20the%20West Lebensraum], [[US Holocaust Memorial Museum]]</ref>
+== Indigenous peoples of the Americas (pre-1948){{anchor|Americas|The question of colonization and genocide in the Americas|Colonization and genocide in the Americas|Native American Genocide|Pre–1948 examples|Indigenous peoples of the Americas}} ==
+{{see also|Category:Native American genocide|Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas|European colonization of the Americas|Genocides in history (before World War I)#Americas}}
+It is estimated that during the initial Spanish conquest of the Americas, up to eight million Indigenous people died, primarily through the spread of Afro-Eurasian diseases, wars, and atrocities.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Gilio-Whitaker |first=Dina |title=As Long As Grass Grows: The Indigenous Fight for Environmental Justice, From Colonization to Standing Rock |publisher=Beacon Press |year=2019 |location=Boston, Massachusetts}}{{page needed|date=May 2024}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 2007 |title=La catastrophe démographique |journal=L'Histoire}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=James |title=The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America |publisher=Grove Press |pages=49}}</ref> The population of Indigenous Americans is estimated to have decreased from approximately 145 million to around 7-15 million between the late 15th and late 17th centuries, representing a decline of around 90-95%.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=McKenna |first1=Erin |first2=Scott L. |last2=Pratt |title=American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-44118-375-0 |location=50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK |pages=375}}</ref>
+Mistreatment and killing of Native Americans continued for centuries, in every area of the Americas, including the areas that would become Canada, the United States, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile. In the United States, some scholars (examples listed below) state that the [[American Indian Wars]] and the doctrine of [[manifest destiny]] contributed to the genocide, with one major event cited being the [[Trail of Tears]].
+In contrast, a 2019 book by Jeffrey Ostler at the [[University of Oregon]] has argued that genocide is not a majority viewpoint in the scholarship on the subject and he writes that, <blockquote>Since 1992, the argument for a total, relentless, and pervasive genocide in the Americas has become accepted in some areas of Indigenous studies and genocide studies. For the most part, however, this argument has had little impact on mainstream scholarship in U.S. history or American Indian history. Scholars are more inclined than they once were to gesture to particular actions, events, impulses, and effects as genocidal, but genocide has not become a key concept in scholarship in these fields.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ostler |first=Jeffrey |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvgc629z |title=Surviving Genocide |date=2019-05-28 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |doi=10.2307/j.ctvgc629z |isbn=978-0-300-24526-4 |s2cid=166826195}}</ref></blockquote>
+=== Causes of Indigenous Deaths ===
+According to scholars Tai S. Edwards and Paul Kelton, colonizers bear responsibility for creating conditions that made natives vulnerable to infection, increased mortality, and hindered population recovery. This responsibility intersected with more intentional and direct forms of violence to depopulate the Americas.  It is false to blame Indigenous deaths on the spread of germs and diseases when intentional and genocidal forces were at play. Kelton and Edwards explain that Native peoples did not die from accidentally introduced ‘virgin’ soil epidemics. They died because U.S. colonization, removal policies, reservation confinement, and assimilation programs severely and continuously undermined physical and spiritual health. Disease was the secondary killer.”{{sfn|Edwards|Kelton|2020}}
+Some scholars view the term ethnic cleansing as a more appropriate designation. As detailed in ''Ethnic Cleansing: The Crime That Should Haunt America,'' historian Gary Anderson insists that genocide does not apply to any of American history since “policies of mass murder on a scale similar to events in central Europe, Cambodia, or Rwanda were never implemented" but argues that ethnic cleansing occurred.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last=Sousa |first=Ashley |date=2016 |title=Ethnic Cleansing and the Indian: The Crime That Should Haunt America by Gary Clayton Anderson |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/soh.2016.0023 |journal=[[Journal of Southern History]] |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=135–136 |doi=10.1353/soh.2016.0023 |s2cid=159731284 |issn=2325-6893}}</ref>
-The determination of whether a historical event should be considered genocide can be a matter of scholarly debate. Historians often draw on broader definitions such as Lemkin's, which sees colonialist violence against indigenous peoples as inherently genocidal. For example, in the case of the [[colonization of the Americas]], where the [[indigenous people of the Americas]] declined by up to 90% in the first centuries of European colonization, it can be debatable whether genocide occurs when disease is considered the main cause of this decline since the introduction of disease was mostly unintentional.<ref name="jama.ama-assn.org">{{cite journal | last1 = Henderson | first1 = Donald A. | display-authors = etal   | year = 1999 | title = Smallpox as a Biological Weapon. Medical and Public Health Management | journal = [[JAMA (journal)|JAMA]] | volume = 281 | issue = 22| pages = 2127–2137 | doi = 10.1001/jama.281.22.2127 | pmid=10367824}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Edwards|first1=Tai S|last2=Kelton|first2=Paul|date=2020|title=Germs, Genocides, and America's Indigenous Peoples|journal=Journal of American History|volume=107|issue=1|pages=52–76|doi=10.1093/jahist/jaaa008|issn=0021-8723|doi-access=free}}</ref> Some genocide scholars separate the population declines due to disease from the genocidal aggression of one group toward another.{{sfn|Grenke|2005|p=199|ps= "For the most part, however, the diseases that decimated the Natives were caused by natural contact. These greatly weakened Native peoples, leaving them less able to resist the Europeans.  However, diseases themselves were rarely the source of the genocides or the deaths caused by genocidal means.  These were caused by the aggressive actions of one group towards another."}} Some scholars argue that intent of genocide is not necessary, since genocide may be the cumulative result of minor conflicts in which settlers, or colonial or state agents, perpetrate violence against minority groups.{{sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|page=45}} Others argue that the dire consequences of [[Native American disease and epidemics|European diseases among many New World populations]] were exacerbated by different forms of genocidal violence, and that intentional and unintentional deaths cannot easily be separated.{{sfn|Cave|2008|p=273-74}}{{sfn|Barkan|2003}} Some scholars regard the colonization of the Americas as genocide, since they argue it was largely achieved through systematically exploiting, removing and destroying specific ethnic groups, which would create environments and conditions for such disease to proliferate.{{sfn|Stannard|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RzFsODcGjfcC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR12#v=onepage&q&f=false xii]}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ostler |first1=Jeffrey |title=Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas |date=2019 |publisher=Yale University Press |pages=13–17, 381 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Surviving_Genocide/EoOVDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Resendez |first1=Andres |title=The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America |date=2016 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |pages=216–217}}</ref>
+As detailed in Genocide Against Indigenous Peoples, David Maybury-Lewis insists that a categorization of a genocide is accurate because of the deliberate attempts to massacre entire societies and fatal circumstances imposed by the colonizers.{{sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|pp=43–53}}
-According to a 2020 study by Tai S Edwards and Paul Kelton, recent scholarship shows "that colonizers bear responsibility for creating conditions that made natives vulnerable to infection, increased mortality, and hindered population recovery. This responsibility intersected with more intentional and direct forms of violence to depopulate the Americas... germs can no longer serve as the basis for denying American genocides."<ref name=":1" />
+=== Categorization as a genocide ===
-== Indigenous peoples of the Americas (pre-1948){{anchor|Americas|The question of colonization and genocide in the Americas|Colonization and genocide in the Americas|Native American Genocide|Pre–1948 examples|Indigenous peoples of the Americas }} ==
+Historians and scholars whose work has examined this history in the context of genocide have included historian Jeffrey Ostler,<ref name=":5" /> historian [[David Stannard]],{{sfn|Stannard|1993}} anthropological demographer [[Russell Thornton]]{{sfn|Thornton|1987}} (Cherokee Nation), historian [[Vine Deloria, Jr.]] (Standing Rock Dakota), as well as activists such as [[Russell Means]] (Oglala Lakota) and [[Ward Churchill]]. In his book, ''[[American Holocaust (book)|American Holocaust]]'', Stannard compares the events of colonization in the Americas to the definition of genocide which is written in the [[Genocide Convention|1948 UN convention]], and he writes that,<blockquote>In light of the U.N. language—even putting aside some of its looser constructions—it is impossible to know what transpired in the Americas during the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries and not conclude that it was genocide.</blockquote> Thornton describes the direct consequences of warfare, violence, and [[massacre]]s as genocides, many of which had the effect of wiping out entire [[ethnic group]]s.{{sfn|Thornton|1987|pp=104–13}} Political scientist [[Guenter Lewy]] states that "even if up to 90 percent of the reduction in Indian population was the result of disease, that leaves a sizeable death toll caused by mistreatment and violence."<ref>{{cite news|first=Guenter |last=Lewy |url=http://hnn.us/articles/7302.html |title=Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide? |work=[[History News Network]] |year=2007 |access-date=28 August 2013 |archive-date=2 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302163142/http://hnn.us/articles/7302.html |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ethnic studies]] professor [[Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz]] states,<blockquote>Proponents of the default position emphasize attrition by disease despite other causes equally deadly, if not more so. In doing so they refuse to accept that the colonization of America was genocidal by plan, not simply the tragic fate of populations lacking immunity to disease.<ref>''An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States''; Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz; ''[[Beacon Press]]''; 2014; Pgs. 41–42</ref></blockquote>By 1900, the Indigenous population in the Americas declined by more than 80%, and by as much as 98% in some areas. The effects of diseases such as [[smallpox]], [[measles]] and [[cholera]] during the first century of colonialism contributed greatly to the death toll, while violence, displacement, and warfare against the Indians by colonizers contributed to the death toll in subsequent centuries.<ref name="Aufderheide 1998"/> As detailed in ''American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present'' (2015),<blockquote>It is also apparent that the shared history of the hemisphere is one which is framed by the dual tragedies of genocide and [[slavery]], both of which are part of the legacy of the European invasions of the past 500 years. Indigenous people both north and south were displaced, died of [[disease]], and were killed by Europeans through slavery, rape, and war. In 1491, about 145 million people lived in the western hemisphere. By 1691, the population of Indigenous Americans had declined by 90–95 percent, or by around 130 million people.<ref>McKenna, Erin, and Scott L. Pratt. 2015. ''American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present''. Bloomsbury. p. 375.</ref></blockquote>However, pre-Columbian population figures are difficult to estimate due to the fragmentary nature of the evidence. Estimates range from 8 to 112 million.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Native population of the Americas in 1492 |date=1992 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |isbn=978-0-299-13434-1 |editor-last=Denevan |editor-first=William M. |edition=2nd |location=Madison, Wis}}</ref> [[Russell Thornton|Russel Thornton]] has pointed out that there were disastrous epidemics and population losses during the first half of the sixteenth century "resulting from incidental contact, or even without direct contact, as disease spread from one American Indian tribe to another."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thomas Michael Swensen |date=2015 |title=Of Subjection and Sovereignty: Alaska Native Corporations and Tribal Governments in the Twenty-First Century |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5749/wicazosareview.30.1.0100 |journal=Wíčazo Ša Review |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=100 |doi=10.5749/wicazosareview.30.1.0100 |s2cid=159338399 |issn=0749-6427}}</ref> Thornton has also challenged higher Indigenous population estimates, which are based on the Malthusian assumption that "populations tend to increase to, and beyond, the limits of the food available to them at any particular level of technology."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thornton |first1=Russell |last2=Stannard |first2=David E. |date=1994 |title=American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World. |url=https://academic.oup.com/jah/article-lookup/doi/10.2307/2080617 |journal=[[The Journal of American History]] |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=1428 |doi=10.2307/2080617 |jstor=2080617}}</ref>
-{{see also|Category:Native American genocide|Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|European colonization of the Americas|Genocides in history#Americas|Genocides in history#Pre–World War I|l5=Genocides in history pre–WWI|l4=Genocides in history of the Americas}}
-Historians and scholars whose work has examined this history in the context of genocide have included historian Jeffrey Ostler,<ref name=":5" /> historian [[David Stannard]],{{sfn|Stannard|1993}} anthropological demographer [[Russell Thornton]],{{sfn|Thornton|1987}} Indigenous Studies scholar [[Vine Deloria, Jr.]], as well as scholar-activists such as [[Russell Means]] and [[Ward Churchill]]. Stannard compares the events of colonization in the Americas with the definition of genocide in the 1948 UN convention, and writes that,<blockquote>In light of the U.N. language—even putting aside some of its looser constructions—it is impossible to know what transpired in the Americas during the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries and not conclude that it was genocide.{{sfn|Stannard|1993|p=281}} </blockquote>Thornton describes as genocide the direct impact of warfare, violence and massacres, many of which had the effect of wiping out entire ethnic groups.{{sfn|Thornton|1987|pp=104–13}} Political scientist [[Guenter Lewy]] says that "even if up to 90 percent of the reduction in Indian population was the result of disease, that leaves a sizable death toll caused by mistreatment and violence."<ref>{{cite web|author=Guenter Lewy |url=http://hnn.us/articles/7302.html |title= Were American Indians the Victims of Genocide? |publisher=History News Network |year=2007 |access-date=28 August 2013}}</ref> Native American Studies professor [[Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz]] says,<blockquote>Proponents of the default position emphasize attrition by disease despite other causes equally deadly, if not more so. In doing so they refuse to accept that the colonization of America was genocidal by plan, not simply the tragic fate of populations lacking immunity to disease.<ref>''An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States''; Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz; ''[[Beacon Press]]''; 2014; Pgs. 41–42</ref></blockquote>By 1900, the indigenous population in the Americas declined by more than 80%, and by as much as 98% in some areas.  The effects of diseases such as [[smallpox]], [[measles]] and [[cholera]] during the first century of colonialism contributed greatly to the death toll, while violence, displacement and warfare by colonizers against the Indians contributed to the death toll in subsequent centuries.<ref>Arthur C. Aufderheide, Conrado Rodríguez-Martín, Odin Langsjoen (1998). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA205&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology]''. Cambridge University Press. p.205. {{ISBN|0-521-55203-6}}</ref> As detailed in ''American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present'' (2015),<blockquote>It is also apparent that the shared history of the hemisphere is one framed by the dual tragedies of genocide and slavery, both of which are part of the legacy of the European invasions of the past 500 years. Indigenous people north and south were displaced, died of disease, and were killed by Europeans through slavery, rape, and war. In 1491, about 145 million people lived in the western hemisphere. By 1691, the population of indigenous Americans had declined by 90–95 percent, or by around 130 million people.<ref>McKenna, Erin, and Scott L. Pratt. 2015. ''American Philosophy: From Wounded Knee to the Present''. Bloomsbury. p. 375.</ref></blockquote>According to geographers from [[University College London]], the colonization of the Americas by Europeans killed so many people it resulted in [[climate change]] and [[Little Ice Age|global cooling]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.12.004 |title=Earth system impacts of the European arrival and Great Dying in the Americas after 1492 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=207 |pages=13–36 |year=2019 |last1=Koch |first1=Alexander |last2=Brierley |first2=Chris |last3=Maslin |first3=Mark M. |last4=Lewis |first4=Simon L. |bibcode=2019QSRv..207...13K |doi-access=free }}</ref> UCL Geography Professor [[Mark Maslin]], one of the co-authors of the study, says the large death toll also boosted the economies of Europe: "the depopulation of the Americas may have inadvertently allowed the Europeans to dominate the world. It also allowed for the Industrial Revolution and for Europeans to continue that domination."<ref>{{cite news |last= Kent|first=Lauren|date=1 February 2019|title=European colonizers killed so many Native Americans that it changed the global climate, researchers say|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/02/01/world/european-colonization-climate-change-trnd/index.html|work=[[CNN]] |access-date=1 February 2019 }}</ref>
+According to geographers from [[University College London]], the colonization of the Americas by Europeans killed so many people, approximately 55 million or 90% of the local populations,<ref name="Hadden 2019 j125">{{cite web |last=Hadden |first=John |title='Little Ice Age' caused by death of 55-million Indigenous people after colonization: study - National |website=[[Global News]] |date=2019-02-06 |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/4924534/little-ice-age-death-55-million-indigenous-people-colonization-study/ |access-date=2023-08-24}}</ref> it resulted in [[climate change]] and [[Little Ice Age|global cooling]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.12.004 |title=Earth system impacts of the European arrival and Great Dying in the Americas after 1492 |journal=[[Quaternary Science Reviews]] |volume=207 |pages=13–36 |year=2019 |last1=Koch |first1=Alexander |last2=Brierley |first2=Chris |last3=Maslin |first3=Mark M. |last4=Lewis |first4=Simon L. |bibcode=2019QSRv..207...13K |doi-access=free}}</ref> UCL Geography Professor [[Mark Maslin]], one of the co-authors of the study, states that the large death toll also boosted the economies of Europe: "the depopulation of the Americas may have inadvertently allowed the Europeans to dominate the world. It also allowed for the Industrial Revolution and for Europeans to continue that domination."<ref>{{cite news|last=Kent |first=Lauren |date=1 February 2019 |title=European colonizers killed so many Native Americans that it changed the global climate, researchers say |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/02/01/world/european-colonization-climate-change-trnd/index.html |work=[[CNN]] |access-date=1 February 2019 |archive-date=13 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813230231/https://www.cnn.com/2019/02/01/world/european-colonization-climate-change-trnd/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
+It has proven a controversial question whether the drastic population decline can be considered an example of genocide, and scholars have argued whether the process as a whole or specific periods and local processes qualify under the legal definition. [[Raphael Lemkin]], the originator of the term "genocide", considered the colonial replacement of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] by English and later British colonists to be one of the historical examples of genocide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McDonnell |first1=M. A. |last2=Moses |first2=A. D. |author2-link=A. Dirk Moses |date=2005 |title=Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=7 |pages=501–529 |doi=10.1080/14623520500349951 |s2cid=72663247 |number=4}}</ref>
-Leif Eriksons brother is said to have had the first contact with the native population of North America which would come to be known as the skrælings. After capturing and killing eight of the natives, they were attacked at their beached ships, which they defended.<ref>Keneva Kunz (Translator) The Saga of the Greenlanders, in The Saga of Icelanders (New York: Penguin Books, 2001). {{ISBN|0-670-88990-3}}</ref>
 === Spanish colonization of the Americas ===
-{{See also|Spanish colonization of the Americas|Encomienda}}
+{{See also|Taíno genocide|Spanish colonization of the Americas|Encomienda}}
-[[File:De Bry 1c.JPG|thumb|A 16th-century illustration by [[Dutch Revolt#Protestantism|Flemish Protestant]] [[Theodor de Bry]] for [[Bartolome de las Casas|Las Casas']] ''[[A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies|Brevisima relación de la destrucción de las Indias]]'', depicting Spanish atrocities during the [[Hispaniola|conquest of Hispaniola]].  Bartolome wrote: "They erected certain Gibbets, large, but low made, so that their feet almost reached the ground, every one of which was so ordered as to bear Thirteen Persons in Honour and Reverence (as they said blasphemously) of our Redeemer and his Twelve Apostles, under which they made a Fire to burn them to Ashes whilst hanging on them"<ref>Las Casas, Bartolome. 1992. A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies. London, England: Penguin Classics. pp 9</ref>]]
+[[File:De Bry 1c.JPG|thumb|A 16th-century illustration by [[Dutch Revolt#Protestantism|Flemish Protestant]] [[Theodor de Bry]] for [[Bartolomé de las Casas|Las Casas']] ''[[A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies|Brevisima relación de la destrucción de las Indias]]'', depicting Spanish torture of Indigenous peoples during the [[Hispaniola|conquest of Hispaniola]]. Bartolomé wrote: "They erected certain Gibbets, large, but low made, so that their feet almost reached the ground, every one of which was so ordered as to bear Thirteen Persons in Honour and Reverence (as they said blasphemously) of our Redeemer and his Twelve Apostles, under which they made a Fire to burn them to Ashes whilst hanging on them"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Las Casas |first=Bartolomé |date=1992 |title=A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies |location=London, England |publisher=Penguin Classics |page=9}}</ref>]]
+It is estimated that during the initial [[Spanish conquest of the Americas]] up to eight million Indigenous people died, primarily through the spread of [[Old World|Afro-Eurasian]] diseases,<ref name="Histoire">{{cite journal|title=La catastrophe démographique |language=fr |trans-title=The Demographic Catastrophe |journal=[[L'Histoire]] |number=322 |date=July–August 2007 |page=17}}</ref> in a series of events that have been described as the first large-scale act of genocide of the modern era.{{sfn|Forsythe|2009|p=297}}
-It is estimated that during the initial [[Spanish conquest of the Americas]] up to eight million indigenous people died, primarily through the spread of [[Old World|Afro-Eurasian]] [[Infection|diseases]].,<ref name="Histoire">"La catastrophe démographique" (The Demographic Catastrophe) in ''[[L'Histoire]]'' n°322, July–August 2007, p. 17</ref> in a series of events that have been described as the first large-scale act of genocide of the modern era.{{sfn|Forsythe|2009|p=297}} Acts of brutality and systematic annihilation against the [[Taíno|Taíno People]] of the [[Caribbean]] prompted [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar [[Bartolomé de las Casas]] to write ''Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias'' ('[[A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies]]') in 1542—an account that had a wide impact throughout the western world as well as contributing to the [[New Laws|abolition of indigenous slavery]] in all Spanish territories the same year it was written. Las Casas wrote that the native population on the Spanish colony of [[Hispaniola]] had been reduced from 400,000 to 200 in a few decades.{{sfn|Juang|2008|p=510}} His writings were among those that gave rise to ''[[Black legend (Spain)|Spanish Black Legend]]'', which [[Charles Gibson (historian)|Charles Gibson]] describes as "the accumulated tradition of propaganda and Hispanophobia according to which the Spanish Empire is regarded as cruel, bigoted, degenerate, exploitative and self-righteous in excess of reality".<ref name="Gibson">{{cite web |last1=Gibson |first1=Charles |title=The Colonial Period in Latin American History |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006147282 |website=Hathi Trust |publisher=Service Center for Teachers of History |access-date=15 November 2019 |ref=Gibson}}</ref>{{sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|p=44}} Historian [[Andrés Reséndez]] at the [[University of California, Davis]] asserts that even though disease was a factor, the indigenous population of Hispaniola would have rebounded the same way Europeans did following the [[Black Death]] if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to.<ref name="otherslaver">{{cite web |last1=Trever |first1=David |title=The new book 'The Other Slavery' will make you rethink American history |url=https://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620020336/https://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 June 2019 |website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> He says that "among these human factors, slavery was the major killer" of Hispaniola's population, and that "between 1492 and 1550, a nexus of slavery, overwork and famine killed more natives in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza or malaria."<ref>{{cite book |last= Reséndez|first=Andrés|date=2016 |title=The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA17|publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|page=17 |isbn=978-0547640983|author-link=Andrés Reséndez}}</ref> Noble David Cook, writing about the [[Black legend (Spain)|Black Legend]] conquest of the Americas wrote, "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact." He instead estimates that the death toll was caused by diseases like [[smallpox]],<ref name="Cook1998">{{cite book|author=Noble David Cook|title=Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dvjNyZTFrS4C|date=13 February 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-62730-6 |pages=9–14}}</ref> which according to some estimates had an 80–90% fatality rate in Native American populations.<ref>Arthur C. Aufderheide, Conrado Rodríguez-Martín, Odin Langsjoen (1998). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA205#v=onepage The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 205. {{ISBN|0-521-55203-6}}</ref> However, historian Jeffrey Ostler has argued that Spanish colonization created conditions for disease to spread, for example, "careful studies have revealed that it is highly unlikely that members" of Hernando de Soto's 1539 expedition in the American South "had smallpox or measles. Instead, the disruptions caused by the expedition increased vulnerability of Native people to diseases including syphilis and dysentery, already present in the Americas, and malaria, a disease recently introduced from the eastern hemisphere."<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Ostler|first=Jeffrey|title=Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2009|pages=13}}</ref>
+Acts of brutality and systematic annihilation against the [[Taíno]] people of the Caribbean prompted [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar [[Bartolomé de las Casas]] to write {{lang|es|Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias}} ('[[A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies]]') in 1542—an account that had a wide impact throughout the western world as well as contributing to the [[New Laws|abolition of Indigenous slavery]] in all Spanish territories the same year it was written.
-With the initial conquest of the Americas completed, the Spanish implemented the [[encomienda]] system in 1503. In theory, the ''encomienda'' placed groups of indigenous peoples under Spanish oversight to foster cultural assimilation and [[conversion to Catholicism]], but in practice led to the legally sanctioned forced labor and resource extraction under brutal conditions with a high death rate.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/spains-american-colonies-encomienda-system-2136545|title=Spain's American Colonies and the Encomienda System|last= Minster|first=Christopher|date=10 September 2018 |website=ThoughtCo|access-date=16 February 2019 }}</ref> Though the Spaniards did not set out to exterminate the indigenous peoples, believing their numbers to be inexhaustible, their actions led to the annihilation of entire tribes such as the [[Arawak]].{{sfn|Grenke|2005|p=200}} Many Arawaks died from lethal forced labor in the mines, in which a third of workers died every six months.<ref name="Hickel">{{cite book |last=Hickel|first=Jason|date=2018 |title=The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions|publisher=Windmill Books|page=70 |isbn=978-1786090034|author-link=Jason Hickel}}</ref> According to historian [[David Stannard]], the ''encomienda'' was a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths.".{{sfn|Stannard|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RzFsODcGjfcC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA139#v=onepage&q&f=false 139]}}
+Las Casas wrote that the native population on the Spanish colony of [[Hispaniola]] had been reduced from 400,000 to 200 in a few decades.{{sfn|Juang|Baker|Shannon|2008|p=510}} His writings were among those that gave rise to ''[[Black Legend (Spain)|Spanish Black Legend]]'', which [[Charles Gibson (historian)|Charles Gibson]] describes as "the accumulated tradition of propaganda and Hispanophobia according to which the Spanish Empire is regarded as cruel, bigoted, degenerate, exploitative and self-righteous in excess of reality".<ref name="Gibson">{{cite web |last1=Gibson |first1=Charles |title=The Colonial Period in Latin American History |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006147282 |website=Hathi Trust |publisher=Service Center for Teachers of History |access-date=15 November 2019 |ref=Gibson |archive-date=7 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200907114808/https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006147282 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|p=44}}
-According to Doctor [[Clifford Trafzer]], Professor at [[UC Riverside]], in the 1760s, an expedition dispatched to fortify California, led by [[Gaspar de Portolà]] and [[Junípero Serra]], was marked by slavery, [[forced conversion]]s, and genocide through the introduction of disease.{{sfn|Trafzer|1999|pp=1–35.}}
+Historian [[Andrés Reséndez]] at the [[University of California, Davis]] asserts that even though disease was a factor, the Indigenous population of Hispaniola would have rebounded the same way Europeans did following the [[Black Death]] if it were not for the constant enslavement they were subject to.<ref name="otherslaver">{{cite web |last1=Trever |first1=David |title=The new book 'The Other Slavery' will make you rethink American history |url=https://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620020336/https://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html |archive-date=20 June 2019 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=13 May 2016}}</ref> He says that "among these human factors, slavery was the major killer" of Hispaniola's population, and that "between 1492 and 1550, a nexus of slavery, overwork and famine killed more natives in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza or malaria."<ref>{{cite book |last=Reséndez |first=Andrés |date=2016 |title=The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |page=17 |isbn=978-0547640983 |author-link=Andrés Reséndez |access-date=17 October 2020 |archive-date=14 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014143643/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA17 |url-status=live}}</ref>
+Noble David Cook said about the [[Black Legend (Spain)|Black Legend]] conquest of the Americas: "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact." Instead, he estimates that the death toll was caused by diseases like [[smallpox]],<ref name="Cook1998">{{cite book |first=Noble David |last=Cook |title=Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dvjNyZTFrS4C |date=13 February 1998 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-62730-6 |pages=9–14 |access-date=30 June 2016 |archive-date=29 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129021157/https://books.google.com/books?id=dvjNyZTFrS4C |url-status=live}}</ref> which according to some estimates had an 80–90% fatality rate in Native American populations.<ref name="Aufderheide 1998">{{harvp|Aufderheide|Rodríguez-Martín|Langsjoen|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA205 205]}}; {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA205 |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology |isbn=9780521552035 |access-date=30 June 2016 |archive-date=5 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205162912/https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA205 |url-status=bot: unknown |last1=Aufderheide |first1=Arthur C. |last2=Rodriguez-Martin |first2=Conrado |last3=Langsjoen |first3=Odin |date=13 May 1998 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref> However, historian Jeffrey Ostler has argued that Spanish colonization created conditions for disease to spread, for example, "careful studies have revealed that it is highly unlikely that members" of Hernando de Soto's 1539 expedition in the American South "had smallpox or measles. Instead, the disruptions caused by the expedition increased the vulnerability of Native people to diseases including syphilis and dysentery, already present in the Americas, and malaria, a disease recently introduced from the eastern hemisphere."<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Ostler |first=Jeffrey |title=Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2009 |page=13}}</ref>
+With the initial conquest of the Americas completed, the Spanish implemented the [[encomienda]] system in 1503. In theory, the ''encomienda'' placed groups of Indigenous peoples under Spanish oversight to foster cultural assimilation and [[conversion to Catholicism]], but in practice it led to the legally sanctioned forced labor and resource extraction under brutal conditions with a high death rate.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/spains-american-colonies-encomienda-system-2136545 |title=Spain's American Colonies and the Encomienda System |last=Minster |first=Christopher |date=10 September 2018 |website=ThoughtCo |access-date=16 February 2019 |archive-date=17 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217030238/https://www.thoughtco.com/spains-american-colonies-encomienda-system-2136545 |url-status=live}}</ref> Though the Spaniards did not set out to exterminate the Indigenous peoples, believing their numbers to be inexhaustible, their actions led to the annihilation of entire tribes such as the [[Arawak]].{{sfn|Grenke|2005|p=200}} Many Arawaks died from lethal forced labor in the mines, where a third of workers died every six months.<ref name="Hickel">{{cite book |last=Hickel |first=Jason |date=2018 |title=The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions |publisher=Windmill Books |page=70 |isbn=978-1786090034 |author-link=Jason Hickel}}</ref> According to historian [[David Stannard]], the ''encomienda'' was a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths."{{sfn|Stannard|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RzFsODcGjfcC&pg=PA139 139]}}
+The Spanish and Portuguese genocides of Indigenous peoples of the Americas wiped out approximately 90% of the Indigenous population, and most agriculture and infrastructure.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Driscoll |first=Mark W. |title=The Whites are Enemies of Heaven: Climate Caucasianism and Asian Ecological Protection |date=2020 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-1-4780-1121-7 |location=Durham}}</ref>{{Rp|page=3}} According to ecologist Simon Lewis and geologist [[Mark Maslin]], the scope of these genocides was so extensive that it prompted the global temperature decrease between 1550 and 1700 as forest regeneration resulted in additional [[carbon sequestration]].<ref name=":6" />{{Rp|page=3}}
+According to Clifford Trafzer, [[UC Riverside]] professor, in the 1760s, an expedition dispatched to fortify California, led by [[Gaspar de Portolà]] and [[Junípero Serra]], was marked by slavery, [[forced conversion]]s, and genocide through the introduction of disease.{{sfn|Trafzer|1999|pp=1–35.}}
+According to sociologist [[Aníbal Quijano|Anibal Quijano]], Bolivia and Mexico have undergone limited [[Decolonization|decolonialization]] through a revolutionary process. Quijano has described the colonial attacks on Indigenous peoples, African slaves and people with mixed ethnicity:{{Quote|text=A limited but real process of colonial (racial) homogenization, as in the Southern Cone (Chile, Uruguay, Argentina), by means of a massive genocide of the aboriginal population. <br>
+An always frustrated attempt at cultural homogenization through the cultural genocide of American Indians, blacks, and [[mestizos]], as in Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Central America, and Bolivia.}}Quijano adds that in Colombia, nearly exterminated Indigenous peoples were replaced by African slaves, while [[black people]] are discriminated in Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia in a "racial democracy".<ref name="Quijano">{{cite journal |last=Quijano |first=Anibal |year=2000 |title=Coloniality of Power, Eurocentrism, and Latin America |url=http://www.unc.edu/~aescobar/wan/wanquijano.pdf |journal=Nepantla: Views from the South |volume=1 |pages=533–580 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616205408/http://www.unc.edu/~aescobar/wan/wanquijano.pdf |archive-date=2012-06-16 |quote=A limited but real process of colonial (racial) homogenization, as in the Southern Cone (Chile, Uruguay, Argentina), by means of a massive genocide of the aboriginal population. An always frustrated attempt at cultural homogenization through the cultural genocide of American Indians, blacks, and [[mestizos]], as in Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Central America, and Bolivia. |number=3}}</ref>
 === British colonization of the Americas ===
 {{Main|British colonization of the Americas}}
+==== Beaver Wars ====
-==== {{Anchor|The Kalinago Genocide of 1626|The Kalinago Genocide}}The Kalinago Genocide, 1626 ====
+During the [[Beaver Wars]] of the seventeenth century, the [[Iroquois]] effectively destroyed several large tribal confederacies, including the [[Mohicans]], Huron ([[Wyandot people|Wyandot]]), [[Neutral Nation|Neutral]], [[Erie people|Erie]], [[Susquehannock]] (Conestoga), and northern [[Algonquin people|Algonquins]], with the extreme brutality and exterminatory nature of the mode of warfare practiced by the Iroquois causing some historians to label these wars as acts of genocide committed by the Iroquois Confederacy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blick |first1=Jeremy P. |date=3 August 2010 |title=The Iroquois practice of genocidal warfare (1534-1787) |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623520120097215 |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=405–429 |doi=10.1080/14623520120097215 |s2cid=71358963 |access-date=27 August 2022 |archive-date=16 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616225644/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623520120097215 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-{{Main|Kalinago Genocide of 1626}}
-The Kalinago genocide was the [[massacre]] of some 2,000 [[Island Carib]]s by [[English people|English]] and [[French people|French]] settlers in 1628 in [[St. Kitts]].
+==== {{Anchor|The Kalinago Genocide of 1626|The Kalinago Genocide}}Kalinago genocide ====
-The Carib Chief [[Ouboutou Tegremante|Tegremond]] became uneasy with the increasing number of English and French settlers occupying St. Kitts. This led to confrontations, which led him to plot the settlers' elimination with the aid of other Island Caribs. However, his scheme was betrayed by an Indian woman called Barbe, to [[Thomas Warner (explorer)|Thomas Warner]] and [[Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc]]. Taking action, the English and French settlers invited the Caribs to a party where they became intoxicated. When the Caribs returned to their village, 120 were killed in their sleep, including Chief Tegremond. The following day, the remaining 2,000–4,000 Caribs were forced into the area of [[Bloody Point]] and [[Bloody River]], where over 2,000 were massacred, though 100 settlers were also killed. One Frenchman went mad after being struck by a [[manchineel]]-[[poisoned arrow]]. The remaining Caribs fled, but by 1640, those not already enslaved, were removed to [[Dominica]].<ref>[[Jean-Baptiste Du Tertre]], ''Histoire Generale des Antilles...'', 2 vols. Paris: Jolly, 1667, I:5–6</ref><ref name="Hubbard">{{cite book|last1=Hubbard|first1=Vincent|title=A History of St. Kitts|date=2002|publisher=Macmillan Caribbean|isbn=9780333747605|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofstkitts00vinc/page/17 17–18]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofstkitts00vinc/page/17}}</ref>
+{{Main|Kalinago genocide}}
+The Kalinago genocide was the [[massacre]] of some 2,000 [[Island Carib]]s in [[St. Kitts]] by [[English people|English]] and [[French people|French]] settlers in 1626.
+The Carib chief [[Ouboutou Tegremante|Tegremond]] became uneasy with the increasing number of English and French settlers occupying St. Kitts. This led to confrontations, which led him to plot the settlers' elimination with the aid of other Island Caribs. However, his scheme was betrayed by an Indian woman called Barbe, to [[Thomas Warner (explorer)|Thomas Warner]] and [[Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc]]. Taking action, the English and French settlers invited the Caribs to a party where they became intoxicated. When the Caribs returned to their village, 120 were killed in their sleep, including Chief Tegremond. The following day, the remaining 2,000–4,000 Caribs were forced into the area of [[Bloody Point]] and [[Bloody River]], where over 2,000 were massacred, though 100 settlers were also killed. One Frenchman went mad after being struck by a [[manchineel]]-[[poisoned arrow]]. The remaining Caribs fled. Later, by 1640, those not already enslaved were removed to [[Dominica]].<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Jean-Baptiste Du Tertre |title=Histoire Generale des Antilles... |language=fr |trans-title=General History of the Antilles... |location=Paris |publisher=Jolly |date=1667 |volume=I |pages=5–6}}</ref><ref name="Hubbard">{{cite book |last1=Hubbard |first1=Vincent |title=A History of St. Kitts |date=2002 |publisher=Macmillan Caribbean|isbn=9780333747605 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofstkitts00vinc/page/17 17–18] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofstkitts00vinc/page/17}}</ref>
-==== {{Anchor|Extermination of the Pequot (1636–1638)|Extermination of the Pequot}}Attempted Extermination of the Pequot, 1636–1638 ====
+==== {{Anchor|Extermination of the Pequot (1636–1638)|Extermination of the Pequot}}Attempted extermination of the Pequot ====
 {{Main|Pequot War}}
+[[File:Treaty_of_Hartford_of_1638_(1743_copy).png|thumb|A 1743 copy of the [[Treaty of Hartford (1638)|Treaty of Hartford of 1638]], through which [[Connecticut Colony|English colonists]] sought to eradicate the Pequot cultural identity by prohibiting Pequot survivors of [[Pequot War|the war]] from returning to their lands, speaking their tribal language, or referring to themselves as Pequots.<ref name="Piecuch, Jim 2008, p. 375">Piecuch, Jim. "Hartford, Treaty of." ''The Encyclopedia of North American Colonial Conflicts to 1775'': ''A Political, Social, and Military History'', edited by Spencer C. Tucker, et al., vol. 1, ABC-CLIO, 2008, p. 375. ''Gale eBooks''. Accessed 17 Aug. 2023.</ref>]]
-The Pequot War was an armed conflict that took place between 1636 and 1638 in New England between the [[Pequot]] tribe and an alliance of the [[English overseas possessions|colonists]] of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony|Massachusetts Bay]], [[Plymouth Colony|Plymouth]], and [[Saybrook Colony|Saybrook]] colonies and their allies from the [[Narragansett (tribe)|Narragansett]] and [[Mohegan]] tribes. The war concluded with the decisive defeat of the Pequots. The [[Connecticut Colony|Connecticut]] and [[Massachusetts Bay Colony|Massachusetts]] colonies offered bounties for the heads of killed hostile Indians, and later for just their scalps, during the [[Pequot War]] in the 1630s;<ref name="Dunbar">{{cite book|last1=Dunbar-Ortiz|first1=Roxanne|title=An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States|date=2014|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=978-0-8070-0040-3|page=64}}</ref> Connecticut specifically reimbursed [[Mohegan]]s for slaying the [[Pequot]] in 1637.<ref name="Tucker">{{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.|title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890|date=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO, LLC|isbn=978-1851096978|page=708}}</ref> At the end, about 700 Pequots had been killed or taken into captivity.<ref>John Winthrop, ''Journal of John Winthrop''. ed. Dunn, Savage, Yeandle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996),  228.</ref> Hundreds of prisoners were sold into slavery to the West Indies;<ref>[[Lion Gardiner]], "Relation of the Pequot Warres", in ''History of the Pequot War: The Contemporary Accounts of Mason, Underhill, Vincent, and Gardiner'' (Cleveland, 1897), p. 138; Ethel Boissevain, "Whatever Became of the New England Indians Shipped to Bermuda to be Sold as Slaves," ''Man in the Northwest'' 11 (Spring 1981), pp. 103–114; [[Karen O. Kupperman]], ''Providence Island, 1630–1641: The Other Puritan Colony'' (Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]], 1993), p. 172</ref> other survivors were dispersed as captives to the victorious tribes. The result was the elimination of the Pequot tribe as a viable polity in [[Southern New England]], and the colonial authorities classified them as extinct. However, members of the Pequot tribe still live today as a federally recognized tribe, and they continue to contribute to their tribe's ongoing history.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation |title=Tribal History |url=https://www.mptn-nsn.gov/tribalhistory.aspx |website=The Mashantucket (Western) Pequot Tribal Nation |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref>
+The Pequot War was an armed conflict that took place between 1636 and 1638 in New England between the [[Pequot]] tribe and an alliance of the [[English overseas possessions|colonists]] of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony|Massachusetts Bay]], [[Plymouth Colony|Plymouth]], and [[Saybrook Colony|Saybrook]] colonies and their allies from the [[Narragansett (tribe)|Narragansett]] and [[Mohegan]] tribes.
+The war concluded with the decisive defeat of the Pequots. The colonies of [[Connecticut Colony|Connecticut]] and [[Massachusetts Bay Colony|Massachusetts]] offered bounties for the heads of killed hostile Indians, and later for just their scalps, during the [[Pequot War]] in the 1630s;<ref name="Dunbar">{{cite book|last1=Dunbar-Ortiz |first1=Roxanne |title=An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States |date=2014 |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |isbn=978-0-8070-0040-3 |page=64}}</ref> Connecticut specifically reimbursed [[Mohegan]]s for slaying the [[Pequot]] in 1637.<ref name="Tucker">{{cite book|last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890 |date=2011 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]], LLC |isbn=978-1851096978 |page=708}}</ref> At the end, about 700 Pequots had been killed or taken into captivity.<ref>John Winthrop, ''Journal of John Winthrop''. ed. Dunn, Savage, Yeandle (Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]], 1996), 228.</ref>
-==== {{Anchor|Massacre of the Narragansett people (1675)|Massacre of the Narragansett people}}Massacre of the Narragansett people, 1675 ====
+The English colonists imposed a harshly punitive treaty on the estimated 2,500 Pequots who survived the war; the [[Treaty of Hartford (1638)|Treaty of Hartford]] of 1638 sought to eradicate the Pequot cultural identity—with terms prohibiting the Pequots from returning to their lands, speaking their tribal language, or even referring to themselves as Pequots—and effectively dissolved the Pequot Nation, with many survivors executed or enslaved and sold away.<ref name="Piecuch, Jim 2008, p. 375"/> Hundreds of prisoners were sold into slavery to the West Indies;<ref>[[Lion Gardiner]], "Relation of the Pequot Warres", in ''History of the Pequot War: The Contemporary Accounts of Mason, Underhill, Vincent, and Gardiner'' (Cleveland, 1897), p. 138; Ethel Boissevain, "Whatever Became of the New England Indians Shipped to Bermuda to be Sold as Slaves," ''Man in the Northwest'' 11 (Spring 1981), pp. 103–114; [[Karen O. Kupperman]], ''Providence Island, 1630–1641: The Other Puritan Colony'' (Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]], 1993), p. 172</ref> other survivors were dispersed as captives to the victorious tribes. The result was the elimination of the Pequot tribe as a viable polity in [[Southern New England]], the colonial authorities classifying them as extinct. However, members of the Pequot tribe still live today as a federally recognized tribe.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation |title=Tribal History |url=https://www.mptn-nsn.gov/tribalhistory.aspx |website=The Mashantucket (Western) Pequot Tribal Nation |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=21 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021153742/https://www.mptn-nsn.gov/tribalhistory.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref>
+==== {{Anchor|Massacre of the Narragansett people (1675)|Massacre of the Narragansett people}}Massacre of the Narragansett people ====
 {{Main|Great Swamp Fight}}
-The Great Swamp Massacre was committed during [[King Philip's War]] by colonial militia of [[New England]] on the [[Narragansett tribe]] in December 1675. On 15 December of that year, Narraganset warriors attacked the [[Jireh Bull Blockhouse]] and killed at least 15 people. Four days later, the colonial militia from [[Plymouth Colony]], [[Connecticut Colony]], and [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] were led to the main Narragansett town in South Kingstown, Rhode Island. The settlement was burned, its inhabitants (including women and children) killed or evicted, and most of the tribe's winter stores destroyed. It is believed that at least 97 Narragansett warriors and 300 to 1,000 non-combatants were killed, though exact figures are unknown.<ref name="Drake">Gott, Richard (2004). ''Cuba: A new history''. Yale University Press. p. 32.</ref> The massacre was a critical blow to the Narragansett tribe during the period directly following the massacre.<ref>"Flintlock and Tomahawk—New England in King Philip's War" by Douglas Edward Leach,  New York: MacMillan, 1958, pg. 130–132</ref> However, much like the Pequot, the Narragansett people continue to live today as a federally recognized tribe, contributing to their Nation's ongoing history.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Tribe|first=Narragansett|title=Narragansett History|url=http://narragansettindiannation.org/history/early/|access-date=2020-12-31|website=Narragansett Indian Nation Website}}</ref>
+The Great Swamp Massacre was committed during [[King Philip's War]] by colonial militia of [[New England]] on the [[Narragansett tribe]] in December 1675. On December 15 of that year, Narraganset warriors attacked the [[Jireh Bull Blockhouse]] and killed at least 15 people. Four days later, the militias from the English colonies of [[Plymouth Colony|Plymouth]], [[Connecticut Colony|Connecticut]], and [[Massachusetts Bay Colony|Massachusetts Bay]] were led to the main Narragansett town in South Kingstown, Rhode Island. The settlement was burned, its inhabitants (including women and children) killed or evicted, and most of the tribe's winter stores destroyed. It is believed that at least 97 Narragansett warriors and 300 to 1,000 non-combatants were killed, though exact figures are unknown.<ref name="Drake">{{cite book |last=Gott |first=Richard |date=2004 |title=Cuba: A new history |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |page=32}}</ref> The massacre was a critical blow to the Narragansett tribe during the period directly following the massacre.<ref>"Flintlock and Tomahawk—New England in King Philip's War" by Douglas Edward Leach, New York: MacMillan, 1958, pg. 130–132</ref> However, much like the Pequot, the Narragansett people continue to live today as a federally recognized tribe.<ref>{{cite web |last=Tribe |first=Narragansett |title=Narragansett History |url=http://narragansettindiannation.org/history/early/ |access-date=2020-12-31 |website=Narragansett Indian Nation Website |archive-date=24 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124070752/http://narragansettindiannation.org/history/early/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
+==== {{Anchor|French and Indian Wars (1754–1763)|French and Indian Wars}}French and Indian War and Pontiac's War ====
+{{Main|French and Indian Wars|Pontiac's War}}
+On 12 June 1755, during the [[French and Indian War]], Massachusetts governor [[William Shirley]] issued a bounty of £40 for a male Indian scalp, and £20 for scalps of Indian females or of children under 12 years old.<ref name=comics/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OKfBId96DTIC&pg=PA88 |title=Chronology of American Indian History |first=Liz |last=Sonneborn |page=88 |date=14 May 2014 |publisher=Infobase |access-date=28 July 2016 |isbn=9781438109848 |archive-date=2 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502170403/https://books.google.com/books?id=OKfBId96DTIC&pg=PA88 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1756, Pennsylvania lieutenant-governor [[Robert Hunter Morris]], in his declaration of war against the [[Lenape|Lenni Lenape]] (Delaware) people, offered "130 [[Spanish dollar|Pieces of Eight]], for the Scalp of Every Male Indian Enemy, above the Age of Twelve Years", and "50 Pieces of Eight for the Scalp of Every Indian Woman, produced as evidence of their being killed."<ref name="comics">{{cite web |url=http://www.bluecorncomics.com/scalping.htm |title=Scalping, Torture, and Mutilation by Indians |publisher=Blue Corn Comics |access-date=28 July 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831170415/http://www.bluecorncomics.com/scalping.htm |archive-date=31 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://faculty.simpson.edu/nick.proctor/www/1756/war.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140207020013/http://faculty.simpson.edu/nick.proctor/www/1756/war.htm |title=Declaration of War |date=7 February 2014 |archive-date=7 February 2014 |website=simpson.edu}}</ref> During [[Pontiac's War]], Colonel [[Henry Bouquet]] conspired with his superior, [[Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst|Sir Jeffrey Amherst]], to infect hostile Native Americans through [[biological warfare]] with [[smallpox blanket]]s.<ref name="scratch">{{cite book |title=The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America (Pivotal Moments in American History) |last=Calloway |first=Collin G. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0195331271 |page=73}}</ref>
-==== {{Anchor|French and Indian Wars (1754–1763)|French and Indian Wars}}French and Indian Wars, 1754–1763 ====
-{{Main|French and Indian Wars}}
-During the [[French and Indian War]], Lord [[Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst|Jeffrey Amherst]], commanding officer of British forces in North America, authorized the use [[biological warfare]] to exterminate a local tribe of Ottawa Indians. As of 12 June 1755, Massachusetts governor William Shirley was offering a bounty of £40 for a male Indian scalp, and £20 for scalps of females or of children under 12 years old.<ref name=comics/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OKfBId96DTIC&pg=PA88 |title=Chronology of American Indian History |author=Liz Sonneborn |page=88 |date=14 May 2014 |access-date=28 July 2016|isbn=9781438109848}}</ref> In 1756, Pennsylvania Lieutenant Governor Robert Morris, in his Declaration of War against the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) people, offered "130 [[Spanish dollar|Pieces of Eight]], for the Scalp of Every Male Indian Enemy, above the Age of Twelve Years," and "50 Pieces of Eight for the Scalp of Every Indian Woman, produced as evidence of their being killed."<ref name="comics">{{cite web |url=http://www.bluecorncomics.com/scalping.htm |title=Scalping, Torture, and Mutilation by Indians |publisher=Blue Corn Comics |access-date=28 July 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831170415/http://www.bluecorncomics.com/scalping.htm |archive-date=31 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.simpson.edu/nick.proctor/www/1756/war.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140207020013/http://faculty.simpson.edu/nick.proctor/www/1756/war.htm|url-status=dead|title=Declaration of War|date=7 February 2014|archive-date=7 February 2014|website=simpson.edu}}</ref>
 === Canada ===
+{{See also|Canadian genocide of the First Nations|National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women}}
-{{See also|Indigenous peoples in Canada|High Arctic relocation|Canadian Indian residential school system}}
 [[File:Shanawdithit portrait.jpg|thumb|Officially, the last of the [[Beothuk]]s, [[Shanawdithit]] (ca. 1801 – 6 June 1829)]]
 [[File:Suzannah Anstey (nee Manuel. 1832-1911). Daughter of Beothuk woman called 'Elizabeth' & husband Samuel Anstey (1832-1923). Twillingate.jpg|thumb|Suzannah Anstey (née Manuel. 1832–1911), daughter of [[Beothuk]] woman called 'Elizabeth' & husband Samuel Anstey (1832–1923) in [[Twillingate]]]]
-On 13 April 1709, New France [[intendant]] [[Jacques Raudot]] passed the ''[[Ordonnance|Ordinance]] Rendered on the Subject of the Negroes and the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Savages]] Called [[Panis (slaves of First Nation descent)|Panis]]'', legalizing the purchase and possession of [[Slavery in Canada (New France)#French-indigenous patterns of enslavement|indigenous slaves]] in [[New France]]. When Raudot pronounced [[Slavery in Canada (New France)#French-indigenous patterns of enslavement|indigenous slavery]] to be legal in New France, the practice had already been well established in the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native]] and [[France|French]] alliances throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. After the 1709 Ordinance came into effect, slavery in the colony grew exponentially. Natives flooded the slave market in the course of intense diplomacy with the French to prevent colonial encroachment of Native land.<ref>Rushforth 179</ref> Therefore, the flood of Native slaves in the St. Lawrence largely came from their Western counterparts. According to Rushforth, "by narrowing the target to a specific set of victims known as the ‘Panis nation,’ Raudot and his successors created a North American counterpart to the African kingdom of Nigritie: a distant and populous nation at war with more proximate allies, poorly understood but clearly identified as legally and morally enslavable".<ref>Rushforth 165</ref> Effectively, this meant Western Natives were strengthening future adversaries in the east, with their own slaves, in a struggle to preserve their land.
+Between 1640 and 1649, among the [[Indigenous peoples in Canada]], the [[Iroquois Indians]] committed a "genocidal annihilation" of the [[Huron Indians]], during which settlements were burned and taken over. Of the 30,000 Hurons, a few thousand were able to flee and avoid the ethnic genocide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blick |first1=Jeremy P. |date=3 August 2010 |title=The Iroquois practice of genocidal warfare (1534-1787) |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623520120097215 |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=405–429 |doi=10.1080/14623520120097215 |s2cid=71358963 |access-date=9 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Iroquois' Destruction of Huronia |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] |url=https://www.cbc.ca/history/EPCONTENTSE1EP2CH5PA5LE.html |access-date=August 11, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Iroquois Offensive and the Destruction of the Huron: 1647–1649 |publisher=The Loyal Edmonton Regiment Museum |date=2018 |url=https://www.lermuseum.org/new-france-1600-1730/1600-1649/iroquois-offensive-and-the-destruction-of-the-huron-1647-1649 |access-date=11 August 2021 |archive-date=11 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811171629/https://www.lermuseum.org/new-france-1600-1730/1600-1649/iroquois-offensive-and-the-destruction-of-the-huron-1647-1649 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rubenstein |first1=Hymie |date=November 8, 2017 |title=The Myth of Indigenous Utopia |url=https://c2cjournal.ca/2017/11/the-myth-of-indigenous-utopia/ |journal=C2C Journal}}</ref>
-Although not without conflict, [[French-Canadian|French Canadians]]' early interactions with [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Canada's indigenous populations]]  were relatively peaceful in comparison to the expansionist and aggressive policies of British North America.<ref>{{cite book|last=Preston|first=David L.|title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43|year=2009|publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]]|isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7|pages=43–44|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112102431/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43|archive-date=12 January 2016}}</ref> [[First Nations]] and [[Métis in Canada|Métis]] peoples played a critical part in the development of [[Former colonies and territories in Canada|French colonies in Canada]], particularly for their role in assisting French [[coureur des bois]] and [[voyageurs]] in the exploration of the continent during the [[North American fur trade]].<ref name="Miller2009j">{{cite book|author=J.R. Miller|title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34|year=2009|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-9227-5|page=34|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102075453/http://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34|archive-date=2 January 2014}}</ref> Nevertheless, by 1829, with the death of [[Shanawdithit]], the [[Beothuk]] people, the indigenous people of [[Newfoundland]] were officially declared extinct after suffering epidemics, starvation, loss of access to food sources, and displacement by English and French fishermen and traders.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mun.ca/relstudies/|title=Department of Religious Studies|last=Newfoundland|first=Memorial University of|website=Memorial University of Newfoundland|language=en-CA|access-date=15 October 2019}}</ref> Scholars disagree in their definition of genocide in relation to the Beothuk, and the parties have differing political agendas.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002110956 | last = Rubinstein | first = WD | title = Genocide and Historical Debate: William D. Rubinstein Ascribes the Bitterness of Historians' Arguments to the Lack of an Agreed Definition and to Political Agendas | journal = History Today | volume = 54 | year = 2004 }}</ref> While some scholars believe that the Beothuk died out due to the elements noted above, another theory is that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against them.<ref>{{cite book | first = RP | last = Knowles | title = Modern Drama: Defining the Field | publisher = [[University of Toronto Press]] | year = 2003 | pages = [https://books.google.com/books?id=dqTz89_fFjgC&pg=PA169 169] | isbn= 978-0-8020-8621-1 |author2=Tomplins J |author3=Worthen WB}}</ref>
+Although not without conflict, [[European Canadians]]' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Preston |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7 |pages=43–44 |access-date=10 February 2019 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173811/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |url-status=live}}</ref> First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of [[Former colonies and territories in Canada|European colonies in Canada]], particularly for their role in assisting European [[coureur des bois]] and [[voyageurs]] in their explorations of the continent during the [[North American fur trade]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=J.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4426-9227-5 |page=34 |access-date=10 February 2019 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173822/https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |url-status=live}}</ref> These early European interactions with First Nations would change from [[Peace and Friendship Treaties|friendship and peace treaties]] to dispossession of lands through treaties.<ref name="Williams 2021 p. 51">{{cite book |last=Williams |first=L. |title=Indigenous Intergenerational Resilience: Confronting Cultural and Ecological Crisis |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis |series=Routledge Studies in Indigenous Peoples and Policy |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-000-47233-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HehEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 |page=51 |access-date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223140054/https://books.google.com/books?id=HehEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Turner 2020 p. 14">{{cite book |last=Turner |first=N. J. |title=Plants, People, and Places: The Roles of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology in Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights in Canada and Beyond |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |series=McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-2280-0317-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVjZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |page=14 |access-date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223140056/https://books.google.com/books?id=JVjZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |url-status=live}}</ref> From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Asch |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&pg=PA28 |title=Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference |publisher=UBC Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7748-0581-0 |page=28}}</ref> These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with [[Canadian Indian residential school system|forced integration]] and [[High Arctic relocation|relocations]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kirmayer |first1=Laurence J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXYDxvx3zSAC&pg=PA9 |title=Healing Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada |last2=Guthrie |first2=Gail Valaskakis |publisher=UBC Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7748-5863-2 |page=9}}</ref>
-More recent understandings of the concept of "cultural genocide" and its relation to settler colonialism have led modern scholars to a renewed discussion of the genocidal aspects of the Canadian states' role in producing and legitimating the process of physical and cultural destruction of Indigenous people.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Andrew|last1=Woolford|first2=Jasmine|last2=Thomas|title=Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review|chapter=Genocide of Canadian First Nations|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2011|pages=61–87|editor1=Samuel Totten|editor2=Robert Hitchcock}}</ref> In the 1990s some scholars began pushing for Canada to recognize the ''[[Canadian Indian residential school system]]'' as a genocidal process rooted in colonialism.<ref>{{cite book|last=Annett|first=K. |title=Hidden From History: The Untold Story of the Genocide of Aboriginal Peoples by the Church and State in Canada|publisher=The Truth Commission into the Genocide in Canada.|year=2001|url=http://www.hiddenmysteries.org/religion/christianity/genocide.pdf}}</ref> This public debate led to the formation of the  [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Canada)|Canadian Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] which was formed in 2008.<ref name=MacDonald/><ref name="Woolford-Benvenuto">Woolford, Andrew, and Jeff Benvenuto. "Canada and colonial genocide." Journal of Genocide Research 17, no. 4 (2015): 373–390.</ref>
+As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=Ingeborg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA442 |title=A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7735-1774-5 |page=442 |access-date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173816/https://books.google.com/books?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA442 |url-status=live}}</ref> The decline is attributed to several causes, including the [[Columbian exchange|transfer of European diseases]], such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity,<ref name=dying>{{Cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Donna M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_pMVs53mzQC&pg=PA25 |title=Dying and Death in Canada |last2=Northcott |first2=Herbert C |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55111-873-4 |pages=25–27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=True Peters |first=Stephanie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v0zEiM_hijsC&pg=PA39 |title=Smallpox in the New World |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7614-1637-1 |page=39}}</ref> conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Laidlaw |first1=Z. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec-_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT150 |title=Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Loss and Survival in an Interconnected World |last2=Lester |first2=Alan |publisher=Springer |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-137-45236-8 |page=150 |access-date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173822/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec-_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT150 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Arthur J. |url=https://archive.org/details/ihavelivedheresi0000raya/page/244 |title=I Have Lived Here Since The World Began |publisher=Key Porter Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-55263-633-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ihavelivedheresi0000raya/page/244 244]}}</ref> Surviving Indigenous groups continued to suffer from severe [[racism|racially motivated discrimination]] from their new colonial societies.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Corey |last1=Snelgrove |first2=Rita Kaur |last2=Dhamoon |first3=Jeff |last3=Corntassel  |title=Unsettling settler colonialism: The discourse and politics of settlers, and solidarity with Indigenous nations |journal=Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society |volume=3 |number=2 |date=2014 |pages=11–12 |url=https://nycstandswithstandingrock.files.wordpress.com/2016/10/snelgrove-dhamoon-corntassel-2014.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104164929/https://nycstandswithstandingrock.files.wordpress.com/2016/10/snelgrove-dhamoon-corntassel-2014.pdf |archive-date=4 January 2017}}</ref>
-The ''[[Canadian Indian residential school system]]'' was established following the passage of the [[Indian Act]] in 1876. The system was designed to remove children from the influence of their families and culture with the aim of [[Cultural assimilation|assimilating]] them into the dominant Canadian culture.<ref name="TRCHistoryPart1">{{cite web|title=Canada's Residential Schools: The History, Part 1 Origins to 1939 – Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada Volume 1|url=http://nctr.ca/assets/reports/Final%20Reports/Volume_1_History_Part_1_English_Web.pdf|website=National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation|publisher=Truth and Reconciliation Commission|access-date=1 July 2016|date=2015}}</ref> The final school closed in 1996.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.omfrc.org/newsletter/specialedition8.pdf|title=Solving the "Indian Problem": Assimilation Laws, Practices & Indian Residential Schools|last=Rheault|first=D'Arcy|date=2011|website=Ontario Métis Family Records Centre|access-date=29 June 2016}}</ref> Over the course of the system's existence, about 30% of native children, or roughly 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally; at least 6,000 of these students died while in attendance.<ref name="med.uottawa.ca">{{cite web |title=Residential School History: A Legacy of Shame |url=http://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/Images/Residential_Schools.pdf |publisher=Wabano Centre for Aboriginal Health |access-date=28 June 2016 |date=2000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203062432/http://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/Images/Residential_Schools.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2015 }}</ref><ref name="Tasker">{{cite news|last1=Tasker|first1=John Paul|title=Residential schools findings point to 'cultural genocide,' commission chair says|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/residential-schools-findings-point-to-cultural-genocide-commission-chair-says-1.3093580|access-date=1 July 2016|publisher=CBC|date=29 May 2015}}</ref> The system has been described as [[cultural genocide]]: "killing the Indian in the child."<ref name="IndigenousFoundations">{{cite web|title=The Residential School System|url=http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-residential-school-system.html|website=Indigenous Foundations|publisher=UBC First Nations and Indigenous Studies|access-date=28 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160627221843/http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-residential-school-system.html|archive-date=27 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Luxen">{{cite news|last1=Luxen|first1=Micah|title=Survivors of Canada's 'cultural genocide' still healing|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-33001425|access-date=28 June 2016|publisher=BBC|date=24 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Brethren">{{Cite web|url=http://www.canadianbic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/First-Steps-Final-Reg-PDF.pdf|title=First Steps With First Nations|date=April 2012|publisher=Brethren in Christ Canada|access-date=28 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817000352/http://www.canadianbic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/First-Steps-Final-Reg-PDF.pdf|archive-date=17 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Part of this process during the 1960s through the 1980s, dubbed the [[Sixties Scoop]], was investigated and the child seizures deemed genocidal by Judge Edwin Kimelman, who wrote: "You took a child from his or her specific culture and you placed him into a foreign culture without any [counselling] assistance to the family which had the child.  There is something dramatically and basically wrong with that."<ref>''Genocide''; Szumski, Bonnie; [[Greenhaven Press]]; 2001; Pgs. 155-8</ref> another aspect of the residential school systems was its use of forced sterilization of Indigenous women who chose not to follow the schools advice of marrying non-Indigenous men. Indigenous women made up only 2.5% of the Canadian population, but 25% of those who were sterilized under the Canadian eugenics laws (such as the ''[[Sexual Sterilization Act]]'' of Alberta) – many without their knowledge or consent.<ref>Pegoraro, L. (2015). Second-rate victims: the forced sterilization of Indigenous peoples in the USA and Canada. Settler Colonial Studies, 5(2), 161–173.</ref>
-[[File:TRC Canada Executive Summary.pdf|thumb|Cover page of official TRC summary that affirms cultural genocide of Indigenous peoples within Canada. Entitled, "Honour the Truth, Reconciling for the Future."]]
-The Executive Summary of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that the state pursued a policy of cultural genocide through forced assimilation.<ref name="TRCExec">{{cite web|title=Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future – Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada|url=http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Exec_Summary_2015_05_31_web_o.pdf|publisher=The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada|access-date=28 June 2016|date=31 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706170855/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Exec_Summary_2015_05_31_web_o.pdf|archive-date=6 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> The ambiguity of the phrasing allowed for the interpretation that physical and biological genocide also occurred. The Commission, however, was not authorized to conclude that physical and biological genocide occurred, as such a finding would imply a difficult to prove legal responsibility for the Canadian government. As a result, the debate about whether the Canadian government also committed physical and biological genocide against Indigenous populations remains open.<ref name="MacDonald">MacDonald, D. B. (2015). Canada's history wars: indigenous genocide and public memory in the United States, Australia, and Canada. Journal of Genocide Research, 17(4), 411–431.</ref><ref name="Woolford-Benvenuto" />
+With the death of [[Shanawdithit]] in 1829, the [[Beothuk]] people, and the Indigenous people of [[Newfoundland]] were officially declared extinct after suffering epidemics, starvation, loss of access to food sources, and displacement by English and French fishermen and traders.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mun.ca/relstudies/ |title=Department of Religious Studies |website=[[Memorial University of Newfoundland]] |language=en-CA |access-date=15 October 2019 |archive-date=10 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110410121756/http://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/acampbell/pla/PLA07.HTM |url-status=live}}</ref> Scholars disagree in their definition of genocide in relation to the Beothuk, and the parties have different political agendas.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002110956 |last=Rubinstein |first=W.D. |title=Genocide and Historical Debate: William D. Rubinstein Ascribes the Bitterness of Historians' Arguments to the Lack of an Agreed Definition and to Political Agendas |journal=[[History Today]] |volume=54 |year=2004 |access-date=10 February 2019 |archive-date=31 January 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130131211914/http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002110956 |url-status=live}}</ref> While some scholars believe that the Beothuk died out due to the elements noted above, another theory is that Europeans conducted a sustained campaign of genocide against them.<ref>{{cite book |first1=R. P. |last1=Knowles |title=Modern Drama: Defining the Field |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |year=2003 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dqTz89_fFjgC&pg=PA169 169] |isbn=978-0-8020-8621-1 |last2=Tomplins |first2=J. |last3=Worthen |first3=W.B.}}</ref> More recent understandings of the concept of "cultural genocide" and its relation to settler colonialism have led modern scholars to a renewed discussion of the genocidal aspects of the Canadian states' role in producing and legitimating the process of physical and cultural destruction of Indigenous people.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Andrew |last1=Woolford |first2=Jasmine |last2=Thomas |title=Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review |chapter=Genocide of Canadian First Nations |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=2011 |pages=61–87 |editor1-first=Samuel |editor1-last=Totten |editor2-first=Robert |editor2-last=Hitchcock}}</ref> In the 1990s some scholars began pushing for Canada to recognize the ''[[Canadian Indian residential school system]]'' as a genocidal process rooted in colonialism.<ref>{{cite book|last=Annett |first=K. |title=Hidden From History: The Untold Story of the Genocide of Aboriginal Peoples by the Church and State in Canada |publisher=The Truth Commission into the Genocide in Canada |year=2001 |url=http://www.hiddenmysteries.org/religion/christianity/genocide.pdf |access-date=25 March 2017 |archive-date=9 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709002824/http://www.hiddenmysteries.org/religion/christianity/genocide.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Woolford |first1=Andrew |last2=Benvenuto |first2=Jeff |date=2015-10-02 |title=Canada and colonial genocide |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=373–390 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2015.1096580 |s2cid=74263719 |issn=1462-3528 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This public debate led to the formation of the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Canada)|Canadian Truth and Reconciliation Commission]], which was formed in 2008 after the Canadian government apologized for its historical "attitudes of racial and cultural superiority" and "suppression" of the First Nations, including its role in [[Canadian Indian residential school system|residential schools]].<ref name=MacDonald/><ref name="Woolford-Benvenuto">{{cite journal |last1=Woolford |first1=Andrew |first2=Jeff |last2=Benvenuto |title=Canada and colonial genocide |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=17 |number=4 |date=2015 |pages=373–390|doi=10.1080/14623528.2015.1096580 |s2cid=74263719 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Status of Reconciliation |url=http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/socstud/foundation_gr9/blms/9-1-4e.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504204122/https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/socstud/foundation_gr9/blms/9-1-4e.pdf |archive-date=4 May 2020 |access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref>
-The use of cultural genocide is used to differentiate from the Holocaust: a clearly accepted genocide in history. Some argue that this description negates the biological and physical acts of genocide that occurred in tandem with cultural destruction.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Woolford|first1=Andrew|last2=Benvenuto|first2=Jeff|date=2015-10-02|title=Canada and colonial genocide|journal=Journal of Genocide Research|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=373–390|doi=10.1080/14623528.2015.1096580|issn=1462-3528|doi-access=free}}</ref> When engaged within the context of international law, colonialism in Canada has inflicted each criteria for the United Nations definition of the crime of genocide. However, all below examples of physical genocide are still highly debated as the requirement of intention and overall motivations behind the perpetrators actions is not widely agreed upon as of yet.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mahoney|first=Kathleen|date=2019-04-03|title=Indigenous Legal Principles: A Reparation Path for Canada's Cultural Genocide|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02722011.2019.1626099|journal=American Review of Canadian Studies|language=en|volume=49|issue=2|pages=207–230|doi=10.1080/02722011.2019.1626099|s2cid=201387768|issn=0272-2011}}</ref>
+The ''[[Canadian Indian residential school system]]'' was established following the passage of the [[Indian Act]] in 1876. The system was designed to remove children from the influence of their families and culture with the aim of [[Cultural assimilation|assimilating]] them into the dominant Canadian culture.<ref name="TRCHistoryPart1">{{cite web |title=Canada's Residential Schools: The History, Part 1 Origins to 1939 – Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada |volume=1 |url=http://nctr.ca/assets/reports/Final%20Reports/Volume_1_History_Part_1_English_Web.pdf |website=National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation |publisher=[[Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada]] |access-date=1 July 2016 |date=2015 |archive-date=5 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305044526/http://nctr.ca/assets/reports/Final%20Reports/Volume_1_History_Part_1_English_Web.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The final school closed in 1996.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.omfrc.org/newsletter/specialedition8.pdf |title=Solving the "Indian Problem": Assimilation Laws, Practices & Indian Residential Schools |last=Rheault |first=D'Arcy |date=2011 |website=Ontario Métis Family Records Centre |access-date=29 June 2016 |archive-date=11 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120611203916/http://omfrc.org/newsletter/specialedition8.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Over the course of the system's existence, about 30% of native children, or roughly 150,000, were placed in residential schools nationally; at least 6,000 of these students died while in attendance.<ref name="med.uottawa.ca">{{cite web |title=Residential School History: A Legacy of Shame |url=http://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/Images/Residential_Schools.pdf |publisher=Wabano Centre for Aboriginal Health |access-date=28 June 2016 |date=2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203062432/http://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/Images/Residential_Schools.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="Tasker">{{cite news |last1=Tasker |first1=John Paul |title=Residential schools findings point to 'cultural genocide,' commission chair says |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/residential-schools-findings-point-to-cultural-genocide-commission-chair-says-1.3093580 |access-date=1 July 2016 |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] |date=29 May 2015 |archive-date=18 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518220713/http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/residential-schools-findings-point-to-cultural-genocide-commission-chair-says-1.3093580 |url-status=live}}</ref> The system has been described as [[cultural genocide]]: "killing the Indian in the child".<ref name="IndigenousFoundations">{{cite web |title=The Residential School System |url=http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-residential-school-system.html |website=Indigenous Foundations |publisher=UBC First Nations and Indigenous Studies |access-date=28 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160627221843/http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-residential-school-system.html |archive-date=27 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Luxen">{{cite news |last1=Luxen |first1=Micah |title=Survivors of Canada's 'cultural genocide' still healing |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-33001425 |access-date=28 June 2016 |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=24 June 2016 |archive-date=25 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725181119/http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-33001425 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Brethren">{{cite web |url=http://www.canadianbic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/First-Steps-Final-Reg-PDF.pdf |title=First Steps With First Nations |date=April 2012 |publisher=Brethren in Christ Canada |access-date=28 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817000352/http://www.canadianbic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/First-Steps-Final-Reg-PDF.pdf |archive-date=17 August 2016}}</ref> Part of this process during the 1960s through the 1980s, dubbed the [[Sixties Scoop]], was investigated and the child seizures deemed genocidal by Judge Edwin Kimelman, who wrote: "You took a child from his or her specific culture and you placed him into a foreign culture without any [counselling] assistance to the family which had the child. There is something dramatically and basically wrong with that."<ref>''Genocide''; Szumski, Bonnie; [[Greenhaven Press]]; 2001; Pgs. 155-8</ref> Another aspect of the residential school system was its use of forced sterilization on Indigenous women who chose not to follow the schools advice of marrying non-Indigenous men. Indigenous women made up only 2.5% of the Canadian population, but 25% of those who were sterilized under the Canadian eugenics laws (such as the ''[[Sexual Sterilization Act]]'' of Alberta) – many without their knowledge or consent.<ref>Pegoraro, L. (2015). Second-rate victims: the forced sterilization of Indigenous peoples in the USA and Canada. Settler Colonial Studies, 5(2), 161–173.</ref>
-Canada’s actions towards Indigenous peoples can be categorized under the first example of the UN definition of genocide, “killing members of the group,” through the spreading of deadly disease such as during the 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic. Further examples from other parts of the country include the [[Saskatoon freezing deaths|Saskatoon’s freezing deaths]],<ref>{{Cite web|last1=April 8|first1=Meagan Campbell|last2=2016|date=2016-04-08|title=New light on Saskatoon's 'starlight tours'|url=https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/new-light-on-saskatoons-starlight-tours/|access-date=2021-02-26|website=Macleans.ca|language=en}}</ref> the epidemic of [[Missing and murdered Indigenous women|Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women, Girls and Two-Spirited people]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Özsu|first=Umut|date=2020-01-02|title=Genocide as Fact and Form|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2019.1682283|journal=Journal of Genocide Research|language=en|volume=22|issue=1|pages=62–71|doi=10.1080/14623528.2019.1682283|s2cid=208416055|issn=1462-3528}}</ref> and the [[scalping]] bounties offered by the governor of Nova Scotia, [[Edward Cornwallis]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Rutgers|first=Julia-Simone|date=29 October 2019|title=Halifax task force to make recommendations as talks on Edward Cornwallis and commemorating Mi'kmaq history come to close.|work=The Toronto Star|url-status=live}}</ref>
+[[File:TRC Canada Executive Summary.pdf|thumb|Cover page of official TRC summary that affirms cultural genocide of Indigenous peoples within Canada. Entitled, "Honour the Truth, Reconciling for the Future".]]
+The Executive Summary of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that the state pursued a policy of cultural genocide through forced assimilation.<ref name="TRCExec">{{cite web |title=Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future – Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada |url=http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Exec_Summary_2015_05_31_web_o.pdf |publisher=[[Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada]] |access-date=28 June 2016 |date=31 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706170855/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Exec_Summary_2015_05_31_web_o.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2016}}</ref> The ambiguity of the phrasing allowed for the interpretation that physical and biological genocide also occurred. The commission, however, was not authorized to conclude that physical and biological genocide occurred, as such a finding would imply a difficult-to-prove legal responsibility for the Canadian government. As a result, the debate about whether the Canadian government also committed physical and biological genocide against Indigenous populations remains open.<ref name="MacDonald">{{cite journal |last=MacDonald |first=D. B. |date=2015 |title=Canada's history wars: Indigenous genocide and public memory in the United States, Australia, and Canada |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=17 |number=4 |pages=411–431|doi=10.1080/14623528.2015.1096583 |s2cid=74512843}}</ref><ref name="Woolford-Benvenuto" />
+The use of cultural genocide is used to differentiate from the Holocaust: a clearly accepted genocide in history. Some argue that this description negates the biological and physical acts of genocide that occurred in tandem with cultural destruction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Woolford |first1=Andrew |last2=Benvenuto |first2=Jeff |date=2 October 2015 |title=Canada and colonial genocide |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=373–390 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2015.1096580 |issn=1462-3528 |doi-access=free}}</ref> When engaged within the context of international law, colonialism in Canada has inflicted each criterion for the United Nations definition of the crime of genocide. However, all examples below of physical genocide are still highly debated as the requirement of intention and overall motivations behind the perpetrators actions is not widely agreed upon as of yet.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mahoney |first=Kathleen |date=3 April 2019 |title=Indigenous Legal Principles: A Reparation Path for Canada's Cultural Genocide |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02722011.2019.1626099 |journal=[[American Review of Canadian Studies]] |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=207–230 |doi=10.1080/02722011.2019.1626099 |s2cid=201387768 |issn=0272-2011 |access-date=26 February 2021 |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212133822/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02722011.2019.1626099 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-Secondly, as affirmed by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the residential school system was a clear example of (b) and (e) and similar acts continue to this day through the Millennium Scoop, as  Indigenous children are disproportionately removed from their families and placed into the care of others who are often of different cultures through the Canadian child welfare system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cadwell|first1=J.|last2=Sihna|first2=V.|date=7 February 2020|title=(Re) Conceptualizing Neglect: Considering the Overrepresentation of Indigenous Children in Child Welfare Systems in Canada.|journal=Child Indicators Research|volume=13|issue=2|pages=481–512|doi=10.1007/s12187-019-09676-w|s2cid=214488725|via=SpringerLink}}</ref> Once again this repeats the separation of Indigenous children from their traditional ways of life. Moreover, children living on-reserve are subject to inadequate funding for social services which has led to filing of a ninth non-compliance order in early 2021 the [[Canadian Human Rights Tribunal]] in attempts to hold the Canadian government accountable.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Canada accused of continued short-changing of First Nations kids, despite order to stop|url=https://globalnews.ca/news/7621580/canada-first-nations-child-welfare-discrimination-non-compliance-order/|access-date=2021-02-26|website=Global News|language=en-US}}</ref>
-[[File:Red Dress MMIW - Missing and murdered Indigenous women - The Mohawk Warrior Flag, designed by Louis Karoniaktajeh Hall - Justice For Regis - Not Another Black Life rally and March - May 30, 2020.jpg|alt=Large crowd of protesters on the streets of Toronto. A red dress and Mohawk Warrior flag can be seen hoisted above the crowd.|thumb|In Toronto during a [[Black Lives Matter|BLM protest]], marchers carry a MMIW ( Missing and Murdered Indigenous women) red dress and Mohawk Warrior Flag.]]
+Canada's actions toward Indigenous peoples can be categorized under the first example of the UN definition of genocide, "killing members of the group", through the spreading of deadly diseases such as during the 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic, in which the [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] population of [[British Columbia]] decreased by 75%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indigenous Peoples in Canada |url=http://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/Aboriginal_intro_e.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314192434/http://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/aboriginal_intro_e.htm |archive-date=14 March 2017 |access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref> Further examples from other parts of the country include the [[Saskatoon freezing deaths|Saskatoon's freezing deaths]],<ref>{{cite web |first1=Meagan |last1=Campbell |date=2016-04-08|title=New light on Saskatoon's 'starlight tours'|url=https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/new-light-on-saskatoons-starlight-tours/|access-date=2021-02-26|website=Macleans.ca|language=en|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203164354/https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/new-light-on-saskatoons-starlight-tours/|url-status=live}}</ref> the epidemic of [[Missing and murdered Indigenous women|Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women, Girls and Two-Spirited people]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Özsu |first=Umut |date=2 January 2020 |title=Genocide as Fact and Form |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2019.1682283 |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=62–71 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2019.1682283 |s2cid=208416055 |issn=1462-3528 |access-date=26 February 2021 |archive-date=13 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213235553/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2019.1682283 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[scalping]] bounties offered by the governor of Nova Scotia, [[Edward Cornwallis]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rutgers |first=Julia-Simone |date=29 October 2019 |title=Halifax task force to make recommendations as talks on Edward Cornwallis and commemorating Mi'kmaq history come to close. |work=[[The Toronto Star]]}}</ref>
-Subsection (c) of the UN definition: "deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part” is an act of genocide that has historic legacies, such as the near and full extrapolation of [[caribou]] and [[bison]] that contributed to [[1950 Canadian caribou famine|mass famines in Indigenous communities]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kivallirmiut (Caribou Inuit) {{!}} The Canadian Encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/caribou-inuit|access-date=2021-02-26|website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wildcat|first=Matthew|date=2015-10-02|title=Fearing social and cultural death: genocide and elimination in settler colonial Canada—an Indigenous perspective|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2015.1096579|journal=Journal of Genocide Research|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=391–409|doi=10.1080/14623528.2015.1096579|s2cid=146577340|issn=1462-3528}}</ref> how on reserve conditions infringe on the quality of life of Indigenous peoples as their social services are underfunded and inaccessible, and hold the bleakest water qualities in the first world country.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lucier|first1=Kayla J.|last2=Schuster-Wallace|first2=Corinne J.|last3=Skead|first3=Derek|last4=Skead|first4=Kathleen|last5=Dickson-Anderson|first5=Sarah E.|date=2020-11-13|title="Is there anything good about a water advisory?": an exploration of the consequences of drinking water advisories in an indigenous community|url= |journal=BMC Public Health|volume=20|issue=1|pages=1704|doi=10.1186/s12889-020-09825-9|issn=1471-2458|pmc=7666524|pmid=33187509}}</ref> Canada also situates precarious and lethal ecological toxicities that pose threats to the land, water, air and peoples themselves near or on Indigenous territories.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bracken|first=Amber|date=28 January 2019|title=A Battle to Protect Indigenous Land From a Pipeline Plan.|work=New York Times|url-status=live}}</ref>
-Indigenous people continue to report (d), the "imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group,” within more recent years. Specifically through the avoidance of [[informed consent]] surrounding sterilization procedures with Indigenous people like the case of Alisa Lombard from 2018 in [[Moose Jaw|Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Kirkup|first=K|date=7 August 2019|title=Committee 'deeply disturbed' by reports of coerced, forced sterilization in Canada.|work=Waterloo Region Record|url-status=live}}</ref> Examples such as the ones listed above have led to widespread physical and virtual action across the country to protest the historical and current  genocidal harms faced by Indigenous peoples. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Presley|first=Rachel|date=2020|title=Embodied Liminality and Gendered State Violence: Activist Expression in the MMIW Movement.|journal=Journal of International Women's Studied|volume=21|pages=91+|via=Gale OneFile}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Raynauld|first1=Vincent|last2=Richez|first2=Emmanuelle|last3=Boudreau Morris|first3=Katie|date=2018-04-03|title=Canada is #IdleNoMore: exploring dynamics of Indigenous political and civic protest in the Twitterverse|journal=Information, Communication & Society|language=en|volume=21|issue=4|pages=626–642|doi=10.1080/1369118X.2017.1301522|issn=1369-118X|doi-access=free}}</ref>
+Secondly, as affirmed by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, the residential school system was a clear example of (b) and (e) and similar acts continue to this day through the Millennium Scoop, as Indigenous children are disproportionately removed from their families and placed into the care of others who are often of different cultures through the Canadian child welfare system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cadwell |first1=J. |last2=Sihna |first2=V. |date=7 February 2020 |title=(Re) Conceptualizing Neglect: Considering the Overrepresentation of Indigenous Children in Child Welfare Systems in Canada. |journal=[[Child Indicators Research]] |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=481–512 |doi=10.1007/s12187-019-09676-w |s2cid=214488725 |via=SpringerLink}}</ref> Once again this repeats the separation of Indigenous children from their traditional ways of life. Moreover, children living on-reserve are subject to inadequate funding for social services which has led to filing of a ninth non-compliance order in early 2021 to the [[Canadian Human Rights Tribunal]] in attempts to hold the Canadian government accountable.<ref>{{cite news |title=Canada accused of continued short-changing of First Nations kids, despite order to stop |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/7621580/canada-first-nations-child-welfare-discrimination-non-compliance-order/ |access-date=26 February 2021 |work=[[Global News]] |language=en-US |archive-date=21 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210221065404/https://globalnews.ca/news/7621580/canada-first-nations-child-welfare-discrimination-non-compliance-order/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
+[[File:Red Dress MMIW - Missing and murdered Indigenous women - The Mohawk Warrior Flag, designed by Louis Karoniaktajeh Hall - Justice For Regis - Not Another Black Life rally and March - May 30, 2020.jpg|alt=Large crowd of protesters on the streets of Toronto. A red dress and Mohawk Warrior flag can be seen hoisted above the crowd.|thumb|In Toronto during a [[Black Lives Matter|BLM protest]], marchers carry a MMIW (Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women) red dress and a Mohawk Warrior Flag.]]
+Subsection (c) of the UN definition: "deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part" is an act of genocide that has historic legacies, such as the near and full extrapolation of [[caribou]] and [[bison]] that contributed to [[1950 Caribou Inuit famine|mass famines in Indigenous communities]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Kivallirmiut (Caribou Inuit): The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/caribou-inuit |access-date=26 February 2021 |website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |archive-date=4 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204213208/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/caribou-inuit |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wildcat |first=Matthew |date=2 October 2015 |title=Fearing social and cultural death: genocide and elimination in settler colonial Canada—an Indigenous perspective |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2015.1096579 |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |language=en |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=391–409 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2015.1096579 |s2cid=146577340 |issn=1462-3528 |access-date=26 February 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331173609/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2015.1096579 |url-status=live}}</ref> how on reserve conditions infringe on the quality of life of Indigenous peoples as their social services are underfunded and inaccessible, and hold the bleakest water qualities in the first world country.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lucier |first1=Kayla J. |last2=Schuster-Wallace |first2=Corinne J. |last3=Skead |first3=Derek |last4=Skead |first4=Kathleen |last5=Dickson-Anderson |first5=Sarah E. |date=13 November 2020 |title=Is there anything good about a water advisory?: an exploration of the consequences of drinking water advisories in an indigenous community |url= |journal=[[BMC Public Health]] |volume=20 |issue=1 |page=1704 |doi=10.1186/s12889-020-09825-9 |issn=1471-2458 |pmc=7666524 |pmid=33187509 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Canada also situates precarious and lethal ecological toxicities that pose threats to the land, water, air and peoples themselves near or on Indigenous territories.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bracken |first=Amber |date=28 January 2019 |title=A Battle to Protect Indigenous Land From a Pipeline Plan. |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>
+Indigenous people continue to report (d), the "imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group", within more recent years. Specifically through the avoidance of [[informed consent]] surrounding sterilization procedures with Indigenous people like the case of D.D.S. represented by lawyer Alisa Lombard from 2018 in [[Moose Jaw|Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kirkup |first=K. |date=7 August 2019 |title=Committee 'deeply disturbed' by reports of coerced, forced sterilization in Canada. |work=Waterloo Region Record}}</ref> Examples such as the ones listed above have led to widespread physical and virtual action across the country to protest the historical and current genocidal harms faced by Indigenous peoples.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Presley |first=Rachel |date=2020 |title=Embodied Liminality and Gendered State Violence: Activist Expression in the MMIW Movement |url=https://vc.bridgew.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2344&context=jiws |journal=[[Journal of International Women's Studies]] |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=91+ |access-date=15 September 2022 |archive-date=15 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220915141556/https://vc.bridgew.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2344&context=jiws |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raynauld |first1=Vincent |last2=Richez |first2=Emmanuelle |last3=Boudreau Morris |first3=Katie |date=2018-04-03|title=Canada is #IdleNoMore: exploring dynamics of Indigenous political and civic protest in the Twitterverse |journal=Information, Communication & Society |language=en |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=626–642 |doi=10.1080/1369118X.2017.1301522 |issn=1369-118X |doi-access=free}}</ref>
+Canada has been accused of genocide for its historical [[Compulsory sterilization in Canada|compulsory sterilization of Indigenous peoples]] in [[Alberta]] during the fears of jobs being stolen by immigrants and living lives of poverty provoked by [[the Great Depression]].<ref>{{cite news |date=27 August 2015 |title=Sterilization of indigenous women an act of genocide, new book says |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/thunder-bay/sterilization-of-indigenous-women-an-act-of-genocide-new-book-says-1.3205816 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028030143/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/thunder-bay/sterilization-of-indigenous-women-an-act-of-genocide-new-book-says-1.3205816 |archive-date=28 October 2019 |access-date=16 October 2019 |work=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]]}}</ref> The Final Report (2019) from the [[National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women]] argued that Canada's policies, actions, and inactions (i.e., failures to act) regarding Indigenous Peoples – including the Indian Act, residential schools, and systemic under-funding – together constitute an "ongoing" genocide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why 'genocide' was used in the MMIWG report - National {{!}} Globalnews.ca |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/5350772/genocide-canada-mmiwg/ |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=Global News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Z |first=Lara |date=2019-05-29 |title=Final Report {{!}} MMIWG {{!}} Supplementary Report – Genocide |url=https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Supplementary-Report_Genocide.pdf |access-date=2024-01-18 |website=www.mmiwg-ffada.ca |page=9 |language=en |quote="These [genocidal] policies fluctuated in time and space and in different incarnations are still ongoing...This genocide was enabled by colonial structures and policies maintained over centuries until the present day."}}</ref>
+On July 28, 2022, during the [[visit by Pope Francis to Canada]] at the [[Cathedral-Basilica of Notre-Dame de Québec|Notre-Dame de Québec Cathedral]], the Pope stated: "And thinking about the process of healing and reconciliation with our indigenous brothers and sisters, never again can the Christian community allow itself to be infected by the idea that one culture is superior to others, or that it is legitimate to employ ways of coercing others."<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2022 |title=Pope Francis acknowledges 'sexual abuse of minors and vulnerable people' for first time on Canadian trip |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2022/07/28/pope-francis-to-host-mass-at-quebec-pilgrimage-site.html |access-date=29 July 2022 |website=thestar.com |language=en |archive-date=29 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729065547/https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2022/07/28/pope-francis-to-host-mass-at-quebec-pilgrimage-site.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Pope Francis on his return flight to Rome on July 30, 2022, after a week-long trip to Canada, responded to a question from a journalist: "It's true, I didn't use the word because it didn't occur to me, but I described the genocide and asked for pardon, forgiveness for this work that is genocidal. For example, I condemned this too: Taking away children and changing culture, changing mentalities, changing traditions, changing a race, let's say, a whole culture. Yes, it's a technical word, genocide, but I didn't use it because it didn't come to mind, but I described it. It is true; yes, it's genocide. Yes, you all, be calm. You can say that I said that, yes, that it was genocide."<ref>{{Cite web |last=EWTN |title=Pope Francis' In-flight Press Conference from Canada: Full Text |url=https://www.aciafrica.org/news/6385/pope-francis-in-flight-press-conference-from-canada-full-text |access-date=30 July 2022 |website=ACI Africa |language=en |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730181013/https://www.aciafrica.org/news/6385/pope-francis-in-flight-press-conference-from-canada-full-text |url-status=live}}</ref>
 === Mexico ===
@@ Line 92: / Line 182: @@
 ==== Apaches ====
+In 1835, the government of the Mexican state of [[Sonora]] put a bounty on the [[Apache]] which, over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each scalp of a male 14 or more years old.<ref name="haley"/><ref>History Of The North Mexican States And Texas, Vol. II 1801-1889, San Francisco, The History Company, Publishers,1889, Chapter 24</ref> In 1837, the Mexican state of [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] also offered a bounty on [[Apache]] scalps, 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman, and 25 pesos per child.<ref name="haley">{{cite book |first=James L. |last=Haley |author-link=James L. Haley |year=1981 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RAfJwmMeq5IC&pg=PA51 |title=Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |page=51 |isbn=0806129786 |access-date=8 May 2021 |archive-date=8 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508041545/https://books.google.com/books?id=RAfJwmMeq5IC&pg=PA51 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-In 1835, the government of the Mexican state of [[Sonora]] put a bounty on the [[Apache]] which,over time, evolved into a payment by the government of 100 pesos for each scalp of a male 14 or more years old.<ref name="haley"/><ref>History Of The North Mexican States And Texas, Vol. II 1801-1889, San Francisco, The History Company, Publishers,1889, Chapter 24</ref> In 1837, the Mexican state of [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] also offered a bounty on [[Apache]] scalps, 100 pesos per warrior, 50 pesos per woman, and 25 pesos per child.<ref name="haley">{{cite book |first=James L. |last=Haley |author-link=James L. Haley |year=1981 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RAfJwmMeq5IC&pg=PA51 |title=Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait |publisher= [[University of Oklahoma Press]] | page=51 |isbn= 0806129786}}</ref>
 ==== Mayas ====
+The [[Caste War of Yucatán]] was caused by encroachment of colonizers on communal land of [[Mayas]] in Southeast Mexico.<ref>Terry Rugeley, ''Yucatan's Maya Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War'' (San Antonio, 1996)</ref> According to political scientist [[Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|Adam Jones]]: "This ferocious race war featured genocidal atrocities on both sides, with up to 200,000 killed."<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Adam |title=Genocides by the Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice |first1=Nicholas A. |last1=Robins |year=2009 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-35309-2 |page=50}}</ref>
-The [[Caste War of Yucatán]] was caused by encroachment of colonizers on communal land of [[Mayas]] in Southeast Mexico.<ref>Terry Rugeley, ''Yucatan's Maya Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War'' (San Antonio, 1996)</ref> According to political scientist [[Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|Adam Jones]]: "This ferocious race war featured genocidal atrocities on both sides, with up to 200,000 killed."<ref>{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Adam, ed. |title=Genocides by the Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice |author2=Nicholas A. Robins |year=2009 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-35309-2|page=50 }}</ref>
 ==== Yaquis ====
 {{main|Yaqui Wars|Yaqui Uprising|Battle of Mazocoba}}
+[[File:A group of more than 30 women and children Yaqui Indian prisoners under guard, Guaymas, Mexico, ca.1910 (CHS-1512).jpg|thumb|A group of more than 30 women and children Yaqui Indian prisoners under guard, Guaymas, Mexico, ca. 1910]]
-The Mexican government's response to the various uprisings of the [[Yaqui]] tribe have been likened to [[genocide]] particularly under [[Porfirio Diaz]].<ref>Yaquis: The Story of a People's War and a Genocide in Mexico Paco Ignacio II</ref> Due to slavery and massacre, the population of the [[Yaqui]] tribe in [[Mexico]] was reduced from 30,000 to 7,000 under Diaz's rule. One source estimates at least 20,000 out of these Yaquis were victims of state murders in [[Sonora]].<ref>
+The Mexican government's response to the various uprisings of the [[Yaqui]] tribe have been likened to [[genocide]] particularly under [[Porfirio Diaz]].<ref>Yaquis: The Story of a People's War and a Genocide in Mexico Paco Ignacio II</ref> Due to massacre, the population of the [[Yaqui]] tribe in [[Mexico]] was reduced from 30,000 to 7,000 under Diaz's rule. One source estimates at least 20,000 out of these Yaquis were victims of state murders in [[Sonora]].<ref>http://www.vanguardia.com.mx/pacoignaciotaiboiinarragenocidiodeyaquisenmexico-185265{{Dead link |date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tukari.udg.mx/noticia/paco-ignacio-taibo-ii-documenta-el-brutal-genocidio-yaqui-en-nuestro-pais |title=Paco Ignacio Taibo II, documenta el brutal genocidio yaqui en nuestro país {{pipe}} Tukari |language=es |trans-title=Paco Ignacio Taibo II, documents the brutal Yaqui genocide in our country {{pipe}} Tukari |access-date=27 April 2018 |archive-date=27 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427185110/http://www.tukari.udg.mx/noticia/paco-ignacio-taibo-ii-documenta-el-brutal-genocidio-yaqui-en-nuestro-pais |url-status=live}}</ref>
-http://www.vanguardia.com.mx/pacoignaciotaiboiinarragenocidiodeyaquisenmexico-185265
-</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.tukari.udg.mx/noticia/paco-ignacio-taibo-ii-documenta-el-brutal-genocidio-yaqui-en-nuestro-pais | title=Paco Ignacio Taibo II, documenta el brutal genocidio yaqui en nuestro país &#124; Tukari}}</ref> Mexican president [[Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador]] said he'd be willing to offer apologies for the abuses in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mexico president wants no beef with Spain, hints at other apology requests |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-spain-president/mexico-president-wants-no-beef-with-spain-hints-at-other-apology-requests-idUSKCN1R726N |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502020130/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-spain-president/mexico-president-wants-no-beef-with-spain-hints-at-other-apology-requests-idUSKCN1R726N |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 May 2019 |newspaper=REUTERS|date=26 March 2019 }}</ref>
-===The Southern Cone===
+=== Argentina ===
-{{See also|Southern Cone|Demographics of the Southern Cone|Category:Indigenous topics of the Southern Cone}}
+{{See also|Demographics of Argentina|Indigenous peoples in Argentina}}
-Both Argentina and Chile launched campaigns of territorial expansion in the second half of the 19th century, at the expenses of indigenous peoples and neighbor states. The so-called Pacification of the [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucania]] by the Chilean army dispossessed the up-to-then independent [[Mapuche]] people between the 1860s and the 1880s, as did Argentina with the Conquest of the Desert.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Archivos del silencio. Estado, indígenas y violencia en Patagonia central, 1878–1941|last=Pérez|first=Pilar|publisher=Prometeo|year=2016|location=Buenos Aires}}</ref> In southern [[Patagonia]], both states occupied indigenous lands and waters, and facilitated the genocide implemented by sheep-farmers and the businessmen in [[Selk'nam genocide|Tierra del Fuego]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Un viaje a las colonias. Memorias de un ovejero escocés en Malvinas, Patagonia y Tierra del Fuego (1878–1898)|last=Harambour|first=Alberto|publisher=DIBAM-Centro de Investigaciones Diego Barros Arana|year=2016|location=Santiago}}</ref> Argentina also expanded northward, dispossessing a number of [[Chaco Province|Chaco]] peoples through a policy that may be considered as genocidal.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nuestros paisanos los indios, Vida, historia y destino de las comunidades indígenas en la Argentina|last=Martínez Sarasola|first=Carlos|publisher=Del Nuevo Extremo|year=2013|location=Buenos Aires}}</ref>
+Argentina launched campaigns of territorial expansion in the second half of the 19th century, at the expense of Indigenous peoples and neighbor state Chile.<ref>{{cite book |title=Archivos del silencio. Estado, indígenas y violencia en Patagonia central, 1878–1941 |language=es |trans-title=Archives of Silence: State, Indigenous people and Violence in Central Patagonia, 1878–1941 |last=Pérez |first=Pilar |publisher=Prometeo |year=2016 |location=Buenos Aires}}</ref> Mapuche people were forced from their ancestral lands by Argentinian military forces, resulting in deaths and displacements. During the 1870s, President [[Julio Argentino Roca]] implemented the ''[[Conquest of the Desert]]'' ({{lang-es|Conquista del desierto}}) military operation, which resulted in the subjugation, enslavement, and genocide of [[Mapuche]] individuals residing in the [[Pampas]] area.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Carroll |first1=Rory |last2=correspondent |first2=Latin America |date=13 January 2011 |title=Argentinian founding father recast as genocidal murderer |language=en-GB |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/13/argentinian-founding-father-genocide-row |access-date=3 March 2023 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=22 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022202659/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/13/argentinian-founding-father-genocide-row |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Delrio |first1=Walter |last2=Lenton |first2=Diana |last3=Musante |first3=Marcelo |last4=Nagy |first4=Marino |date=2010-08-01 |title=Discussing Indigenous Genocide in Argentina: Past, Present, and Consequences of Argentinean State Policies toward Native Peoples |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol5/iss2/3 |journal=[[Genocide Studies and Prevention]] |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=138–159 |doi=10.3138/gsp.5.2.138 |hdl=11336/58381 |s2cid=145474271 |issn=1911-0359 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
+In southern [[Patagonia]], both Argentina and Chile occupied Indigenous lands and waters, and facilitated the genocide implemented by sheep farmers and businessmen in [[Selk'nam genocide|Tierra del Fuego]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Un viaje a las colonias. Memorias de un ovejero escocés en Malvinas, Patagonia y Tierra del Fuego (1878–1898) |language=es |trans-title=A trip to the colonies: Memoirs of a Scottish Shepherd in Malvinas, Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego (1878–1898) |last=Harambour |first=Alberto |publisher=DIBAM-Centro de Investigaciones Diego Barros Arana |year=2016 |location=Santiago}}</ref> Starting in the late 19th century, during the [[Tierra del Fuego gold rush]], European settlers, in concert with the Argentine and Chilean governments, systematically exterminated the [[Selk'nam people]], [[Yahgan people|Yaghan]], and [[Haush]] peoples. Their decimation is known today as the [[Selk'nam genocide]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Youkee |first=Mat |date=2022-05-03 |title='We were told our brothers were dead': Chile's lost tribe reclaims identity |language=en-GB |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/03/chile-indigenous-selknam-not-extinct-constitution |access-date=2023-03-03 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127131009/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/03/chile-indigenous-selknam-not-extinct-constitution |url-status=live}}</ref>
-==== Paraguay ====
-The [[War of the Triple Alliance]] (1865-1870) was launched by the [[Empire of Brazil]], in alliance with the Argentine government of [[Bartolomé Mitre]] and the Uruguayan government of [[Venancio Flores]], against [[Paraguay]]. The governments of Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay signed a secret treaty in which the "high contracting parties" solemnly bind themselves to overthrow the government of Paraguay.   In the 5 years of war, the Paraguayan population was reduced, including, civilians, women, children, and the elderly. Julio José Chiavenato in his book ''American Genocide'' affirms that it was "a war of total extermination that only ended when there were no more Paraguayans to kill" and concludes that 99.5% of the adult male population of Paraguay died during the war. Of a population of approximately 420,000 before the war, only 14,000 men and 180,000 women remained.<ref>Chiavenatto,Julio José. ''Genocídio Americano: A Guerra do Paraguai,'' Editora Brasiliense, SP. Brasil, 1979, page 170</ref>
+Argentina also expanded northward, dispossessing several [[Chaco Province|Chaco]] peoples for example in the [[Napalpí massacre|Napalmi massacre]] through a policy that may be considered as genocidal.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nuestros paisanos los indios, Vida, historia y destino de las comunidades indígenas en la Argentina |language=es |trans-title=Our countrymen the Indians: Life, history and destiny of the Indigenous communities in Argentina |last=Martínez Sarasola |first=Carlos |publisher=Del Nuevo Extremo |year=2013 |location=Buenos Aires}}</ref>
-Author [[Steven Pinker]] wrote:<ref name="Pinker">{{cite book |first=Steven |last=Pinker |title=Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined |location=London |publisher=Penguin |year=2011 |page=161|isbn=978-0-14-312201-2 }} [[Steven Pinker]]</ref>  {{quote|Among its many wars (19th century) is the War of the Triple Alliance, which may have killed 400,000 people, including more than 60 percent of the population of Paraguay, making it proportionally the most destructive war in [[Modern history|modern times]].}}
-==== Chile ====
+=== Paraguay ===
+The [[War of the Triple Alliance]] (1865-1870) was launched by the [[Empire of Brazil]], in alliance with the Argentinian government of [[Bartolomé Mitre]] and the Uruguayan government of [[Venancio Flores]], against [[Paraguay]]. The governments of Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay signed a secret treaty in which the "high contracting parties" solemnly bind themselves to overthrow the government of Paraguay. In the five years of war, the Paraguayan population was reduced, including civilians, women, children, and the elderly. Julio José Chiavenato, in his book ''American Genocide,'' affirms that it was "a war of total extermination that only ended when there were no more Paraguayans to kill" and concludes that 99.5% of the adult male population of Paraguay died during the war. Out of a population of approximately 420,000 before the war, only 14,000 men and 180,000 women remained.<ref>Chiavenatto,Julio José. ''Genocídio Americano: A Guerra do Paraguai,'' Editora Brasiliense, SP. Brasil, 1979, page 170</ref>
+Author [[Steven Pinker]] wrote:<ref name="Pinker">{{cite book |first=Steven |last=Pinker |author-link=Steven Pinker |title=Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined |location=London |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |year=2011 |page=161 |isbn=978-0-14-312201-2}}</ref> {{blockquote|Among its many wars (19th century) is the War of the Triple Alliance, which may have killed 400,000 people, including more than 60 percent of the population of Paraguay, making it proportionally the most destructive war in [[Modern history|modern times]].}}
-First during the ''[[Arauco War]]'' and then during the ''[[Occupation of Araucanía]]'' there was a long-running conflict between colonial Spaniards and the [[Mapuche]] people, mostly fought in the [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucanía]].
-==== Argentina ====
+=== Chile ===
+{{See also|Indigenous peoples in Chile}}[[File:Selknam Isla Dawson.jpg|thumb|Prisoners in Dawson Island, Chile.]]The so-called Pacification of the [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucania]] by the Chilean army dispossessed the up-to-then independent [[Mapuche]] people between the 1860s and the 1880s. First during the ''[[Arauco War]]'' and then during the ''[[Occupation of Araucanía]],'' there was a long-running conflict with the [[Mapuche]] people, mostly fought in the [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucanía]]. Chilean settlers also participated in the [[Selk'nam genocide]] during the [[Tierra del Fuego gold rush]].
+=== Putumayo genocide ===
-The so-called ''[[Conquest of the Desert]]'' ({{lang-es|Conquista del desierto}}) was an [[Argentine military]] campaign with the intention of establishing dominance over the [[Patagonian Desert]], inhabited primarily by [[Indigenous peoples in Argentina|indigenous peoples]]. Argentine troops killed and displaced [[Mapuche]] from their traditional lands.
+{{See also|Putumayo genocide}}[[File:Hardenburgamazonindians.jpeg|thumb|Amazonian Indians enslaved during the [[rubber boom]] in the Putumayo region of Peru]]From 1879 to 1912, the world experienced a [[rubber boom]]. Rubber prices skyrocketed, and it became increasingly profitable to extract rubber from rainforest zones in South America and Central Africa. Rubber extraction was labor-intensive, and the need for a large workforce had a significant negative effect on the Indigenous population across Brazil, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia and the Congo. The owners of the plantations or rubber barons were rich, but those who collected the rubber made very little, as a large amount of rubber was needed to be profitable. Rubber barons rounded up all the natives and forced them to tap rubber out of the trees. Slavery and gross human rights abuses were widespread, and in some areas, 90% of the indigenous population was wiped out. One plantation started with 50,000 indigenous peoples and when the killings were discovered, only 8,000 were still alive. These rubber plantations were part of the Brazilian rubber market which declined as rubber plantations in Southeast Asia became more effective.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why do they hide? |url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/articles/3104-why-do-they-hide |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731103123/http://www.survivalinternational.org/articles/3104-why-do-they-hide |archive-date=31 July 2013 |access-date=27 August 2013 |publisher=Survival International}}</ref>
+[[Roger Casement]], an Irishman travelling the Putumayo region of Peru as a British consul during 1910–1911, documented the abuse, slavery, murder, and use of stocks for torture against the native Indians: "The crimes charged against many men now in the employ of the [[Peruvian Amazon Company]] are of the most atrocious kind, including murder, violation, and constant flogging."<ref>{{cite web |title=Horrific treatment of Amazon Indians exposed 100 years ago today |url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/7092 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731164107/http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/7092 |archive-date=31 July 2013 |access-date=27 August 2013 |publisher=Survival International}}</ref>
-=== United States colonization of indigenous territories ===
-{{Main|Manifest destiny|Territorial evolution of the United States}}
-Stacie Martin states that the United States has not been legally admonished by the international community for genocidal acts against its indigenous population, but many historians and academics describe events such as the [[Mystic massacre]], [[The Trail of Tears]], the [[Sand Creek Massacre]] and the [[Mendocino War]] as genocidal in nature.{{sfn|Martin|2004|pp=740–746}} Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz states that US history, as well as inherited Indigenous trauma, cannot be understood without dealing with the genocide that the United States committed against Indigenous peoples. From the colonial period through the founding of the United States and continuing in the twentieth century, this has entailed torture, terror, sexual abuse, massacres, systematic military occupations, removals of Indigenous peoples from their ancestral territories, forced removal of Native American children to military-like boarding schools, allotment, and a policy of termination.<ref>[http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/162804 Yes, Native Americans Were the Victims of Genocide]; ''[[History News Network]]''; Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz; 12 May 2016</ref> The letters of British commander [[Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst|Jeffery Amherst]] indicated genocidal intent when he authorized the deliberate use of disease-infected blankets as a biological weapon against indigenous populations during the 1763 [[Pontiac's Rebellion]], saying, "You will Do well to try to Inoculate the Indians by means of Blanketts, as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execreble Race", and instructing his subordinates, "I need only Add, I Wish to Hear of no prisoners should any of the villains be met with arms."<ref name="jama.ama-assn.org"/><ref>[http://www.politicsandthelifesciences.org/Biosecurity_course_folder/readings/fenn.html Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America: Beyond Jeffery Amherst] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403033815/http://www.politicsandthelifesciences.org/Biosecurity_course_folder/readings/fenn.html |date=3 April 2015 }}; Fenn, Elizabeth A.; [[The Journal of American History]] (2000) 86 (4): 1552–1580; doi: 10.2307/2567577</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://people.umass.edu/derrico/amherst/lord_jeff.html|title=Amherst and Smallpox|website=people.umass.edu}}</ref> When [[smallpox]] swept the northern plains of the U.S. in 1837, the U.S. Secretary of War [[Lewis Cass]] ordered that no [[Mandan]] (along with the [[Arikara]], the [[Cree]], and the [[Blackfeet]]) be given smallpox vaccinations, which were provided to other tribes in other areas.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kotar|first1=S.L.|last2=Gessler|first2=J.E.|title=Smallpox: A History|date=2013|publisher=McFarland|isbn=9780786493272|page=111}}<!--|access-date=12 May 2015--></ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Washburn|first1=Kevin K.|title=American Indians, Crime, and the Law|journal=Michigan Law Review|date=February 2006|volume=104|pages=709, 735}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Valencia-Weber|first1=Gloria|title=The Supreme Court's Indian Law Decisions: Deviations from Constitutional Principles and the Crafting of Judicial Smallpox Blankets|journal=University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law|date=January 2003|volume=5|pages=405, 408–09}}</ref>
+=== United States colonization of Indigenous territories ===
-====Indian Removal and the Trail of Tears====
+{{Main|Native American genocide in the United States|Manifest destiny|Territorial evolution of the United States}}
+Stacie Martin states that the United States has not been legally admonished by the international community for genocidal acts against its Indigenous population, but many historians and academics describe events such as the [[Mystic massacre]], the [[Trail of Tears]], the [[Sand Creek massacre]] and the [[Mendocino War]] as genocidal in nature.{{sfn|Martin|2004|pp=740–46}}
+[[Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz]] states that U.S. history, as well as inherited Indigenous [[Historical trauma|trauma]], cannot be understood without dealing with the genocide that the United States committed against Indigenous peoples. From the colonial period through the founding of the United States and continuing in the twentieth century, this has entailed torture, terror, sexual abuse, massacres, systematic military occupations, removals of Indigenous peoples from their ancestral territories via [[Indian Removal Act|Indian removal policies]], forced removal of Native American children to military-like boarding schools, allotment, and a policy of termination.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/162804 |title=Yes, Native Americans Were the Victims of Genocide |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103135045/http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/162804 |archive-date=3 November 2017 |work=[[History News Network]] |first=Roxanne |last=Dunbar-Ortiz |author-link=Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz |date=12 May 2016}}</ref>
+The letters exchanged between Bouquet and Amherst during the [[Pontiac's War|Pontiac War]] show Amherst writing to Bouquet the Indigenous people needed to be exterminated:
+"You will do well to try to inoculate the Indians by means of blankets, as well as to try every other method that can serve to extirpate this execreble race."
+Historians regard this as evidence of a genocidal intent by Amherst, as well as part of a broader genocidal attitude frequently displayed against Native Americans during the [[European colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=King |first1=J. C. H. |title=Blood and Land: The Story of Native North America |date=2016 |publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin UK]] |isbn=9781846148088 |page=73}}</ref><ref name="ration">{{Cite book|title=Rationalizing Epidemics |last=Jones |first=David S. |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0674013056 |page=97}}</ref><ref name=":1aaa">{{Cite book|title=A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724-1774 |last=McConnel |first=Michael N. |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |year=1997 |page=195}}</ref><ref name="jama.ama-assn.org" /><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.politicsandthelifesciences.org/Biosecurity_course_folder/readings/fenn.html |title=Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America: Beyond Jeffery Amherst |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403033815/http://www.politicsandthelifesciences.org/Biosecurity_course_folder/readings/fenn.html |archive-date=3 April 2015 |last=Fenn |first=Elizabeth A. |author-link=Elizabeth A. Fenn |journal=[[The Journal of American History]] |date=2000 |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=1552–1580 |doi=10.2307/2567577|jstor=2567577 |pmid=18271127}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://people.umass.edu/derrico/amherst/lord_jeff.html |title=Amherst and Smallpox |first=Peter |last=d'Errico |website=people.umass.edu |access-date=22 April 2015 |archive-date=16 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190916192649/http://people.umass.edu/derrico/amherst/lord_jeff.html |url-status=live}}</ref> When [[smallpox]] swept the northern plains of the U.S. in 1837, the U.S. Secretary of War [[Lewis Cass]] ordered that no [[Mandan]] (along with the [[Arikara]], the [[Cree]], and the [[Blackfeet]]) be given smallpox vaccinations, which were provided to other tribes in other areas.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kotar |first1=S.L. |last2=Gessler |first2=J.E. |title=Smallpox: A History |date=2013 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=9780786493272 |page=111}}<!--|access-date=12 May 2015--></ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Washburn |first1=Kevin K. |author-link=Kevin K. Washburn |title=American Indians, Crime, and the Law |journal=[[Michigan Law Review]] |date=February 2006 |volume=104 |pages=709, 735}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Valencia-Weber |first1=Gloria |title=The Supreme Court's Indian Law Decisions: Deviations from Constitutional Principles and the Crafting of Judicial Smallpox Blankets |journal=[[University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law]] |date=January 2003 |volume=5 |pages=405, 408–09}}</ref>
+The United States has to date not undertaken any [[truth commission]] nor built a memorial for the genocide of Indigenous people.<ref name="int" /> It does not acknowledge nor compensate for the historical violence against Native Americans that occurred during territorial expansion to the West Coast.<ref name="int" /> American museums such as the [[Smithsonian Institution]] do not dedicate a section to the genocide.<ref name="int" /> In 2013, the [[National Congress of American Indians]] passed a resolution to create a space for the National American Indian Holocaust Museum inside the Smithsonian, but it was ignored by the latter.<ref name="int">{{cite web |website=Indian Country Today |first=Peter |last=d'Errico |title=Native American Genocide or Holocaust? |date=10 January 2017 |url=https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/native-american-genocide-holocaust |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324051707/https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/native-american-genocide-holocaust |archive-date=24 March 2022}}</ref>
+==== Sterilization of Native women ====
+{{main|Sterilization of Native American women}}
+The [[Family Planning Services and Population Research Act]] was passed in 1970, which subsidized sterilizations for patients receiving healthcare through the [[Indian Health Service]]. In the six years after the act was passed, an estimated 25% of childbearing-aged Native American women were sterilized. Some of the procedures were performed under coercion, or without understanding by those sterilized.<ref name="marie"/> In 1977, [[Marie Sanchez]], chief tribal judge of the [[Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation]] told the United Nations Convention on Indigenous Rights in Geneva, that Native American women suffered involuntary sterilization which she equated with modern genocide.<ref name="marie">{{cite magazine |title=A 1970 Law Led to the Mass Sterilization of Native American Women. That History Still Matters |date=28 November 2019 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |first=Brianna |last=Theobald |url=https://time.com/5737080/native-american-sterilization-history/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426192423/https://time.com/5737080/native-american-sterilization-history/ |archive-date=26 April 2022}}</ref>
+==== Native American boarding schools ====
+The [[American Indian boarding schools|Native American boarding school system]] was a 150-year program and federal policy that separated Indigenous children from their families and sought to assimilate them into white society. It began in the early 19th century, coinciding with the start of [[Indian Removal]] policies.<ref name="npr">{{cite web |title=U.S. report identifies burial sites linked to boarding schools for Native Americans |website=NPR |date=May 11, 2022 |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/05/11/1098276649/u-s-report-details-burial-sites-linked-to-boarding-schools-for-native-americans |access-date=14 January 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114115756/https://www.npr.org/2022/05/11/1098276649/u-s-report-details-burial-sites-linked-to-boarding-schools-for-native-americans |url-status=live}}</ref> A Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative Investigative Report was published on May 11, 2022, which officially acknowledged the federal government's role in creating and perpetuating this system.<ref name="bschools"/> According to the report, the U.S. federal government operated or funded more than 408 boarding institutions in 37 states between 1819 and 1969. 431 boarding schools were identified in total, many of which were run by religious institutions.<ref name="bschools"/> The report described the system as part of a federal policy aimed at eradicating the identity of Indigenous communities and confiscating their lands. Abuse was widespread at the schools, as was overcrowding, malnutrition, disease and lack of adequate healthcare.<ref name="ict"/><ref name="bschools"/> The report documented over 500 child deaths at 19 schools, although it is estimated the total number could rise to thousands, and possibly even tens of thousands.<ref name="npr"/>
+Marked or unmarked burial sites were discovered at 53 schools.<ref name="ict">{{cite web |title=US boarding school investigative report released |website=Indian Country Today |date=11 May 2022 |url=https://ictnews.org/.amp/news/us-boarding-school-investigative-report-released |access-date=14 January 2023 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114115756/https://ictnews.org/.amp/news/us-boarding-school-investigative-report-released |url-status=live}}</ref> The school system has been described as a cultural genocide and a racist [[dehumanization]].<ref name="bschools">{{cite web |title=U.S. confronts 'cultural genocide' in Native American boarding school probe |website=[[Reuters]] |date=18 May 2022 |url=https://www.reuters.com/legal/government/us-confronts-cultural-genocide-native-american-boarding-school-probe-2022-05-18/ |archive-date=20 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120101057/https://www.reuters.com/legal/government/us-confronts-cultural-genocide-native-american-boarding-school-probe-2022-05-18/}}</ref>
+==== Indian Removal ====
 {{main|Indian Removal|Trail of Tears}}
-Following the [[Indian Removal Act of 1830]] the American government began forcibly relocating East Coast tribes across the Mississippi. The removal included many members of the [[Cherokee]], [[Muscogee (Creek)]], [[Seminole]], [[Chickasaw]], and [[Choctaw]] nations, among others in the United States, from their homelands to [[Indian Territory]] in eastern sections of the present-day state of Oklahoma. About 2,500–6,000 died along the Trail of Tears.{{sfn|Baird|1973}} Chalk and Jonassohn assert that the deportation of the Cherokee tribe along the [[Trail of Tears]] would almost certainly be considered an act of genocide today.<ref name="Grenke2005">{{cite book|author=Arthur Grenke|title=God, Greed, and Genocide: The Holocaust Through the Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iBaGO8Ue2NMC&pg=PA161|date=1 January 2005|publisher=New Academia Publishing, LLC|isbn=978-0-9767042-0-1|page=161}}</ref> The [[Indian Removal Act]] of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaves, were removed from their homes.<ref>Carter (III), Samuel (1976). ''Cherokee sunset: A nation betrayed: a narrative of travail and triumph, persecution and exile''. New York: Doubleday, p.&nbsp;232.</ref> The number of people who died as a result of the Trail of Tears has been variously estimated. American doctor and missionary Elizur Butler, who made the journey with one party, estimated 4,000 deaths.<ref>*{{cite book|author=Francis Paul Prucha|title=The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC|date=1 January 1995|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-8734-1 |page=241 note 58}}
+Following the [[Indian Removal Act of 1830]], the American government began forcibly relocating East Coast tribes across the Mississippi. The removal included many members of the [[Cherokee]], [[Muscogee (Creek)]], [[Seminole]], [[Chickasaw]], and [[Choctaw]] nations, among others in the United States, from their homelands to the [[Indian Territory]] in the eastern sections of the present-day state of Oklahoma. About 2,500–6,000 died along the Trail of Tears.{{sfn|Baird|1973}}
+Chalk and Jonassohn assert that the deportation of the Cherokee tribe along the [[Trail of Tears]] would almost certainly be considered an act of genocide today.{{sfn|Grenke|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iBaGO8Ue2NMC&pg=PA161 161]}} The [[Indian Removal Act]] of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaves, were removed from their homes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carter (III) |first=Samuel |date=1976 |title=Cherokee sunset: A nation betrayed: a narrative of travail and triumph, persecution and exile |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday |page=232}}</ref> The number of people who died as a result of the Trail of Tears has been variously estimated. American doctor and missionary Elizur Butler, who made the journey with one party, estimated 4,000 deaths.<ref>* {{cite book |first=Francis Paul |last=Prucha |author-link=Francis Paul Prucha |title=The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC |date=1 January 1995 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |isbn=978-0-8032-8734-1 |page=241 note 58 |access-date=22 September 2016 |archive-date=20 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820165442/https://books.google.com/books?id=iSeWGTYsFcsC |url-status=live}}
-*{{cite book|author=John Ehle|title=Trials of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNuRA8riMeoC|year=1988|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0-385-23954-7 |pages=390–92}}
+* {{cite book |first=John |last=Ehle |author-link=John Ehle |title=Trials of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kNuRA8riMeoC |year=1988 |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=978-0-385-23954-7 |pages=390–92 |access-date=22 September 2016 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610141046/https://books.google.com/books?id=kNuRA8riMeoC |url-status=live}}
-*{{cite book|editor=William L. Anderson|book-title=Cherokee Removal: Before and After|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow_Vjtta0YsC|date=1 June 1992|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=978-0-8203-1482-2|pages=75–93 |first=Russel |last=Thornton |title=Demography of the Trail of Tears}}</ref>
+* {{cite book |editor-first=William L. |editor-last=Anderson |title=Cherokee Removal: Before and After |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ow_Vjtta0YsC |date=1 June 1992 |publisher=[[University of Georgia Press]] |isbn=978-0-8203-1482-2 |pages=75–93 |first=Russel |last=Thornton |author-link=Russell Thornton |chapter=Demography of the Trail of Tears |access-date=22 September 2016 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029171034/https://books.google.com/books?id=ow_Vjtta0YsC |url-status=live}}</ref>
 Historians such as David Stannard{{sfn|Stannard|1993|p=124}} and Barbara Mann{{sfn|Mann|2009}} have noted that the army deliberately routed the march of the Cherokee to pass through areas of a known cholera epidemic, such as Vicksburg. Stannard estimates that during the forced removal from their homelands, following the [[Indian Removal Act]] signed into law by President [[Andrew Jackson]] in 1830, 8,000 Cherokee died, about half the total population.{{sfn|Stannard|1993|p=124}}
-====American Indian Wars====
+==== American Indian Wars ====
 {{main|American Indian Wars}}
-[[File:Woundedknee1891.jpg|right|thumb|A mass grave being dug for frozen bodies from the 1890 [[Wounded Knee Massacre]], in which the U.S. Army killed 150 [[Lakota people]], marking the end of the American Indian Wars]]
+[[File:Soldiers at a burial for the dead at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, c. 1891.jpg|right|thumb|A mass grave being dug for frozen bodies from the 1890 [[Wounded Knee Massacre]], in which the U.S. Army killed 150 [[Lakota people]], marking the end of the American Indian Wars]]
-During the American Indian Wars, the American Army carried out a number of massacres and forced relocations of Indigenous peoples that are sometimes considered genocide.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} The 1864 [[Sand Creek Massacre]], which caused outrage in its own time, has been called genocide. Colonel [[John Chivington]] led a 700-man force of [[Colorado Territory]] [[Militia (United States)|militia]] in a massacre of 70–163 peaceful [[Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]], about two-thirds of whom were women, children, and infants. Chivington and his men took [[Scalping|scalps]] and other body parts as trophies, including human [[fetus]]es and male and female [[genitalia]].<ref name="United States Congress. (1867)">United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865 (testimonies and report)</ref> In defense of his actions Chivington stated, {{quote|Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians! ... I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God's heaven to kill Indians. ... Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make lice.|- Col. John Milton Chivington, U.S. Army<ref name=Dee_book>{{cite book| last = Brown| first = Dee| title  = Bury my heart at Wounded Knee| orig-year = 1970| publisher = Macmillan| chapter  = War Comes to the Cheyenne| pages  = 86–87| isbn = 978-0-8050-6634-0| year = 2001}}</ref>}}
+During the American Indian Wars, the American Army carried out a number of massacres and forced relocations of Indigenous peoples that are sometimes considered genocide.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} The 1864 [[Sand Creek Massacre]], which caused outrage in its own time, has been regarded as a genocide. Colonel [[John Chivington]] led a 700-man force of [[Colorado Territory]] [[Militia (United States)|militia]] in a massacre of 70–163 peaceful [[Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]], about two-thirds of whom were women, children, and infants. Chivington and his men took [[Scalping|scalps]] and other body parts as trophies, including human [[fetus]]es and male and female [[genitalia]].<ref name="United States Congress. (1867)">United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865 (testimonies and report)</ref> In defense of his actions, Chivington stated, {{blockquote|Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians! ... I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under God's heaven to kill Indians. ... Kill and scalp all, big and little; nits make lice.|- Col. John Milton Chivington, U.S. Army<ref name=Dee_book>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Dee |author-link=Dee Brown (writer) |title=[[Bury my heart at Wounded Knee]] |orig-date=1970 |publisher=Macmillan |chapter=War Comes to the Cheyenne |pages=86–87 |isbn=978-0-8050-6634-0 |year=2001}}</ref>}}
-====United States acquisition of California====
+==== United States acquisition of California ====
 {{main|California Genocide}}{{See also|History of the west coast of North America|Indigenous peoples of California|Unfree labour in California}}
-The U.S. colonization of California started in earnest in 1845, with the Mexican–American War.  With the Treaty of  Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in 1848, giving the United States authority over 525,000 square miles of new territory.  In addition to Gold Rush slaughter, there was also a large number of state-subsidized massacres by colonists against Native Americans in the territory, causing several entire ethnic groups to be wiped out. In one such series of conflicts, the so-called [[Mendocino War]] and the subsequent [[Round Valley War]], the entirety of the [[Yuki people]] was brought to the brink of extinction, from a previous population of some 3,500 people to fewer than 100. According to Russell Thornton, estimates of the pre-Columbian population of California may have been as high as 300,000. By 1849, due to a number of epidemics, the number had decreased to 150,000. But from 1849 and up until 1890 the Indigenous population of California had fallen below 20,000, primarily because of the killings.{{sfn|Thornton|1987|pp=107–109}} At least 4,500 California Indians were killed between 1849 and 1870, while many more perished due to disease and starvation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id=1933 |title=Minorities During the Gold Rush |publisher=[[California Secretary of State]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201074206/http://www2.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id=1933 |archive-date=1 February 2014 }}</ref> 10,000 Indians were also kidnapped and sold as slaves.<ref>Pritzker, Barry. 2000, A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford University Press, p. 114</ref> In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019, California governor [[Gavin Newsom]] apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That’s what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that’s the way it needs to be described in the history books."<ref>{{cite news | last =Cowan | first =Jill | title ='It's Called Genocide': Newsom Apologizes to the State's Native Americans | newspaper =[[The New York Times]] | date =19 June 2019 | url =https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/19/us/newsom-native-american-apology.html| access-date =20 June 2019 }}</ref>
+The U.S. colonization of California started in earnest in 1845, with the Mexican–American War. With the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, it gave the United States authority over 525,000 square miles of new territory. In addition to the Gold Rush slaughter, there was also a large number of state-subsidized massacres by colonists against Native Americans in the territory, causing several entire ethnic groups to be wiped out.
+In one such series of conflicts, the so-called [[Mendocino War]] and the subsequent [[Round Valley War]], the entirety of the [[Yuki people]] was brought to the brink of extinction. From a previous population of some 3,500 people, fewer than 100 members of the Yuki tribe were left. According to Russell Thornton, estimates of the pre-Columbian population of California may have been as high as 300,000.
+By 1849, due to a number of epidemics, the number had decreased to 150,000. But from 1849 and up until 1890 the Indigenous population of California had fallen below 20,000, primarily because of the killings.{{sfn|Thornton|1987|pp=107–109}} At least 4,500 California Indians were killed between 1849 and 1870, while many more perished due to disease and starvation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id=1933 |title=Minorities During the Gold Rush |publisher=[[California Secretary of State]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201074206/http://www2.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id=1933 |archive-date=1 February 2014}}</ref> 10,000 Indians were also kidnapped and sold as slaves.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pritzker |first=Barry |date=2000 |title=A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=114}}</ref> In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019, California governor [[Gavin Newsom]] apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books."<ref>{{cite news |last=Cowan |first=Jill |title='It's Called Genocide': Newsom Apologizes to the State's Native Americans |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=19 June 2019 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/19/us/newsom-native-american-apology.html |access-date=20 June 2019 |archive-date=6 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506120106/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/19/us/newsom-native-american-apology.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
-One California law made it legal to declare any jobless Indian a vagrant, then auction his services off for up to four months. It also permitted whites to force Indian children to work for them until they were eighteen, provided that they obtained permission from what the law referred to as a 'friend' was obtained first. Whites hunted down adult Indians in the mountains, kidnapped their children, and sold them as apprentices for as little as $50. Indians could not complain in court because of another California statute that stated 'no Indian or Black or Mulatto person was permitted to give evidence in favor of or against a white person'. One contemporary wrote "The minor are sometimes guilty of the most brutal acts with the Indians... such incidents have fallen under my notice that would make humanity weep and men disown their race".<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/three/swain2.htm] William Swain Letter
+One California law made it legal to declare any jobless Indian a vagrant, then auction his services off for up to four months. It also permitted whites to force Indian children to work for them until they were eighteen, provided that they first obtain permission from what the law referred to as a 'friend'. Whites hunted down adult Indians in the mountains, kidnapped their children, and sold them as apprentices for as little as $50. Indians could not complain in court because of another California statute that stated that 'no Indian or Black or Mulatto person was permitted to give evidence in favor of or against a white person'. One contemporary wrote, "The miners are sometimes guilty of the most brutal acts with the Indians... such incidents have fallen under my notice that would make humanity weep and men disown their race".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/three/swain2.htm |website=New Perspectives on the West |publisher=[[PBS]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314115949/http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/three/swain2.htm |archive-date=14 March 2018 |title=William Swain Letter - Written from "The Diggings" in California}}</ref> The towns of [[Marysville, California|Marysville]] and Honey Lake paid bounties for Indian scalps. Shasta City offered $5 for every Indian head brought to City Hall; California's State Treasury reimbursed many of the local governments for their expenses.
-Written from "The Diggings" in California</ref> The towns of [[Marysville, California|Marysville]] and Honey Lake paid bounties for Indian scalps. Shasta City offered $5 for every Indian head brought to City Hall; California's State Treasury reimbursed many of the local governments for their expenses.
-===Politics of modern Brazil===
+=== Politics of modern Brazil ===
-{{Main|Genocide of indigenous peoples in Brazil}}
+{{Main|Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil}}
-Over 80 indigenous tribes disappeared between 1900 and 1957, and of a population of over one million during this period 80% had been killed through [[deculturalization]],{{how|date=September 2013}} disease, or murder.{{sfn|Hinton|2002|p=57}} It has also been argued that genocide has occurred during the modern era with the ongoing destruction of the [[Jivaroan peoples|Jivaro]], [[Yanomami]] and other tribes.{{sfn|Churchill|2000|p=433}}{{sfn|Scherrer|2003|p=294}}
+Over 80 Indigenous tribes disappeared between 1900 and 1957. During this period, out of a population of over one million, 80% had been killed through [[deculturalization]],{{how|date=September 2013}} disease, or murder.{{sfn|Hinton|2002|p=57}} It has also been argued that genocide has occurred during the modern era with the ongoing destruction of the [[Jivaroan peoples|Jivaro]], [[Yanomami]], and other tribes.{{sfn|Churchill|2000|p=433}}{{sfn|Scherrer|2003|p=294}}
-== Indigenous peoples of Africa and Asia (pre-1948) ==
+== Indigenous peoples of Africa (pre-1948) ==
-{{see also|Genocides in history#Pre–World War I}}
+{{see also|Genocides in history (before World War I)}}
-===French colonization of Africa===
+=== French colonization of Africa ===
-====Algeria====
+==== Algeria ====
 {{Main|Pacification of Algeria}}
-Over the course and immediately after the [[French conquest of Algeria]] there where a series of [[demographic catastrophes in Algeria between 1830 through 1871]] due to a variety of factors. The demographic crisis was such that, Dr. René Ricoux, head of demographic and medical statistics at the statistical office of the General Government of Algeria, foresaw the simple disappearance of Algerian "natives as a whole."<ref>The figurative demography of Algeria, Paris, Masson, 1880.</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2019}} Algerian demographic change can be divided into three phases: an almost constant decline during the conquest period, up until its heaviest drop from an estimated 2.7 million in 1861 to 2.1 million in 1871, and finally moving into a gradual increase<ref>Kamel Kateb, Europeans, "Indigenes" and Jews in Algeria (1830–1962) , Paris, Ined / Puf, 2001.</ref> to a level of three million inhabitants by 1890. Causes range from a series of famines, diseases, emigration;<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taithe|first=Bertrand|date=15 December 2010|title=La famine de 1866–1868 : anatomie d'une catastrophe et construction médiatique d'un événement|url=http://journals.openedition.org/rh19/4051|journal=Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle. Société d'histoire de la révolution de 1848 et des révolutions du XIXe siècle|language=fr|issue=41|pages=113–127|doi=10.4000/rh19.4051|issn=1265-1354}}</ref> to the violent methods used by the French army during their [[Pacification of Algeria]] which historians argue to constitute acts of [[genocide]].<ref name="genoci1">{{cite book|last1=Kiernan|first1=Ben|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|page=374|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XR91bs70jukC&q=374|isbn=978-0300100983|year=2007}}</ref>
+Over the course of the [[French conquest of Algeria]] and immediately after it, a series of demographic catastrophes ensued in Algeria between 1830 and 1871. Because the demographic crisis was so severe, Dr. René Ricoux, head of demographic and medical statistics at the statistical office of the General Government of Algeria, foresaw the simple disappearance of Algerian "natives as a whole".<ref>The figurative demography of Algeria, Paris, Masson, 1880.</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2019}} The demographic change in Algeria can be divided into three phases: an almost constant decline during the conquest period, up until its heaviest drop from an estimated 2.7 million in 1861 to 2.1 million in 1871, and finally moving into a gradual increase<ref>Kamel Kateb, Europeans, "Indigenes" and Jews in Algeria (1830–1962), Paris, Ined / Puf, 2001.</ref> to a level of three million inhabitants by 1890. The causes range from a series of famines, diseases, and emigration<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taithe |first=Bertrand |date=15 December 2010 |title=La famine de 1866–1868: anatomie d'une catastrophe et construction médiatique d'un événement |trans-title=The famine of 1866–1868: anatomy of a catastrophe and media construction of an event |url=http://journals.openedition.org/rh19/4051 |journal=Revue d'histoire du XIXe siècle. Société d'histoire de la révolution de 1848 et des révolutions du XIXe siècle |language=fr |issue=41 |pages=113–127 |doi=10.4000/rh19.4051 |issn=1265-1354 |access-date=15 October 2019 |archive-date=31 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171231051625/http://journals.openedition.org/rh19/4051 |url-status=live}}</ref> to the violent methods used by the French army during their [[Pacification of Algeria]], which historians{{which|date=December 2021}} argue constitute acts of [[genocide]].{{sfn|Kiernan|2007|p=374}}
-===Congo Free State===
+=== Congo Free State ===
-{{main|Congo Free State}}
+{{main|Atrocities in the Congo Free State}}
-Under [[Leopold II of Belgium]] the population loss in the Congo Free State is estimated at sixty percent.{{sfn|Hinton|2002|p=47}} Congo Free State was especially hard hit by [[African trypanosomiasis|sleeping sickness]] and [[smallpox]] epidemics.<ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=8DSa_viBgsgC&pg=&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false The Cambridge history of Africa: From the earliest times to c. 500 BC]''." John D. Fage (1982) [[Cambridge University Press]], p. 748. {{ISBN|0-521-22803-4}}</ref>
+Under [[Leopold II of Belgium]], the population loss in the [[Congo Free State]] is estimated at sixty percent, up to 15 million people having been killed.{{sfn|Hinton|2002|p=47}} The Congo Free State was hit especially hard by [[African trypanosomiasis|sleeping sickness]] and [[smallpox]] epidemics.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DSa_viBgsgC |title=The Cambridge history of Africa: From the earliest times to c. 500 BC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102004714/https://books.google.com/books?id=8DSa_viBgsgC&pg=&dq&hl=en |archive-date=2 November 2020 |first=John D. |last=Fage |date=1982 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=748 |isbn=0-521-22803-4}}</ref>
+=== Spanish colonization of the Canary Islands ===
+{{Main|Conquest of the Canary Islands|}}
+The conquest of the [[Canary Islands]] by the [[Crown of Castille]] took place between 1402 and 1496. Initially carried out by members of the Castilian nobility in exchange for a covenant of allegiance to the crown, the process was later carried out by the Spanish crown itself during the reign of the [[Catholic Monarchs]]. Various scholars have used the term "genocide" to describe the conquest of the Canary Islands.<ref name="Conversi">{{cite journal |last1=Conversi |first1=Daniele |date=2010 |title=Cultural Homogenization, Ethnic Cleansing, and Genocide |url=https://oxfordre.com/internationalstudies/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.001.0001/acrefore-9780190846626-e-139 |journal=International Studies |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.139 |isbn=978-0-19-084662-6 |access-date=13 February 2023}}</ref><ref name="Blench">{{cite journal |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |date=2021 |title=The peopling of the Canaries by the Berbers: new data and new hypotheses |journal=[[Études et Documents Berbères]] |volume=45-46 |pages=149–173}}</ref><ref name="Adhikari">{{cite journal |last1=Adhikari |first1=Mohamed |date=7 September 2017 |title=Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863?journalCode=rahr20 |journal=[[African Historical Review]] |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863 |s2cid=165086773 |access-date=6 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adhikari |first1=Mohamed |date=7 September 2017 |title=Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863 |journal=African Historical Review |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863 |s2cid=165086773 |access-date=6 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Adhikari |first=Mohamed |date=2017-01-02 |title=Europe's First Settler Colonial Incursion into Africa: The Genocide of Aboriginal Canary Islanders |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863 |journal=African Historical Review |language=en |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1080/17532523.2017.1336863 |s2cid=165086773 |issn=1753-2523}}</ref> Mohamed Adhikhari argues that the Canary Islands were the scene of "Europe's first overseas settler colonial genocide", and that the mass killing and enslavement of natives, along with forced deportation, sexual violence and confiscation of land and children constituted an attempt to "destroy in whole" the [[Guanches|Guanche people]].<ref name="Adhikari" /> The tactics used in the Canary Islands in the 15th century served as a model for the Iberian colonization of the Americas.<ref name="Adhikari" /><ref name="Conversi" />
 === Genocide in German South West Africa ===
+{{main|Herero and Namaqua genocide}}
-[[Herero and Namaqua genocide|Atrocities against the indigenous African population]] by the [[German colonial empire]] can be dated to the earliest German settlements on the continent. The German colonial authorities carried out genocide in [[German South-West Africa]] (GSWA) and the survivors were incarcerated in concentration camps. It was also reported that, between 1885 and 1918, the indigenous population of Togo, [[German East Africa]] (GEA) and the Cameroons suffered from various human rights abuses including starvation from scorched earth tactics and forced relocation for use as labour. The German Empire's action in GSWA against the Herero tribe is considered by Howard Ball to be the first genocide of the 20th century.{{sfn|Ball|2011|p=17}} After the [[Herero people|Herero]], [[Nama people|Namaqua]] and [[Damara (people)|Damara]] began an uprising against the colonial government,{{sfn|Sarkin-Hughes|2011|p=3}} General [[Lothar von Trotha]], appointed as head of the German forces in GSWA by [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Emperor Wilhelm II]] in 1904, gave the order for the German forces to push them into the desert where they would die.{{sfn|Weiser|2008|p=24}} In 2004, the German state apologised for the genocide.{{sfn|Meldrum|2004}} While many argue that the military campaign in Tanzania to suppress the [[Maji Maji Rebellion]] in GEA between 1905 and 1907 was not an act of genocide, as the military did not have as an intentional goal the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Africans, according to Dominik J. Schaller, the statement
+Atrocities against the Indigenous African population by the [[German colonial empire]] can be dated to the earliest German settlements on the continent. The German colonial authorities carried out a genocide in [[German South-West Africa]] (GSWA) and incarcerated the survivors in concentration camps. It was also reported that, between 1885 and 1918, the Indigenous population of Togo, [[German East Africa]] (GEA). and the Cameroons suffered from various human rights abuses, including starvation from scorched earth tactics and forced relocation for use as labor.
-<ref group="Note">"As in all wars against uncivilized nations the systematic damage to hostile people's goods and chattels was indispensable in this case. The destruction of economic values like the burning of villages and food supplies might seem barbaric. If one considers, however, on the one hand, in what short time African Negro huts are erected anew and the luxuriant growth of tropic nature gives rise to new field crops, and on the other hand the subjection of the enemy was only possible through a procedure like this, then one will consequently take a more favourable view of this ''dira necessitas''."</ref> released at the time by Governor [[Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] did not exculpate him from the charge of genocide, but was proof that the German administration knew that their [[scorched earth]] methods would result in famine.{{sfn|Schaller|2010|pp=309–310}} It is estimated that 200,000 Africans died from famine with some areas completely and permanently devoid of human life.<ref>The Cambridge History of Africa (1986), ed. J. D. Fage and R. Oliver</ref>{{sfn|Hull|2003|p=161}}{{sfn|Sarkin-Hughes|2011|p=104}}
+[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2003-0005, Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika, Kriegsgefangene Herero.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Prisoners in German Southwest Africa, 1899]]
+The German Empire's action in GSWA against the Herero tribe is considered by Howard Ball to be the first genocide of the 20th century.{{sfn|Ball|2011|p=17}} After the [[Herero people|Herero]], [[Nama people|Namaqua]] and [[Damara (people)|Damara]] began an uprising against the colonial government,{{sfn|Sarkin-Hughes|2011|p=3}} General [[Lothar von Trotha]], appointed as head of the German forces in GSWA by [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Emperor Wilhelm II]] in 1904, gave German forces the order to push them into the desert where they would die.{{sfn|Weiser|2008|p=24}} Germany apologized for the genocide in 2004.{{sfn|Meldrum|2004}}
+While many{{who|date=March 2022}} argue that the military campaign in Tanzania to suppress the [[Maji Maji Rebellion]] in GEA between 1905 and 1907 was not an act of genocide, as the military did not have as an intentional goal the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Africans, according to Dominik J. Schaller, the statement
-===Tsardom of Russia's conquest of Siberia===
+{{NoteTag|"As in all wars against uncivilized nations the systematic damage to hostile people's goods and chattels was indispensable in this case. The destruction of economic values like the burning of villages and food supplies might seem barbaric. If one considers, however, on the one hand, in what short time African Negro huts are erected anew and the luxuriant growth of tropic nature gives rise to new field crops, and on the other hand the subjection of the enemy was only possible through a procedure like this, then one will consequently take a more favourable view of this ''dira necessitas''."}} released at the time by Governor [[Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] did not exculpate him from the charge of genocide, but was proof that the German administration knew that their [[scorched earth]] methods would result in famine.{{sfn|Schaller|2010|pp=309–310}} 200,000 Africans are estimated to have died from famine, with some areas having been left completely and permanently devoid of human life.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |title-link=The Cambridge History of Africa |date=1986 |editor1-first=J. D. |editor1-last=Fage |editor2-first=R. |editor2-last=Oliver}}</ref>{{sfn|Hull|2003|p=161}}{{sfn|Sarkin-Hughes|2011|p=104}}
+=== Italian occupied Libya ===
+{{main article|Libyan genocide}}
+The [[Pacification of Libya]],<ref name="Cardoza, 109" >{{Cite book |first=Anthony L. |last=Cardoza |title=Benito Mussolini: the first fascist |publisher=Pearson Longman |year=2006 |page=109}}</ref> also known as the [[Libyan Genocide]]<ref name= Mann309>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&pg=PA309 |title=The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing |last=Mann |first=Michael |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=9780521538541 |page=309 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gSg0lQkyJoIC&pg=PA146 |title=Making of Modern Libya, The: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance |edition=Second |last=Ahmida |first=Ali Abdullatif |date=23 March 2011 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=9781438428932 |pages=146 |language=en |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name=otttensamul>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rgGA91skoP4C&pg=PA259 |title=Dictionary of Genocide: A-L |last1=Totten |first1=Samuel |last2=Bartrop |first2=Paul Robert |author1-link=Samuel Totten |author2-link=Paul R. Bartrop |date=2008 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=9780313346422 |pages=259}}</ref><ref name="Duggan497" >{{Cite book |first=Christopher |last=Duggan |title=The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 |location=New York |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |year=2007 |page=497}}</ref> or Second Italo-Senussi War,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVbdCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |title=Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973-1985 |last1=Cooper |first1=Tom |last2=Grandolini |first2=Albert |date=19 January 2015 |publisher=Helion and Company |isbn=9781910777510 |page=5 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> was a prolonged conflict in [[Italian Libya]] between Italian military forces and indigenous rebels associated with the [[Senussi|Senussi Order]] that lasted from 1923 until 1932,<ref name=ninaconsuelo>{{cite book |first=Nina Consuelo |last=Epton |title=Oasis Kingdom: The Libyan Story |location=New York |publisher=Roy Publishers |year=1953 |page=126 |author-link=Nina Consuelo Epton}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.shadowsgovernment.com/shadows-library/Unknown/The%20Cambridge%20History%20of%20Africa,%20Volume%20(1658)/The%20Cambridge%20History%20of%20Africa,%20Volume%20-%20Unknown.pdf |first=C.C. |last=Stewart |chapter=Islam |title=The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7: c. 1905 – c. 1940 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1986 |page=196}}</ref> when the principal Senussi leader, [[Omar Mukhtar]], was captured and executed.<ref name=refioseercito>{{cite web |url=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/mvsn/mvsnlib23.htm |title=Detailed description of some fights |publisher=Regioesercito |language=Italian |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> The pacification resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in [[Cyrenaica]]—one quarter of Cyrenaica's population of 225,000 people died during the conflict.<ref name=Mann309/> Italy committed major [[war crime]]s during the conflict; including the use of [[chemical weapon]]s, episodes of [[Take no prisoners|refusing to take prisoners of war]] and instead executing surrendering combatants, and mass executions of civilians.<ref name="Duggan497"/> Italian authorities committed [[ethnic cleansing]] by forcibly expelling 100,000 [[Bedouins|Bedouin]] Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements that were slated to be given to Italian settlers.<ref name="Cardoza, 109"/><ref name="Bloxham, Moses, 358">{{Cite book |first1=Donald |last1=Bloxham |first2=A. Dirk |last2=Moses |title=The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |location=Oxford, England |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2010 |page=358}}</ref> Italy apologized in 2008 for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule, and went on to say that this was a "complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era."<ref name=thelibyareport>{{Cite book |title=The Report: Libya 2008 |author=Oxford Business Group |year=2008 |page=17}}</ref>
+== Indigenous peoples of Asia (pre-1947) ==
+=== Armenian genocide ===
+{{Main|Armenian genocide}}
+The Armenian genocide was the systematic destruction of the [[Armenians in the Ottoman Empire|Armenian people and identity]] in the [[Ottoman Empire]] during [[World War I]]. Spearheaded by the ruling [[Committee of Union and Progress]] (CUP), it was implemented primarily through the mass murder of around one million Armenians during [[Death march|death marches]] to the [[Syrian Desert]] and the [[Forced conversion|forced Islamization]] of others, primarily women and children. {{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}.
+Before World War I, Armenians occupied a somewhat protected, but subordinate, place in Ottoman society. Large-scale massacres of Armenians had occurred [[Hamidian massacres|in the 1890s]] and [[Adana massacre|1909]]. The Ottoman Empire suffered a series of military defeats and territorial losses—especially during the 1912–1913 [[Balkan Wars]]—leading to fear among CUP leaders that the Armenians would seek independence. During their invasion of [[Caucasus campaign|Russian]] and [[Persian campaign (World War I)|Persian]] territory in 1914, [[Special Organization (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman paramilitaries]] massacred local Armenians. Ottoman leaders took isolated instances of [[Armenian resistance]] as evidence of a widespread rebellion, though no such rebellion existed. Mass deportation was intended to permanently forestall the possibility of Armenian autonomy or independence. {{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}.
+On 24 April 1915, the Ottoman authorities [[Deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915|arrested and deported]] hundreds of Armenian intellectuals and leaders from [[Istanbul|Constantinople]]. At the orders of [[Talaat Pasha]], an estimated 800,000 to 1.2 million Armenians were sent on death marches to the Syrian Desert in 1915 and 1916. Driven forward by paramilitary escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to robbery, [[Rape during the Armenian genocide|rape]], and massacres. In the Syrian Desert, the survivors were dispersed into [[Internment|concentration camps]]. In 1916, another wave of massacres was ordered, leaving about 200,000 deportees alive by the end of the year. Around 100,000 to 200,000 Armenian women and children were forcibly converted to Islam and integrated into Muslim households. Massacres and [[ethnic cleansing]] of Armenian survivors continued through the [[Turkish War of Independence]] after World War I, carried out by [[Turkish National Movement|Turkish nationalists]]. {{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}.
+This genocide put an end to more than two thousand years of Armenian civilization in eastern [[Anatolia]]. It enabled the creation of an [[ethnonationalist]] [[Turkish people|Turkish]] state, the [[Republic of Turkey]]. The Turkish government maintains that the deportation of Armenians was a legitimate action that [[Armenian genocide denial|cannot be described as genocide]]. As of 2023, 34 countries have [[Armenian genocide recognition|recognized the events as genocide]], concurring with the academic consensus.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}.
+The Armenian Genocide laid the groundwork for the Ottoman Empire to become more homogeneous. By the end of World War I, over 90 percent of the Armenians in the region were gone with most traces of their existence erased. The women and children survivors were frequently forced to give up their Armenian identities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-17 |title=Armenian Genocide {{!}} History, Causes, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide |access-date=2024-06-15 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
+=== Russian tsarist conquest of Siberia ===
 {{Main|Russian conquest of Siberia}}
 [[File:Sbor Yasaka.jpg|thumb|[[Cossacks]] collecting ''[[yasak]]'' in Siberia]]
-The [[Russian conquest of Siberia]] was accompanied by massacres due to indigenous resistance to colonization by the Russian [[Cossack]]s, who savagely crushed the natives. At the hands of people like [[Vasilii Poyarkov]] in 1645 and [[Yerofei Khabarov]] in 1650 some peoples like the [[Daur people|Daur]] were slaughtered by the Russians to the extent that it is considered genocide. 8,000 out of a previously 20,000 strong population in Kamchatka remained after being subjected to half a century of Cossack slaughter.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mg6RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=Cossack+genocide+indigenous+Dauri+Amur+Kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=k-hWU5v6CfPQsQTekYHQDA&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Cossack%20genocide%20indigenous%20Dauri%20Amur%20Kamchatka&f=false Bisher 2006], [https://books.google.com/books?id=28iPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=Dzungar+genocide&hl=en&sa=X&ei=veZWU6bcOeqtsQTI2YCwAg&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Dzungar%20genocide&f=false p. 6.]</ref>
+The [[Russian conquest of Siberia]] was accompanied by massacres due to Indigenous resistance to colonization by the Russian [[Cossack]]s, who savagely crushed the natives. At the hands of people like [[Vasilii Poyarkov]] in 1645 and [[Yerofei Khabarov]] in 1650, some peoples like the [[Daur people|Daur]] were slaughtered by the Russians to the extent that it is considered genocide. In Kamchatka, out of a previous population of 20,000, only 8,000 remained after being subjected to half a century of Cossack slaughter.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mg6RAgAAQBAJ&dq=Cossack+genocide+indigenous+Dauri+Amur+Kamchatka&pg=PA6 Bisher 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505144831/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mg6RAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=Cossack+genocide+indigenous+Dauri+Amur+Kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=k-hWU5v6CfPQsQTekYHQDA&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Cossack%20genocide%20indigenous%20Dauri%20Amur%20Kamchatka&f=false |date=5 May 2016}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=28iPAgAAQBAJ&dq=Dzungar+genocide&pg=PA6 p. 6.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604002754/https://books.google.com/books?id=28iPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=Dzungar+genocide&hl=en&sa=X&ei=veZWU6bcOeqtsQTI2YCwAg&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Dzungar%20genocide&f=false |date=4 June 2016}}</ref>
-In the 1640s the [[Yakut people|Yakuts]] were subjected to massacres during the Russian advance into their land near the Lena River, and on Kamchatka in the 1690s the Koryak, [[Kamchadals]], and [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]] were also subjected to massacres by the Russians.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=VzYBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA294&dq=russian+genocide+siberia+natives&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zU5XU8v5MKLNsQSTuIKgCQ&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=russian%20genocide%20siberia%20natives&f=false Levene 2005], p. 294.</ref> When the Russians did not obtain the demanded amount of [[yasak]] from the natives, the Governor of [[Yakutsk]], [[Piotr Golovin]], who was a Cossack, used meat hooks to hang the native men. In the Lena basin, 70% of the Yakut population died within 40 years, and rape and enslavement were used against native women and children in order to force the natives to pay the Yasak.<ref name="The Amur's siren song">{{cite news |date=17 December 2009 |title=The Amur's siren song |url=http://www.economist.com/node/15108641 |newspaper=The Economist |edition=From the print edition: Christmas Specials|access-date=15 August 2014}}</ref>
+In the 1640s the [[Yakut people|Yakuts]] were subjected to massacres during the Russian advance into their land near the Lena River, and on Kamchatka in the 1690s the Koryak, [[Kamchadals]], and [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]] were also subjected to massacres by the Russians.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=VzYBAwAAQBAJ&dq=russian+genocide+siberia+natives&pg=PA294 Levene 2005] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515034103/https://books.google.com/books?id=VzYBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA294&dq=russian+genocide+siberia+natives&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zU5XU8v5MKLNsQSTuIKgCQ&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=russian%20genocide%20siberia%20natives&f=false |date=15 May 2016}}, p. 294.</ref> When the Russians did not obtain the demanded amount of [[yasak|fur tribute]] from the natives, [[Yakutsk]] Governor Peter Golovin, who was a Cossack, used meat hooks to hang the native men. In the Lena basin, 70% of the Yakut population died within 40 years, native women and children having been raped and enslaved in order to force the tribe to pay the tribute.<ref name="The Amur's siren song">{{cite news |date=17 December 2009 |title=The Amur's siren song |url=http://www.economist.com/node/15108641 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |edition=From the print edition: Christmas Specials |access-date=15 August 2014 |archive-date=11 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811125528/http://www.economist.com/node/15108641 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-In Kamchatka the Russians savagely crushed the [[Itelmens]] uprisings against their rule in 1706, 1731, and 1741, the first time the Itelmen were armed with stone weapons and were badly unprepared and equipped but they used gunpowder weapons the second time. The Russians faced tougher resistance when from 1745–1756 they tried to exterminate the gun and bow equipped [[Koryaks|Koraks]] until their victory. The Russian Cossacks also faced fierce resistance and were forced to give up when trying unsuccessfully to wipe out the Chukchi through genocide in 1729, 1730–1731, and 1744–1747.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=xpI_YYtvlCAC&pg=PT210&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JulWU9jEBqWysASw0IDIDQ&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Cossack%20genocide%20kamchatka&f=false Black 2008],</ref> After the Russian defeat in 1729 at Chukchi hands, the Russian commander Major Pavlutskiy was responsible for the Russian war against the Chukchi and the mass slaughters and enslavement of Chukchi women and children in 1730–1731, but his cruelty only made the Chukchis fight more fiercely.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA145#v=onepage&q&f=false Forsyth 1994], pp. 145–46.</ref> A genocide of the Chukchis and Koraks was ordered by [[Elizabeth of Russia|Empress Elizabeth]] in 1742 to totally expel them from their native lands and erase their culture through war. The command was that the natives be "totally extirpated" with Pavlutskiy leading again in this war from 1744–1747 in which he led to the Cossacks "with the help of Almighty God and to the good fortune of Her Imperial Highness", to slaughter the Chukchi men and enslave their women and children as booty. However the Chukchi ended this campaign and forced them to give up by killing Pavlitskiy and decapitating his head.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA146&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JulWU9jEBqWysASw0IDIDQ&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Cossack%20genocide%20kamchatka&f=false Forsyth 1994], p. 146.</ref>
+In Kamchatka, the Russians savagely crushed the [[Itelmens]] uprisings against their rule in 1706, 1731, and 1741. The first time the Itelmen were armed with stone weapons and were unprepared. However, the second time, they used gunpowder weapons. The Russians faced tougher resistance when from 1745 to 1756 they tried to exterminate the gun and bow-equipped [[Koryaks|Koraks]] until their victory. The Russian Cossacks also faced fierce resistance and were forced to give up when trying unsuccessfully to wipe out the Chukchi through genocide in 1729, 1730–1731, and 1744–1747.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=xpI_YYtvlCAC&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&pg=PT210 Black 2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617112109/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpI_YYtvlCAC&pg=PT210&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JulWU9jEBqWysASw0IDIDQ&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Cossack%20genocide%20kamchatka&f=false |date=17 June 2016}},</ref>
+After the Chukchi defeated the Russians in 1729, Russian commander Major Pavlutskiy waged war against them. Chukchi women and children were mass-slaughtered and enslaved in 1730–1731.{{sfnp|Forsyth|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA145 145–146]}} [[Elizabeth of Russia|Empress Elizabeth]] ordered the Chukchis and the Koraks be genocided in 1742 to totally expel them from their native lands and erase their culture through war. Her command was that the natives be "totally extirpated", with Pavlutskiy leading the war from 1744 to 1747. The Chukchi ended the campaign and forced the Russian army to give up by killing Pavlitskiy and decapitating him.{{sfnp|Forsyth|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA146 146]}}
-The Russians were also launching wars and slaughters against the Koraks in 1744 and 1753–1754. After the Russians tried to force the natives to convert to Christianity, the different native peoples like the Koraks, Chukchis, Itelmens, and [[Yukaghir people|Yukagirs]] all united to drive the Russians out of their land in the 1740s, culminating in the assault on Nizhnekamchatsk fort in 1746.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA147#v=onepage&q&f=false Forsyth 1994], p. 147.</ref> Kamchatka today is European in demographics and culture with only 2.5% of it being native, around 10,000 from a previous number of 150,000, due to the mass slaughters by the Cossacks after its annexation in 1697 of the Itelmen and Koryaks throughout the first decades of Russian rule.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ezDG4aTNIeoC&pg=PA388&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JulWU9jEBqWysASw0IDIDQ&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Cossack%20genocide%20kamchatka&f=false Jack 2008], p. 388.</ref> The genocide by the Russian Cossacks devastated the native peoples of Kamchatka and exterminated much of their population.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qVosAQAAMAAJ&q=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JulWU9jEBqWysASw0IDIDQ&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBw ''Condé Nast's Traveler'', Volume 36 2001], p. 280.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=beJAAQAAIAAJ&q=A+very+large+percentage+of+the+Kamchatka+peoples+were+victims+of+genocide+and+ethnocide+during+the+first&dq=A+very+large+percentage+of+the+Kamchatka+peoples+were+victims+of+genocide+and+ethnocide+during+the+first&hl=en&sa=X&ei=uelWU5KPMfLMsQTu7ILwAg&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA ''Yearbook'' 1992], p. 46.</ref> In addition to committing genocide they Cossacks also devastated the wildlife by slaughtering massive numbers of animals for fur.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qEAjAQAAIAAJ&q=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JulWU9jEBqWysASw0IDIDQ&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCQ Mote 1998], p. 44.</ref> 90% of the [[Kamchadals]] and half of the [[Mansi people|Vogules]] were killed from the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries and the rapid genocide of the indigenous population led to entire ethnic groups being entirely wiped out, with around 12 exterminated groups which could be named by Nikolai Iadrintsev as of 1882. Much of the slaughter was brought on by the fur trade.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=lpz5q44VVk0C&pg=PA78&dq=russian+genocide+siberia+natives&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zU5XU8v5MKLNsQSTuIKgCQ&ved=0CFgQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=russian%20genocide%20siberia%20natives&f=false Etkind 2013], p. 78.</ref>
+The Russians also waged war and slaughtered the Koraks in 1744 and 1753–1754. After the Russians tried to force them to convert to Christianity, the different native peoples (the Koraks, Chukchis, Itelmens, and [[Yukaghir people|Yukagirs]]) all united to drive them out of their land in the 1740s, culminating in the assault on Nizhnekamchatsk fort in 1746.{{sfnp|Forsyth|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA147 147]}}
-The [[Aleuts]] in the [[Aleutians]] were subjected to genocide and slavery by the Russians for the first 20 years of Russian rule, with the Aleut women and children captured by the Russians and Aleut men slaughtered.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA151&dq=russian+genocide+siberia&hl=en&sa=X&ei=rE5XU-WeNqqvsASczYHoAw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=russian%20genocide%20siberia&f=false Forsyth 1994], p. 151.</ref>
+Nowadays, Kamchatka is European in demographics and culture. Indigenous Kamchatkans only make up 2.5% of the population, which accounts for around 10,000 people out of a previous number of 150,000. The genocide committed by the Cossacks, as well as the fur trade which devastated local wildlife, exterminated much of the Native population.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVosAQAAMAAJ&q=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka |magazine=[[Condé Nast Traveler]] |volume=36 |date=2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516181135/https://books.google.com/books?id=qVosAQAAMAAJ&q=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JulWU9jEBqWysASw0IDIDQ&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBw |archive-date=16 May 2016 |page=280 |title=Condé Nast's Traveler}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beJAAQAAIAAJ&q=A+very+large+percentage+of+the+Kamchatka+peoples+were+victims+of+genocide+and+ethnocide+during+the+first |title=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs Yearbook 1992 |date=1992 |publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508222235/https://books.google.com/books?id=beJAAQAAIAAJ&q=A+very+large+percentage+of+the+Kamchatka+peoples+were+victims+of+genocide+and+ethnocide+during+the+first&dq=A+very+large+percentage+of+the+Kamchatka+peoples+were+victims+of+genocide+and+ethnocide+during+the+first&hl=en&sa=X&ei=uelWU5KPMfLMsQTu7ILwAg&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA |archive-date=8 May 2016 |pages=46}}</ref> In addition, the Cossacks also devastated the local wildlife by slaughtering massive numbers of animals for fur.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qEAjAQAAIAAJ&q=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka |title=Siberia: Worlds Apart |first=Victor L. |last=Mote |date=1998 |publisher=Avalon Publishing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603190644/https://books.google.com/books?id=qEAjAQAAIAAJ&q=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JulWU9jEBqWysASw0IDIDQ&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCQ |archive-date=3 June 2016 |page=44 |isbn=9780813312989}}</ref> Between the eighteenth and the nineteenth century, 90% of the [[Kamchadals]] and half of the [[Mansi people|Vogules]] were killed. The rapid genocide of the Indigenous population led to entire ethnic groups being entirely wiped out, with around 12 exterminated groups which could be named by Nikolai Iadrintsev as of 1882.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lpz5q44VVk0C&dq=russian+genocide+siberia+natives&pg=PA78 |title=Internal Colonization: Russia's Imperial Experience |first=Alexander |last=Etkind |date=2013 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424062705/https://books.google.com/books?id=lpz5q44VVk0C&pg=PA78&dq=russian+genocide+siberia+natives&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zU5XU8v5MKLNsQSTuIKgCQ&ved=0CFgQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=russian%20genocide%20siberia%20natives&f=false |archive-date=24 April 2016 |page=78 |isbn=9780745673547}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Inside the Ropes: Sportswriters Get Their Game On |first=Zachary Michael |last=Jack |date=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ezDG4aTNIeoC&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&pg=PA388 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429060919/https://books.google.com/books?id=ezDG4aTNIeoC&pg=PA388&dq=Cossack+genocide+kamchatka&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JulWU9jEBqWysASw0IDIDQ&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Cossack%20genocide%20kamchatka&f=false |archive-date=29 April 2016 |page=388 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0803219076}}</ref>
-The Russian colonization of Siberia and treatment of the resident indigenous peoples has been compared to European colonization of the Americas, with similar negative impacts on the indigenous Siberians as upon the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]]. One of these commonalities is the appropriation of indigenous peoples' land.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=WFjPAxhBEaEC&pg=PA36&dq=russian+genocide+siberia+natives&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zU5XU8v5MKLNsQSTuIKgCQ&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=russian%20genocide%20siberia%20natives&f=false Batalden 1997], p. 36.</ref>
+In the Aleutian islands, the [[Aleuts|Aleut]] natives were subjected to genocide and slavery by the Russians for the first 20 years of Russian rule, Aleut women and children being captured by the Russians and Aleut men slaughtered.{{sfnp|Forsyth|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&dq=russian+genocide+siberia&pg=PA151 151]}}
-=== Japanese Empire ===
+The Russian colonization of Siberia and the treatment of the Indigenous peoples has been compared to the European colonization of the Americas, with similar negative impacts on the Indigenous Siberians as upon the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]]. One of these commonalities is the appropriation of Indigenous peoples' land.{{sfnp|Batalden|Batalden|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WFjPAxhBEaEC&pg=PA36 36]}}
+=== Japanese Empire ===
 ==== {{Anchor|Japanese colonization of Hokkaido}}Colonization of Hokkaido ====
 {{see also|Shakushain's Revolt|Menashi-Kunashir Rebellion}}
-The [[Ainu people|Ainu]] are an indigenous people in [[Japan]] ([[Hokkaidō]]).<ref name=":1q">{{cite news |first= Philippa |last= Fogarty|title= Recognition at last for Japan's Ainu|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7437244.stm|publisher=BBC|date= 6 June 2008|access-date=7 June 2008 }}</ref> In a 2009 news story, ''Japan Today'' reported, "Many Ainu were forced to work, essentially as slaves, for [[Yamato people|Wajin]] (ethnic Japanese), resulting in the breakup of families and the introduction of smallpox, measles, cholera and tuberculosis into their community. In 1869, the new Meiji government renamed Ezo as Hokkaido and unilaterally incorporated it into Japan. It banned the Ainu language, took Ainu land away, and prohibited salmon fishing and deer hunting."<ref>" [http://www.japantoday.com/category/lifestyle/view/tokyo%E2%80%99s-thriving-ainu-community-keeps-traditional-culture-alive Tokyo’s thriving Ainu community keeps traditional culture alive] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20131104102335/http://www.japantoday.com/category/lifestyle/view/tokyo%E2%80%99s-thriving-ainu-community-keeps-traditional-culture-alive |date=2013-11-04 }}," ''[[Japan Today]]'', 1 March 2009.</ref> Roy Thomas wrote: "Ill treatment of native peoples is common to all colonial powers, and, at its worst, leads to genocide. Japan's native people, the Ainu, have, however, been the object of a particularly cruel hoax, as the Japanese have refused to accept them officially as a separate minority people."<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cbs1r8gHR4IC&pg=PA227 Thomas, 1989] p. 227.</ref>  The [[Ainu people|Ainu]] have emphasized that they were the natives of the [[Kuril islands]] and that the Japanese and Russians were both invaders.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/ainu-people-lay-ancient-claim-to-kurile-islands-the-hunters-and-fishers-who-lost-their-land-to-the-russians-and-japanese-are-gaining-the-confidence-to-demand-their-rights-reports-terry-mccarthy-1552879.html|title=Ainu people lay ancient claim to Kurile Islands: The hunters and fishers who lost their land to the Russians and Japanese are gaining the confidence to demand their rights|first=Terry|last=McCarthy|date=22 September 1992|work=The Independent}}</ref> In 2004, the small [[Ainu in Russia|Ainu community living in Russia]] in Kamchatka Krai wrote a letter to Vladimir Putin, urging him to reconsider any move to award the Southern Kuril islands to Japan. In the letter they blamed the Japanese, the Tsarist Russians and the Soviets for crimes against the Ainu such as killings and assimilation, and also urged him to recognize the Japanese genocide against the Ainu people, which was turned down by Putin.<ref>{{cite web|website=Kamtime.ru|title=ТРАГЕДИЯ АЙНОВ – ТРАГЕДИЯ РОССИЙСКОГО ДАЛЬНЕГО ВОСТОКА|language=ru|url=http://kamtime.ru/old/archive/08_12_2004/13.shtml}}</ref>
+The [[Ainu people|Ainu]] are an Indigenous people in [[Japan]], specifically [[Hokkaidō]].<ref name=":1q">{{cite news |first=Philippa |last=Fogarty |title=Recognition at last for Japan's Ainu |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7437244.stm |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=6 June 2008 |access-date=7 June 2008 |archive-date=8 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108102235/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7437244.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> In a 2009 news story, ''Japan Today'' reported, "Many Ainu were forced to work, essentially as slaves, for [[Yamato people|Wajin]] (ethnic Japanese), resulting in the breakup of families and the introduction of smallpox, measles, cholera and tuberculosis into their community. In 1869, the new Meiji government renamed Ezo as Hokkaido and unilaterally incorporated it into Japan. It banned the Ainu language, took Ainu land away, and prohibited salmon fishing and deer hunting."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.japantoday.com/category/lifestyle/view/tokyo%E2%80%99s-thriving-ainu-community-keeps-traditional-culture-alive |title=Tokyo's thriving Ainu community keeps traditional culture alive |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131104102335/http://www.japantoday.com/category/lifestyle/view/tokyo%E2%80%99s-thriving-ainu-community-keeps-traditional-culture-alive |archive-date=4 November 2013 |work=[[Japan Today]] |date=1 March 2009}}</ref>
+Roy Thomas wrote: "Ill treatment of native peoples is common to all colonial powers, and, at its worst, leads to genocide. Japan's native people, the Ainu, have, however, been the object of a particularly cruel hoax, as the Japanese have refused to accept them officially as a separate minority people."<ref>{{cite book |title=Japan: The Blighted Blossom |first=Roy |last=Thomas |date=1989 |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cbs1r8gHR4IC&pg=PA227 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613130709/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cbs1r8gHR4IC&pg=PA227 |archive-date=13 June 2019 |page=227 |isbn=9781850431251}}</ref>
-==== {{Anchor|Japanese colonization of Okinawa}}Colonization of Okinawa ====
-{{Further|History of the Ryukyu Islands|Okinawan language}}
-Okinawans are an indigenous people to the islands to the west of Japan, originally known as the [[Ryukyu Islands]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Resistant Islands: Okinawa confronts Japan and the United States.|last=Rabson|first=Steve|publisher=Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Inc.|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4422-1562-7|pages=7}}</ref> With skeletons dating back 32,000 years, the Okinawan or Ryukyu people, have a long history on the islands that includes a kingdom of its own known as the Ryukyu Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancient Ryukyu: An Archaeological Study of Islan Communities|last=Pearson|first=Richard|publisher=University of Hawai'i Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-8248-3712-9|pages=10}}</ref>  The kingdom established trade relationships with China and Japan that began in the late 1500s and lasted until the 1860s.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Ryukyu Kingdom: Corner Stone of East Asia|last=Akamine|first=Mamoru|publisher=University of Hawai'i Press|year=2017|isbn=9780824855178|pages=145}}</ref> In the 1590s Japan made its first attempt at subjecting the Ryukyu Kingdom by sending a group of 3,000 samurai armed with muskets to conquer the Ryukyu kingdom.<ref name=":0" /> Indefinite take over was not achieved, however the Ryukyu Kingdom became an acting colony of Japan, and as a result paid homage to the Japanese while feigning their own independence to China to maintain trade.<ref name=":0" /> In 1879 after a small rebellion by the Ryukyu people was squelched the Japanese government (The Ryukyu people had requested help from China to break all bonds from Japan) The Japanese  punished Ryukyu by officially naming it a state of Japan and re branding the kingdom as Okinawa.<ref name=":2" /> Much like the Ainu people, the people of the Ryukyu Islands were punished for speaking their own language, forced to identify with Japanese myths and legends (forgoing their own legends), renamed (Okinawa), forced to change their first and last names to Japanese names, and forced reorient their religion around the Japanese Emperor.<ref name=":0" /> Japan had officially expanded their colonization to the Okinawan islands, where the Okinawans didn't play a significant role in Japan's history until the end of [[World War II]].<ref name=":2" />
+The [[Ainu people|Ainu]] have emphasized that they were the natives of the [[Kuril islands]] and the southern half of [[Sakhalin]], which both Japan and Russia invaded.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/ainu-people-lay-ancient-claim-to-kurile-islands-the-hunters-and-fishers-who-lost-their-land-to-the-russians-and-japanese-are-gaining-the-confidence-to-demand-their-rights-reports-terry-mccarthy-1552879.html |title=Ainu people lay ancient claim to Kurile Islands: The hunters and fishers who lost their land to the Russians and Japanese are gaining the confidence to demand their rights |first=Terry |last=McCarthy |date=22 September 1992 |work=[[The Independent]] |access-date=1 November 2017 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925182035/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/ainu-people-lay-ancient-claim-to-kurile-islands-the-hunters-and-fishers-who-lost-their-land-to-the-russians-and-japanese-are-gaining-the-confidence-to-demand-their-rights-reports-terry-mccarthy-1552879.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2004, the small [[Ainu in Russia|Ainu community living]] in Kamchatka Krai, Russia wrote a letter to Vladimir Putin, urging him to reconsider any move to award the Southern Kuril islands to Japan. In the letter, they blamed the Japanese, the Tsarist Russians and the Soviets for crimes against the Ainu such as killings and assimilation, and also urged him to recognize the Japanese genocide against the Ainu people, which Putin turned down.<ref>{{cite web|website=Kamtime.ru |script-title=ru:Трагедия Айнов – Трагедия российского дальнего Востока |title=Tragediya Aynov – Tragediya rossiyskogo dal'nego Vostoka |trans-title=The Tragedy of the Ainu - The Tragedy of the Russian Far East |language=ru |url=http://kamtime.ru/old/archive/08_12_2004/13.shtml |access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927000235/http://kamtime.ru/old/archive/08_12_2004/13.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref>
-America brought the war to Japan, the first area that was effected were the Okinawan Islands.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Identity and Resistance in Okinawa|last=Allen|first=Matthew|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC|year=2002|isbn=0-7425-1714-4|pages=36}}</ref> The Okinawan citizens forced into becoming soldiers were told that Americans would take no prisoners. In addition to the warnings Okinawans were given a grenade per household, the use of the grenade was reserved in case Americans gained control of the island, with the standing orders to have a member of the household gather everyone and pull the pin for mass suicide.<ref name=":3" /> Okinawans were told this was to avoid the "inevitable" torture that would follow any occupation.<ref name=":3" />  In addition the Japanese army kicked any natives out of their homes that weren't currently serving in the army (women and children included) and forced them into open, unprotected, spaces such as beaches and caves. These happened to be the first place the Americans arrived on the island. As a result, more than 120,000 Okinawans (between a quarter and a third of the population) died, soldiers and civilians alike.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> The Americans took over the island and the war was soon over. Okinawa had again become a colony, this time to America. America launched their main base in Asia from Okinawa and the Emperor of Japan approved, giving Okinawa to America for an agreed 25–50 years to move the majority of Americans out of mainland Japan.<ref name=":0" /> To that end, Americans have been in Okinawa for 74 years and show no signs of leaving.<ref name=":0" /> In the occupation Okinawan natives were forced to give up their best cultivating land to the Americans occupying their island. They maintain them to this day.<ref name=":0" />
+==== {{Anchor|Japanese colonization of&nbsp;Okinawa}}Colonization of Ryukyu ====
-Issues in Okinawa have yet to be resolved regarding the expired stay of American soldiers. Although Okinawa was given back to Japan, the American base still stays. The Japanese government has yet to take action, despite Okinawans raising the Issue.<ref name=":0" /> However this isn't the only problem that the Japanese Government has refused to take action with. Okinawans were ruled an Indigenous people in 2008 by the committee of the United Nations (UN), in addition to their original languages being recognized as endangered or Severely endangered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]); The UN has encouraged that Okinawan history, and language be mandatorily taught in schools in Okinawa. Nothing has yet to be done.<ref name=":0" /> Okinawans are now in a cultural struggle that matches that of the [[Ainu people|Ainu]] people.<ref name=":1q" /> They are not allowed to be Japanese-Okinawan, the only term that is accepted nationally or legally is Japanese.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=Islands of Discontent: Okinwan Responses to Japanese and American Power|last=Hein|first=Laura Elizabeth|publisher=Asia/ Pacific/ Perspectives|year=2003|pages=1–23}}</ref> To Change their cultural crisis there are few apparent choices. The Okinawan people can commit a genocide of culture and forget their distinct differences and history to be accepted nationally, or accept their differences and become an outcast to the Japanese homologous society.<ref name=":4" />
+{{Further|Ryukyu Disposition|Ryukyuan languages}}
+Ryukyuans are an Indigenous people to the islands to the west of Japan, originally known as the [[Ryukyu Islands]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book |title=Resistant Islands: Okinawa confronts Japan and the United States |last=Rabson |first=Steve |author-link=Steve Rabson |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]] Inc. |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4422-1562-7 |page=7}}</ref> With skeletons dating back 32,000 years, the Okinawan or Ryukyu people have a long history on the islands that includes a kingdom of its own known as the Ryukyu Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ancient Ryukyu: An Archaeological Study of Island Communities |last=Pearson |first=Richard |author-link=Richard J. Pearson |publisher=[[University of Hawai'i Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8248-3712-9 |page=10}}</ref>&nbsp;The kingdom established trade relationships with China and Japan that began in the late 1500s and lasted until the 1860s.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |title=The Ryukyu Kingdom: Corner Stone of East Asia |last=Akamine |first=Mamoru |publisher=[[University of Hawai'i Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=9780824855178 |page=145}}</ref>
-==== {{Anchor|Japanese genocide of Oroqen and Hezhen}}Genocide of Oroqen and Hezhen ====
-During the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945), the Japanese performed "bacterial experiments" on the [[Oroqen people]] and introduced them to [[opium]] which contributed to their deaths and caused their population to decline until only 1,000 of them remained alive at the end of the war.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oroqen {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/oroqen|access-date=16 October 2019|website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=21 June 2005|title=The Oroqen Ethnic Group|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/EthnicGroups/136942.htm|website=China.org.cn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=17 May 2004|title=The Oroqen ethnic minority|url=http://ee.china-embassy.org/eng/zggk/mz/t109290.htm|website=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Republic of Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Hays|first=Jeffrey|date=2008|title=Oroqen Under the Japanese and Communist Chinese|url=http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat5/sub88/item160.html#chapter-3|access-date=16 October 2019|website=Facts and Details}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China's ethnic minorities|url=https://www.chinainsight.info/culture/chinese/431-chinas-ethnic-minorities.html?tmpl=component&type=raw}}</ref> The Japanese banned the Oroqen from communicating with members of other ethnicities, and they also forced them to hunt animals for them in exchange for starvation rations and unsuitable clothing which caused them to die from exposure to the inclement weather. The Japanese also forced Oroqen adults who were older than 18 to take opium. After 2 Japanese troops were killed in Alihe by an Oroqen hunter, the Japanese poisoned 40 Oroqen to death.<ref name="NaeherStary2002">{{cite book|author1=Carsten Naeher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gv6RQDVEP3cC&q=oroqen+japanese&pg=PA120|title=Proceedings of the First International Conference on Manchu-Tungus Studies, Bonn, August 28 – September 1, 2000: Trends in Tungusic and Siberian linguistics|author2=Giovanni Stary|author3=Michael Weiers|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2002|isbn=978-3-447-04628-2|pages=120–}}</ref> The Japanese forced the Oroqen to fight the war for them which led to a decrease in the Oroqen population.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Olson|first=James Stuart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOM8qF34s4YC|title=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China|date=1998|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-28853-1|pages=269|language=en}}</ref>
+In the 1590s, Japan made its first attempt at subjecting the Ryukyu Kingdom by sending a group of 3,000 samurai armed with muskets to conquer the Ryukyu Kingdom.<ref name=":0" /> Indefinite take over was not achieved; however, the Ryukyu Kingdom became an acting colony of Japan. As a result, it paid homage to the Japanese while feigning their own independence to China to maintain trade.<ref name=":0" />
-The [[Hezhen]] population declined by 90% due to deaths that resulted from acts of Japanese cruelty which included forced opium use, slave labor and relocation by the Japanese.<ref name="Olson1998">{{cite book|author=James Stuart Olson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOM8qF34s4YC&q=hezhen+japanese&pg=PA141|title=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1998|isbn=978-0-313-28853-1|pages=141–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hezhen Nationality|url=https://www.chinatour360.com/culture/ethnicgroups/hezhen.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hezhen|url=http://www.everyculture.com/Russia-Eurasia-China/Hezhen.html|access-date=16 October 2019|website=Countries and their Cultures}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=HEZHEN|url=http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat5/sub88/entry-4362.html|access-date=16 October 2019|website=Facts and Details}}</ref> When the Japanese were defeated in 1945, only 300 Hezhen were left alive out of a total pre-war population that was estimated to number 1,200 in 1930.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=T.|date=Feb 1992|title=Hezhen nationality – China's smallest ethnic group.|journal=China Popul Today|volume=9|issue=1|pages=11–2|pmid=12285646}}</ref> It has been described as genocide.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hezhe Ethnic Minority|url=http://en.chinaculture.org/library/2008-02/05/content_23934.htm|website=Chinaculture.org}}</ref>
+In 1879, after a small rebellion by the Ryukyu people was squelched, the Japanese government (the Ryukyu people had requested help from China to break all bonds from Japan) punished Ryukyu by officially naming it a state of Japan and re branding the kingdom as Okinawa.<ref name=":2" /> Much like the Ainu, Ryukyuans were punished for speaking their own language, forced to identify with Japanese myths and legends (forgoing their own legends), adopt Japanese names, and reorient their religion around the Japanese Emperor. Their homeland was also renamed Okinawa.<ref name=":0" /> Japan had officially expanded their colonization to the Okinawan islands, where natives didn't play a significant role in Japan's history until the end of [[World War II]].<ref name=":2" />
-===Vietnamese conquest of Champa===
+When America brought the war to Japan, the first area that was effected were the Okinawan Islands.<ref name=":3">{{cite book |title=Identity and Resistance in Okinawa |last=Allen |first=Matthew |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]], INC |year=2002 |isbn=0-7425-1714-4 |page=36}}</ref> Okinawan citizens forced into becoming soldiers were told that Americans would take no prisoners. In addition to the warnings, Okinawans were given a grenade per household, its use reserved in case Americans gained control of the island, with the standing orders to have a member of the household gather everyone and pull the pin for mass suicide.<ref name=":3" /> Okinawans were told this was to avoid the "inevitable" torture that would follow any occupation.<ref name=":3" />&nbsp;In addition, the Japanese army kicked any natives out of their homes that weren't currently serving in the army (women and children included) and forced them into open, unprotected, spaces such as beaches and caves. These happened to be the first places the Americans arrived on the island. As a result, more than 120,000 Okinawans (between a quarter and a third of the population) died, soldiers and civilians alike.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> Americans took over the island and the war was soon over. America launched its main base in Asia from Okinawa and the Emperor of Japan approved, giving Okinawa to America for an agreed 25–50 years to move the majority of Americans out of mainland Japan.<ref name=":0" /> In the end, Americans stayed in Okinawa for 74 years, without showing any signs of leaving.<ref name=":0" /> During the occupation, Okinawan natives were forced to give up their best cultivating land to Americans which they keep to this day.<ref name=":0" />&nbsp;
+Issues in Okinawa have yet to be resolved regarding the expired stay of American soldiers. Although Okinawa was given back to Japan, the American base still stays. The Japanese government has yet to take action, despite Okinawans raising the Issue.<ref name=":0" /> However, this is not the only problem that the Japanese government has refused to take action on. Okinawans were ruled an Indigenous people in 2008 by the committee of the United Nations (UN), in addition to their original languages being recognized as endangered or severely endangered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]). The UN has encouraged that Okinawan history and language be mandatorily taught in schools in Okinawa, but nothing has been done so far.<ref name=":0" /> Okinawans are still in a cultural struggle that matches that of the [[Ainu people|Ainu]] people.<ref name=":1q" /> They are not allowed to be Japanese-Okinawan, with Japanese being the only nationally or legally accepted term.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |title=Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power |last=Hein |first=Laura Elizabeth |series=Asia/Pacific/Perspectives |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=2003 |pages=1–23}}</ref>
+==== Cultural genocide in Korea ====
+{{Main|Sōshi-kaimei|Korean Language Society Incident}}
+Shortly after Japan annexed the [[Korean Empire]] in 1910, Korean citizens were subject to a policy of forced assimilation to abandon their culture and adopt Japanese names. In 1942, Japanese colonial police forces arrested and tortured members of the [[Korean Language Society]] in response to their advocacy for Korean independence and banned the Korean language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=글로벌 세계 대백과사전/한국사/민족의 독립운동/신문화운동과 3·1운동/신문화운동 - 위키문헌, 우리 모두의 도서관 Global World Encyclopedia/Korean History/National Independence Movement/New Cultural Movement and March 1st Movement/New Cultural Movement |url=https://ko.wikisource.org/wiki/%EA%B8%80%EB%A1%9C%EB%B2%8C_%EC%84%B8%EA%B3%84_%EB%8C%80%EB%B0%B1%EA%B3%BC%EC%82%AC%EC%A0%84/%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%82%AC/%EB%AF%BC%EC%A1%B1%EC%9D%98_%EB%8F%85%EB%A6%BD%EC%9A%B4%EB%8F%99/%EC%8B%A0%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94%EC%9A%B4%EB%8F%99%EA%B3%BC_3%C2%B71%EC%9A%B4%EB%8F%99/%EC%8B%A0%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94%EC%9A%B4%EB%8F%99 |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=ko.wikisource.org |language=ko}}</ref>
+=== Vietnamese conquest of Champa ===
 {{see also|Nam tiến|Cham–Vietnamese War (1471)}}
-{{more citations needed|date=April 2018}}<!-- there are sources in the linked pages above: please insert.-->
+{{more citations needed|section|date=February 2022}}
-The Cham and Vietnamese had a long history of conflic, with many wars subduing to do economic exhaustion. It was common that the "antagonist" of the wars would rebuild their economies simpy to go to war again.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Moseley|first=Alexander|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50296813|title=A philosophy of war|date=2002|publisher=Algora Pub|isbn=0-87586-183-0|location=New York|oclc=50296813}}</ref> In 1471, Champa was particularly weakened prior to the Vietnamese invasion by a series of civil wars. The Vietnamese conquered [[Champa]] and settled its territory with Vietnamese migrants during the [[Nam tiến|march to the south]] after fighting repeated wars with Champa, shatterring Champa in [[Cham–Vietnamese War (1471)|the invasion of Champa in 1471]] and finally completing the conquest in 1832 under Emperor [[Minh Mang]]. 100,000 Cham soldiers besieged a Vietnamese garrison which led to anger from Vietnam and orders to attack Champa. 30,000 Chams were captured and over 40,000 were killed.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Maspero|first=Georges|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49621097|title=The Champa Kingdom : the history of an extinct Vietnamese culture|date=2002|publisher=White Lotus Press|others=Walter E. J. Tips|isbn=974-7534-99-1|location=Bangkok, Thailand|oclc=49621097}}</ref>
+The Cham and Vietnamese had a long history of conflict, with many wars ending due to economic exhaustion. It was common that the antagonists of the wars would rebuild their economies simply to go to war again.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moseley |first=Alexander |title=A philosophy of war |date=2002 |publisher=Algora Pub |isbn=0-87586-183-0 |location=New York |oclc=50296813}}</ref> In 1471, Champa was particularly weakened prior to the Vietnamese invasion by a series of civil wars. The Vietnamese conquered [[Champa]] and settled its territory with Vietnamese migrants during the [[Nam tiến|march to the south]] after fighting repeated wars with Champa, shattering Champa in [[Cham–Vietnamese War (1471)|the invasion of Champa in 1471]] and finally completing the conquest in 1832 under Emperor [[Minh Mang]]. 100,000 Cham soldiers besieged a Vietnamese garrison which led to anger from Vietnam and orders to attack Champa. 30,000 Chams were captured and over 40,000 were killed.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maspero |first=Georges |title=The Champa Kingdom: the history of an extinct Vietnamese culture |date=2002 |publisher=White Lotus Press |others=Walter E. J. Tips |isbn=974-7534-99-1 |location=Bangkok, Thailand |oclc=49621097}}</ref>
-===Dzungar genocide===
+=== Qing dynasty ===
+==== Dzungar genocide ====
 {{Main|Dzungar genocide}}
 [[File:Battle of Oroi-Jalatu.jpg|thumb|The massacre of Oroi-Jalatu, 1756. Manchu general Zhao Hui attacked the Dzungars at night.]]
-Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the [[Dzungar people|Dzungar]] (Western Mongol) population (600,000 or more) were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease in the [[Dzungar genocide]] during the [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] conquest of [[Dzungar Khanate]] in 1755–1757, in which [[Manchu people|Manchu]] [[Eight Banners|Bannermen]] and [[Khalkha Mongols]] exterminated the [[Dzungar people|Dzungar Oirat Mongols]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080410040826/http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf Michael Edmund Clarke, ''In the Eye of Power'' (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706114903/http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf |date=6 July 2011 }}</ref> Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide,<ref>[http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html Dr. Mark Levene] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216135041/http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html |date=16 December 2008 }}, [[Southampton University]], see "Areas where I can offer Postgraduate Supervision". Retrieved 9 February 2009.</ref> has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth-century genocide par excellence."<ref>A. Dirk Moses (2008). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA188 Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History]''". Berghahn Books. p.188. {{ISBN|1845454529}}</ref>
+Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the [[Dzungar people|Dzungar]] (Western Mongol) population (600,000 or more) was destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease in the [[Dzungar genocide]] perpetrated during the [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] conquest of the [[Dzungar Khanate]] (1755–1757). There, [[Manchu people|Manchu]] [[Eight Banners|Bannermen]] and [[Khalkha Mongols]] exterminated the [[Dzungar people|Dzungar Oirat Mongols]].<ref>{{cite thesis |url=http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf |first=Michael Edmund |last=Clarke |title=In the Eye of Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the "New Great Game" for Central Asia, 1759 - 2004 |degree=PhD |location=Brisbane |publisher=[[Griffith University]] |date=2004 |page=37 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706114903/http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011}}</ref> Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html |title=Dr. Mark Levene |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216135041/http://www.soton.ac.uk/history/profiles/levene1.html |archive-date=16 December 2008 |website=[[Southampton University]] |access-date=9 February 2009}}</ref> has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth-century genocide par excellence".<ref>{{cite book |first=A. Dirk |last=Moses |author-link=A. Dirk Moses |date=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC |title=Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502051519/https://books.google.com/books?id=RBgoNN4MG-YC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA188 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |page=188 |isbn=978-1845454524}}</ref>
-Anti-Zunghar Uyghur rebels from the Turfan and Hami oases had submitted to Qing rule as vassals and requested Qing help for overthrowing Zunghar rule. Uyghur leaders like [[Emin Khoja]] were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and these Uyghurs helped supply the Qing military forces during the anti-Zunghar campaign.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpeQhJ3hcwsC&q=Turfan+Khoja+military+contribution+Qing+campaign+Zunghar+Kashgar+Khoja&pg=PA308|title=Kim 2008, p. 308|isbn=9781109101263}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpeQhJ3hcwsC&pg=PA134|title=Kim 2008, p. 134|isbn=9781109101263}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpeQhJ3hcwsC&pg=PA49|title=Kim 2008, p. 49|isbn=9781109101263}}</ref> The Qing employed Khoja Emin in its campaign against the Dzungars and used him as an intermediary with Muslims from the [[Tarim Basin]] to inform them that the Qing were only aiming to kill Oirats (Zunghars) and that they would leave the Muslims alone, and also to convince them to kill the Oirats (Dzungars) themselves and side with the Qing since the Qing noted the Muslims' resentment of their former experience under Zunghar rule at the hands of [[Tseveenravdan|Tsewang Araptan]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DpeQhJ3hcwsC&pg=PA139#v=onepage&q&f=false Kim 2008], p. 139.</ref>
+Anti-Zunghar Uyghur rebels from the Turfan and Hami oases had submitted to Qing rule as vassals and requested Qing help for overthrowing Zunghar rule. Uyghur leaders like [[Emin Khoja]] were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and these Uyghurs helped supply the Qing military forces during the anti-Zunghar campaign.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Saintly Brokers: Uyghur Muslims, Trade, and the Making of Qing Central Asia, 1696–1814 |first=Kwangmin |last=Kim |date=2008 |publisher=[[University of California]] |isbn=9781109101263 |pages=49, 134, 308}}</ref> The Qing employed Khoja Emin in its campaign against the Dzungars and used him as an intermediary with Muslims from the [[Tarim Basin]] to inform them that the Qing were only aiming to kill Oirats (Zunghars) and that they would leave the Muslims alone, and also to convince them to kill the Oirats (Dzungars) themselves and side with the Qing since the Qing noted the Muslims' resentment of their former experience under Zunghar rule at the hands of [[Tseveenravdan|Tsewang Araptan]].<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Saintly Brokers: Uyghur Muslims, Trade, and the Making of Qing Central Asia, 1696–1814 |first=Kwangmin |last=Kim |date=2008 |publisher=[[University of California]] |isbn=9781109101263 |pages=139}}</ref>
+=== Bandanese massacre ===
-== British Empire (pre-1945) ==
+{{Main|Dutch conquest of the Banda Islands}}
-[[File:An gorta Mor.jpg|thumb|right|''Ireland's Holocaust'' mural in [[Belfast]].
+Under the command of [[Jan Pieterszoon Coen]], Dutch soldiers and Japanese mercenaries massacred and enslaved thousands of Bandanese islanders and destroyed several villages in order to force the natives to surrender.
-British government policy during the time of [[Great Famine (Ireland)|The Great Famine]] in [[Ireland]] remains controversial.]]{{Main|British Empire}}
-In places like the [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Canada]], [[settler colonialism]] was carried out by the British. Foreign land viewed as attractive for settlement was declared as [[terra nullius]] or "nobody's land". The indigenous inhabitants were therefore denied any sovereignty or property rights in the eyes of the British.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0125.xml|title=Settler Colonialism – Anthropology – Oxford Bibliographies – obo|website=www.oxfordbibliographies.com|language=en|access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref> This justified invasion and the violent seizure of native land to create colonies populated by British settlers.  Colonization like this usually caused a large decrease in the indigenous population from war, [[Native American disease and epidemics|newly introduced diseases]], massacre by colonists and attempts at [[forced assimilation]]. The settlers from Britain and Europe grew rapidly in number and created entirely new societies. The indigenous population became an oppressed minority in their own country. The gradual violent expansion of colonies into indigenous land could last for centuries, as it did in the [[Australian frontier wars]] and [[American Indian Wars]].<ref>http://www.kooriweb.org/foley/resources/pdfs/89.pdf pp. 390–391</ref>
+=== March across Samar ===
-Widespread population decline occurred following conquest principally from introduction of infectious disease. The number of Australian [[Aboriginal Australians|Aborigines]] declined by 84% after British colonization.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/people/aboriginal-population-in-australia |title=Archived copy |access-date=4 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104163213/https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/people/aboriginal-population-in-australia |archive-date=4 January 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Māori people|Maori]] population of New Zealand suffered a 57% drop from its highest point.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newzealandwars.co.nz/land-wars/wars/comparing-populations/|title=Māori Population Decline|website=New Zealand Wars|language=en-NZ|access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref> In Canada, the indigenous [[first nations]] population of [[British Columbia]] decreased by 75%.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/Aboriginal_intro_e.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=4 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314192434/http://www.med.uottawa.ca/sim/data/aboriginal_intro_e.htm |archive-date=14 March 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Surviving indigenous groups continued to suffer from severe [[racism|racially motivated discrimination]] from their new colonial societies.<ref>https://nycstandswithstandingrock.files.wordpress.com/2016/10/snelgrove-dhamoon-corntassel-2014.pdf pp. 11–12</ref> Aboriginal children, the [[Stolen Generations]], were confiscated by the Australian government and subject to forced assimilation and [[child abuse]] for most of the 20th century. Aborigines were only [[Voting rights of Indigenous Australians|granted the right to vote]] in some states in 1962.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aec.gov.au/indigenous/history.htm|title=AEC redirection page|last=corporateName=Australian Electoral Commission; address=50 Marcus Clarke Street|first=Canberra ACT 2600; contact=13 23 26|website=Australian Electoral Commission|language=en-AU|access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref>
+{{main|Philippine–American War|Battle of Balangiga|March across Samar}}
+During the [[Philippine–American War]], on September 28, 1901, Filipino forces defeated and nearly wiped out a US company in the [[Battle of Balangiga]]. In response, US forces carried out widespread atrocities during the [[March across Samar]], which lasted from December, 1901 to February, 1902. US forces killed between 2,000 and 2,500 Filipino civilians, according to most sources, and carried out an extensive [[scorched-earth]] policy, which included burning down villages. Some Filipino historians have called these killings genocidal. U.S. Brigadier General [[Jacob H. Smith]] instructed his soldiers to "kill everyone over ten years old", including children who were capable of bearing arms, and to take no prisoners. However, Major [[Littleton Waller]], commanding officer of a battalion of 315 US Marines, refused to follow his orders.<ref>{{cite book |last=Couttie |first=Bob |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6UMAQAAMAAJ |title=Hang the Dogs: The True Tragic History of the Balangiga Massacre |publisher=[[New Day Publishers]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-971-10-1124-6 |access-date=24 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173817/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6UMAQAAMAAJ |archive-date=16 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bruno |first=Thomas A. |year=2011 |title=The Violent End of Insurgency on Samar 1901–1902 |journal=Army History |volume=79 |issue=Spring 2011 |pages=30–46 |jstor=26296824}}</ref> Some Filipino historians estimate higher at 5,000 killed during the campaign, while other estimates are as high as 50,000, albeit the higher estimates have since been discredited, and are now known to be a result of typographical errors and the misreading of documents.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bartrop |first1=P.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4UBgAAQBAJ |title=Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection [4 volumes]: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection |last2=Jacobs |first2=S.L. |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-61069-364-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4UBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1983 1983] |access-date=24 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173755/https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4UBgAAQBAJ |archive-date=16 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-Similarly, the Canadian government has apologized for its historical "attitudes of racial and cultural superiority" and "suppression" of the first nations, including its role in [[Canadian Indian residential school system|residential schools]] where first nation children were confined and abused.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/socstud/foundation_gr9/blms/9-1-4e.pdf|title=Status of Reconciliation|access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref> Canada has been accused of genocide for its historical [[Compulsory sterilization in Canada|compulsory sterilization of indigenous peoples]] in [[Alberta]] during the fears of jobs being stolen by immigrants and living lives of poverty provoked by [[the great depression]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/thunder-bay/sterilization-of-indigenous-women-an-act-of-genocide-new-book-says-1.3205816|title=Sterilization of indigenous women an act of genocide, new book says|date=27 August 2015|website=CBC|access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref>
+=== Famines in British India ===
-It has proven a controversial question whether the drastic population decline can be considered an example of genocide, and scholars have argued whether the process as a whole or specific periods and local processes qualify under the legal definition. [[Raphael Lemkin]], the originator of the term "genocide", considered the colonial replacement of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] by English and later British colonists to be one of the historical examples of genocide.<ref>McDonnell, M. A., & Moses, A. D. (2005). Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas. Journal of Genocide Research, 7(4), 501–529</ref> Historian [[Niall Ferguson]] has referred to the case in Tasmania as "an event that truly merits the now overused term 'genocide'",<ref>''Empire: how Britain made the modern world, Volume 2003, Part 2'', Niall Ferguson, page 111, Allen Lane, 2003</ref> and mentions Ireland and North America as areas that suffered ethnic cleansing at the hands of the British.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/fergusononireland.htm|title=What did the British Empire ever do for Ireland: ThePost.ie|website=www.tcd.ie|access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref> According to Patrick Wolfe in the [[Journal of Genocide Research]], the "frontier massacring of indigenous peoples"  by the British constitutes a genocide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kooriweb.org/foley/resources/pdfs/89.pdf|title=Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native|access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref>
+{{see also|Timeline of major famines in India during British rule|List of massacres in India}}[[File:Famine in India; five emaciated children; a girl sitting and Wellcome L0002224.jpg|thumb|Victims of the [[Great Famine of 1876–78]]]]
+''[[Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World]]'' is a book by [[Mike Davis (scholar)|Mike Davis]] about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns, particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries, Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism, and the relation with famine in particular. Davis argues that "Millions died, not outside the 'modern world system', but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures. They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism; indeed, many were murdered... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith, Bentham and Mill."<ref>{{cite web |title=The World History Association Book Prize Past Winners |url=http://www.thewha.org/prize_competitions.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211201622/http://www.thewha.org/prize_competitions.php |archive-date=11 December 2009}}</ref>
-The numerous massacres and widespread starvation that accompanied the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]] (1649–1653) has led to it being called a genocide; hundreds of thousands of Irish civilians died, and about 50,000 Irish were sold into [[indentured servitude]]. As one author put it, "A loss of more than 40 per cent of the population might, however, suggest a conscious plan of elimination based on racial and religious hatred, which in other circumstances and times would rightly be called genocide. Cromwell’s murderous campaign in Ireland was fuelled by a pathological hatred of Irish Catholics, which he himself clearly expressed."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.historyireland.com/cromwell/how-many-died-during-cromwells-campaign/|title=How many died during Cromwell's campaign?|date=12 March 2013}}</ref>
+Davis characterizes the [[Timeline of major famines in India during British rule|Indian famines under the British Raj]] as "colonial genocide". Some scholars, including [[Niall Ferguson]], have disputed this judgment, while others, including [[Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|Adam Jones]], have affirmed it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Adam |title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction |date=16 December 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781317533856 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 2: State and Empire |access-date=17 October 2020 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3auDQAAQBAJ&q=%22Mask+for+colonial+genocide%22&pg=PT203 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002144954/https://books.google.com/books?id=i3auDQAAQBAJ&q=%22Mask+for+colonial+genocide%22&pg=PT203 |archive-date=2 October 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Powell |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3Qm4pWlVNsC&q=1876+famine%2C+genocide&pg=PA238 |title=Barbaric Civilization: A Critical Sociology of Genocide |date=15 June 2011 |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press]] |isbn=9780773585560 |pages=238–245 |language=en |access-date=17 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003023315/https://books.google.com/books?id=v3Qm4pWlVNsC&q=1876+famine%2C+genocide&pg=PA238 |archive-date=3 October 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-The [[Plantations of Ireland]] were attempts to expel the native Irish from the best land of the island, and settle it with loyal British Protestants; they too have been described as genocidal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thejournal.ie/irish-famine-tribunal-british-crimes-against-humanity-871169-Apr2013/|title=Irish Famine 'Tribunal' to probe if it was crime against humanity|first=Susan|last=Daly|website=TheJournal.ie}}</ref> The [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] (1845–1850) has also been blamed on British policy and called genocidal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/opinion/yourview/arid-30946349.html|title=Letter to Editor: Our Famine genocide not suitable for 'Spud' satire|date=27 August 2019|website=Irish Examiner}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tlio.org.uk/what-the-irish-famine-genocide-teaches-us-about-palestine/|title=What the 'Irish famine' genocide teaches us about Palestine|first=Tony|last=Gosling|date=17 January 2019}}</ref> Writing in ''[[Indian Country Today]]'', Christina Rose drew parallels between the Irish and Native American experience of dispossession and genocide; Katie Kane has compared the [[Sand Creek massacre]] with the [[Drogheda massacre]]. R. Barry O’Brien compared the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641]] with the [[Indian Wars]], writing “The warfare which ensued… resembled that waged by the early settlers in America with the native tribes. No mercy whatever was shown to the natives, no act of treachery was considered dishonourable, no personal tortures and indignities were spared to the captives. The slaughter of Irishmen was looked upon as literally the slaughter of wild beasts. Not only the men, but even the women and children who fell into the hands of the English were deliberately and systematically butchered. Year after year, over a great part of all Ireland, all means of human subsistence was destroyed, no quarter was given to prisoners who surrendered, and the whole population was skillfully and steadily starved to death.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/10-stunning-similarities-between-irish-and-native-historic-experiences-1UQOnTBtk0aLKFOqy_Xtpg|title=10 Stunning Similarities Between Irish and Native Historic Experiences|website=IndianCountryToday.com}}</ref> Similar to the European Colonization of The Americas, the death toll under the British Empire is estimated to be as high as 150 million.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k0LQAwAAQBAJ&q=%22killed+may+be+as+high+as+150+million%22&pg=PA182|title=Civilization & Violence: Islam, the West, and the Rest|date=5 March 2014|isbn=9781493120246}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/175562|jstor = 175562|last1 = Colley|first1 = Linda|title = The Politics of Eighteenth-Century British History|journal = Journal of British Studies|year = 1986|volume = 25|issue = 4|pages = 359–379|doi = 10.1086/385871}}</ref>
+== Indigenous peoples of Oceania (pre-1945) ==
-===Colonization of Australia and Tasmania===
+=== Australia ===
-{{further|Genocides in history#Australia|Australian genocide debate|List of massacres of Indigenous Australians|Australian frontier wars|British colonisation of Tasmania}}
+{{further|Genocide of Indigenous Australians|Australian genocide debate|||}}[[File:Massacre at Skull Hole, Mistake Creek, Australia.png|thumb|An 1888 drawing of a massacre by Queensland’s native police at Skull Hole, Mistake Creek, Australia.]]In a similar manner to the United States and [[Canada]], the British colonization of [[Australia]] was conducted under the pretense of indigenous lands being deemed "empty" in order to justify their acquisition of [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal]] lands and deny them sovereignty or property rights.<ref>{{cite web |title=Settler Colonialism – Anthropology – Oxford Bibliographies – obo |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0125.xml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715194712/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0125.xml |archive-date=15 July 2019 |access-date=16 October 2019 |website=www.oxfordbibliographies.com |language=en}}</ref> Colonization also caused a large decrease in the Indigenous population from war, [[Native American disease and epidemics|newly introduced diseases]], massacre by colonists, and attempts at [[forced assimilation]]. The European settlers grew rapidly in number and created entirely new societies. The Aboriginal population became an oppressed minority in their own country. The overall gradual violent expansion of colonies into Indigenous land during the [[Australian frontier wars]] lasted for centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=pp. 390–391 |url=http://www.kooriweb.org/foley/resources/pdfs/89.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213092514/http://www.kooriweb.org/foley/resources/pdfs/89.pdf |archive-date=13 December 2016 |access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wolfe |first=Patrick |date=2006-12-01 |title=Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=387–409 |doi=10.1080/14623520601056240 |issn=1462-3528 |s2cid=143873621 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
-The so-called [[extinction]] of the [[Aboriginal Tasmanians]] is regarded as a classic case of near genocide by Lemkin, most comparative scholars of genocide, and many general historians, including [[Robert Hughes (critic)|Robert Hughes]], [[Ward Churchill]], [[Leo Kuper]] and [[Jared Diamond]], who base their analysis on previously published histories.<ref>Henry Reynolds, 'Genocide in Tasmania?', in A. Dirk Moses (ed.) ''Genocide and settler society: frontier violence and stolen indigenous children in Australian history,'' Berghahn Books, 2004 p.128.</ref> Between 1824 and 1908 White settlers and [[Australian native police|Native Mounted Police]] in Queensland, according to Raymond Evans, killed more than 10,000 Aboriginal people, who were regarded as vermin and sometimes even hunted for sport.{{sfn|Tatz|2006|p=125}}
+The virtual [[extinction]] of the [[Aboriginal Tasmanians]] is regarded as a classic case of near genocide by Lemkin, most comparative scholars of genocide, and many general historians, including [[Robert Hughes (critic)|Robert Hughes]], [[Ward Churchill]], [[Leo Kuper]] and [[Jared Diamond]], who base their analysis on previously published histories.<ref>Henry Reynolds, 'Genocide in Tasmania?', in A. Dirk Moses (ed.) ''Genocide and settler society: frontier violence and stolen Indigenous children in Australian history,'' Berghahn Books, 2004 p.128.</ref> Between 1824 and 1908 White settlers and [[Australian native police|Native Mounted Police]] in Queensland, according to Raymond Evans, killed more than 10,000 Aboriginal people, who were regarded as vermin and sometimes even hunted for sport.{{sfn|Tatz|2006|p=125}}
-Of an estimated population in 1788 of over half a million, fewer than 50,000 [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal people]] survived by 1900. Most perished from introduced diseases, but possibly 20,000 people were killed by British troops, police, and settlers in the [[Australian frontier wars]] and [[Massacres of Indigenous Australians|massacres]] accompanying their dispossession.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kiernan|first1=Ben|title=Cover-up and Denial of Genocide: Australia, the USA, East Timor, and the Aborigines|journal=Critical Asian Studies|volume=34|issue=2|pages=163–192|doi=10.1080/14672710220146197|year=2002|s2cid=146339164}}</ref> [[Ben Kiernan]], an Australian historian of genocide, treats the Australian evidence over the first century of colonization as an example of genocide in his 2007 history of the concept and practice, ''Blood and soil: a world history of genocide and extermination from Sparta to Darfur''.{{sfn|Kiernan|2007|pp=249–309}} The Australian practice of removing the children of [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal]] and [[Torres Strait Islanders|Torres Strait Islander]] descent from their families, has been described as genocidal.{{sfn|Tatz|2006}}{{sfn|Moses|2004}} The 1997 report ''[[Bringing Them Home]]'', which examined the fate of the "[[stolen generations]]" concluded that the forced separation of Aboriginal children from their family constituted an act of genocide.{{sfn|Tatz|2006|p=128}} In the 1990s a number of Australian state institutions, including the state of [[Queensland]], apologized for its policies regarding forcible separation of Aboriginal children.{{sfn|Tatz|2006|pp=130–31}} Another allegation against the Australian state is the use of medical services to Aboriginal people to administer [[contraceptive]] therapy to Aboriginal women without their knowledge or consent, including the use of [[Depo Provera]], as well as [[tubal ligation]]s. Both [[forced adoption]] and forced contraception would fall under the provisions of the UN genocide convention.{{sfn|Tatz|2006|p=127}} Some Australian scholars, including historians [[Geoffrey Blainey]] and [[Keith Windschuttle]] and political scientist [[Ken Minogue]], reject the view that Australian Aboriginal policy was genocidal.{{sfn|Tatz|2006|pp=130–134}}
+Prior to the arrival of the [[First Fleet]] in 1788, which marked the beginning of [[History of Australia (1788–1850)|Britain's colonization of Australia]], the [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal population]] had been estimated by historians to be around roughly 500,000 people; by 1900, that number had plummeted to fewer than 50,000. While most died due to the introduction of infectious diseases that accompanied colonization, up to 20,000 were killed during the [[Australian frontier wars]] by British settlers and colonial authorities through [[Massacres of Indigenous Australians|massacres]], [[Mass poisonings of Aboriginal Australians|mass poisonings]] and other actions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kiernan |first1=Ben |title=Cover-up and Denial of Genocide: Australia, the USA, East Timor, and the Aborigines |journal=Critical Asian Studies |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=163–192 |doi=10.1080/14672710220146197 |year=2002 |s2cid=146339164}}</ref> [[Ben Kiernan]], an Australian historian of genocide, treats the Australian evidence over the first century of colonization as an example of genocide in his 2007 history of the concept and practice, [[Blood and Soil (book)|''Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur'']].{{sfn|Kiernan|2007|pp=249–309}} Historian [[Niall Ferguson]] has referred to the case in Tasmania as follows: "In one of the most shocking of all the chapters in the history of the British Empire, the Aborigines in Van Diemen's Land were hunted down, confined, and ultimately exterminated: an event which truly merits the now overused term 'genocide'.",<ref>{{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Niall |title=Empire: how Britain made the modern world |date=2003 |publisher=Allen Lane |volume=2003, Part 2 |page=111}}</ref> and mentions Ireland and North America as areas that suffered ethnic cleansing at the hands of the British.<ref>{{cite web |title=What did the British Empire ever do for Ireland: ThePost.ie |url=https://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/fergusononireland.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016081531/https://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/fergusononireland.htm |archive-date=16 October 2019 |access-date=16 October 2019 |website=www.tcd.ie}}</ref> According to [[Patrick Wolfe]] in the ''[[Journal of Genocide Research]]'', the "frontier massacring of indigenous peoples" by the British constitutes a genocide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native |url=http://www.kooriweb.org/foley/resources/pdfs/89.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213092514/http://www.kooriweb.org/foley/resources/pdfs/89.pdf |archive-date=13 December 2016 |access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref> Widespread population decline occurred following conquest principally from introduction of infectious disease. The number of Australian [[Aboriginal Australians]] declined by 84% after British colonization.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aboriginal population in Australia |url=https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/people/aboriginal-population-in-australia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104163213/https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/people/aboriginal-population-in-australia |archive-date=4 January 2017 |access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref>
+The Australian practice of removing the children of [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal]] and [[Torres Strait Islanders|Torres Strait Islander]] descent from their families throughout most of the 20th century, has been described as genocidal.{{sfn|Tatz|2006}}{{sfn|Moses|2004}} The 1997 report ''[[Bringing Them Home]]'', which examined the fate of the "[[stolen generations]]" concluded that the forced separation of Aboriginal children from their family constituted an act of genocide.{{sfn|Tatz|2006|p=128}} In the 1990s a number of Australian state institutions, including the state of [[Queensland]], apologized for its policies regarding forcible separation of Aboriginal children.{{sfn|Tatz|2006|pp=130–31}} Another allegation against the Australian state is the use of medical services to Aboriginal people to administer [[contraceptive]] therapy to Aboriginal women without their knowledge or consent, including the use of [[Depo Provera]], as well as [[tubal ligation]]s. Both [[forced adoption]] and forced contraception would fall under the provisions of the UN genocide convention.{{sfn|Tatz|2006|p=127}} Aboriginal Australians were only [[Voting rights of Indigenous Australians|granted the right to vote]] in some states in 1962.<ref>{{cite web |title=AEC redirection page |url=https://www.aec.gov.au/indigenous/history.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918020444/http://www.aec.gov.au/indigenous/history.htm |archive-date=18 September 2016 |access-date=16 October 2019 |website=[[Australian Electoral Commission]] |language=en-AU |quote=In March 1962 the Commonwealth Electoral Act was amended to provide that Indigenous people could enrol to vote in federal elections if they wished. Unlike other Australians it was not compulsory for them to enrol. It was also an offence for anyone to use undue influence or pressure to induce them to enrol. Once they enrolled, however, voting was compulsory. In 1962 the right to vote in state/territory elections was also extended to Indigenous people in the Northern Territory and Western Australia.}}</ref> Some Australian scholars, including historians [[Geoffrey Blainey]] and [[Keith Windschuttle]] and political scientist [[Ken Minogue]], reject the view that Australian Aboriginal policy was genocidal.{{sfn|Tatz|2006|pp=130–134}}
-=== Famines in British India ===
-[[Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World]] is a book by [[Mike Davis (scholar)|Mike Davis]] about the connection between political economy and global climate patterns, particularly El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). By comparing ENSO episodes in different time periods and across countries, Davis explores the impact of colonialism and the introduction of capitalism, and the relation with famine in particular. Davis argues that "Millions died, not outside the 'modern world system', but in the very process of being forcibly incorporated into its economic and political structures. They died in the golden age of Liberal Capitalism; indeed, many were murdered ... by the theological application of the sacred principles of Smith, Bentham and Mill."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thewha.org/prize_competitions.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211201622/http://www.thewha.org/prize_competitions.php|url-status=dead|title=The World History Association Book Prize Past Winners|archive-date=11 December 2009}}</ref>
-[[File:Famine in India; five emaciated children; a girl sitting and Wellcome L0002224.jpg|thumb|Victims of the [[Great Famine of 1876–78]]]]
+=== New Zealand ===
-Davis characterizes the [[Timeline of major famines in India during British rule|Indian famines under the British Raj]] as "colonial [[genocide]]." Some scholars, including [[Niall Ferguson]], have disputed this judgment, while others, including [[Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|Adam Jones]], have affirmed it.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3auDQAAQBAJ&q=%22Mask+for+colonial+genocide%22&pg=PT203|title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction|last=Jones|first=Adam|date=16 December 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317533856|language=en|chapter=Chapter 2: State and Empire}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3Qm4pWlVNsC&q=1876+famine%2C+genocide&pg=PA238|title=Barbaric Civilization: A Critical Sociology of Genocide|last=Powell|first=Christopher|date=15 June 2011|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=9780773585560|pages=238–245|language=en}}</ref>
+During the [[New Zealand Wars]] and the subsequent [[New Zealand land confiscations|land confiscations]], the [[Māori people|Maori]] population suffered a 57% drop from its highest point as a result of Old World diseases introduced by the British colonists.<ref>{{cite web |title=Māori Population Decline |url=http://newzealandwars.co.nz/land-wars/wars/comparing-populations/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018185400/http://newzealandwars.co.nz/land-wars/wars/comparing-populations/ |archive-date=18 October 2019 |access-date=16 October 2019 |website=New Zealand Wars |language=en-NZ}}</ref>
-=== Rubber Boom in Congo and Putumayo ===
+==== Moriori genocide ====
+{{Main articles|Moriori genocide}}
-[[File:Hardenburgamazonindians.jpeg|thumb| Amazonian Indians enslaved during the [[rubber boom]] in the Putumayo region of Peru]]
+During the intertribal [[Musket Wars]], two Maori tribes displaced from [[Taranaki]] arrived in the [[Chatham Islands]], where they massacred and enslaved the indigenous [[Moriori]] people.<ref name="e-tangata">{{cite web |last=Solomon |first=Maui |date=15 December 2019 |title=Moriori: Still setting the record straight |url=https://e-tangata.co.nz/reflections/moriori-still-setting-the-record-straight/ |access-date=28 February 2021 |work=E-Tangata}}</ref><ref name="spinoff">{{cite news |last=Mills |first=Karl |date=3 August 2018 |title=The Moriori myth and why it's still with us |url=https://thespinoff.co.nz/atea/03-08-2018/the-moriori-myth-and-why-its-still-with-us/ |access-date=16 May 2021 |work=The Spinoff}}</ref><ref name="treaty settlement">{{cite news |date=24 February 2021 |title=Moriori Treaty settlement passes first reading |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/te-manu-korihi/437070/moriori-treaty-settlement-passes-first-reading |access-date=28 February 2021 |work=[[Radio NZ]]}}</ref> In the aftermath of the genocide, the [[Native Land Court]] awarded the Maori invaders ownership of the Chatham islands in 1870 and denied the Moriori any sovereignty over the islands.<ref name="te ara 4">{{cite web |title=Page 4. The impact of new arrivals |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/moriori/page-4 |access-date=16 May 2021 |website=Te Ara}}</ref>
-From 1879 to 1912, the world experienced a [[rubber boom]]. Rubber prices skyrocketed, and it became increasingly profitable to extract rubber from rainforest zones in South America and Central Africa. Rubber extraction was labor-intensive, and the need for a large workforce had a significant negative effect on the indigenous population across Brazil, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia and in the Congo.  The owners of the plantations or rubber barons were rich, but those who collected the rubber made very little, as a large amount of rubber was needed to be profitable. Rubber barons rounded up all the Indians and forced them to tap rubber out of the trees. Slavery and gross human rights abuses were widespread, and in some areas, 90% of the Indian population was wiped out. One plantation started with 50,000 Indians and when the killings were discovered, only 8,000 were still alive.  These rubber plantations were part of the Brazilian rubber market which declined as rubber plantations in Southeast Asia became more effective.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why do they hide?|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/articles/3104-why-do-they-hide|access-date=27 August 2013|publisher=Survival International}}</ref>
+=== Blackbirding in the Pacific Islands ===
-[[Roger Casement]], an Irishman travelling the Putumayo region of Peru as a British consul during 1910–1911, documented the abuse, slavery, murder, and use of stocks for torture against the native Indians:
+{{Main|Blackbirding}}
-<ref>{{cite web|title=Horrific treatment of Amazon Indians exposed 100 years ago today|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/7092|access-date=27 August 2013|publisher=Survival International}}</ref>
+Throughout the 19th century, several Pacific Islander nations such as [[Kingdom of Fiji|Fiji]], [[New Caledonia]] and [[Easter Island]] fell victim to foreign diseases such as smallpox and measles as a result of blackbirding by European and American colonists. The Peruvian slave raids in particular led to the near extinction of the [[Rapa Nui people]] of Easter Island and the depopulation of [[ʻAta]] in [[Tonga]].<ref name="Maude1981">{{cite book |last1=Maude |first1=H.E. |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/114682 |title=Slavers in Paradise |date=1981 |publisher=ANU Press |access-date=4 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704112614/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/114682 |archive-date=4 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
-<blockquote>"The crimes charged against many men now in the employ of the [[Peruvian Amazon Company]] are of the most atrocious kind, including murder, violation, and constant flogging."</blockquote>
 == Contemporary examples ==
+The genocide of Indigenous tribes is still an ongoing feature in the modern world,<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last1=Robert K. |first1=Hitchcock |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sIvaAAAAMAAJ |title=The Historiography of Genocide |last2=Thomas E. |first2=Koperski |date=2008-02-13 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-9219-2 |editor-last=Stone |editor-first=Dan |pages=586 |language=en |chapter=Genocides of Indigenous Peoples |quote=See Table 22.2 Twentieth- and twenty-first-century cases of genocide of indigenous peoples}}</ref> with the ongoing depopulation of the [[Jivaroan peoples|Jivaro]], [[Yanomami]], and other tribes in [[Brazil]] having been described as genocide.{{sfn|Scherrer|2003|p=294}} Multiple incidents of rioting against the minority communities in Afghanistan,<ref>{{cite news |last=Kumar |first=Ruchi |date=1 January 2017 |title=The decline of Afghanistan's Hindu and Sikh communities |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2017/1/1/the-decline-of-afghanistans-hindu-and-sikh-communities |access-date=20 December 2021 |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |archive-date=4 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304034538/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2017/1/1/the-decline-of-afghanistans-hindu-and-sikh-communities |url-status=live}}</ref> Bangladesh,<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Chowdury |first=G. R. |date=March 1992 |title=Unnatural Disasters: Pogroms have killed thousands of Bangladeshi minorities; millions more are refugees in India |url=http://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/unnatural-disasters-pogroms-have-killed-thousands |access-date=20 December 2021 |magazine=Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine |publisher=Cultural Survival |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220210126/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/unnatural-disasters-pogroms-have-killed-thousands |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=16 October 2021 |title=Decoding why minorities in Bangladesh and Pakistan continue to face persecution |url=https://www.firstpost.com/world/decoding-why-minorities-in-bangladesh-and-pakistan-continue-to-face-persecution-10058331.html |access-date=20 December 2021 |website=Firstpost |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220210120/https://www.firstpost.com/world/decoding-why-minorities-in-bangladesh-and-pakistan-continue-to-face-persecution-10058331.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Pakistan,<ref>{{cite news |last=Roche |first=Elizabeth |date=19 January 2016 |title=Slow genocide of minorities in Pakistan: Farahnaz Ispahani |url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/F4r3Tmf51k8Sm6DGjPRaEN/Slow-genocide-of-minorities-in-Pakistan-Farahnaz-Ispahani.html |access-date=20 December 2021 |work=Mint |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220210119/https://www.livemint.com/Politics/F4r3Tmf51k8Sm6DGjPRaEN/Slow-genocide-of-minorities-in-Pakistan-Farahnaz-Ispahani.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mirza |first=Jaffer A. |date=16 March 2020|title=Religious Minorities in 'Naya Pakistan' |url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/03/religious-minorities-in-naya-pakistan/ |access-date=20 December 2021 |magazine=[[The Diplomat]] |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119021454/https://thediplomat.com/2020/03/religious-minorities-in-naya-pakistan/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Sri Lanka,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tamil Genocide by Sri Lanka: The Global Failure to Protect Tamil Rights Under International Law |date=20 April 2010 |publisher=Clarity Press |url=https://www.amazon.com/The-Tamil-Genocide-Lanka-International-ebook/dp/B004XJ4YGU |access-date=16 November 2013 |archive-date=31 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140731144415/http://www.amazon.com/The-Tamil-Genocide-Lanka-International-ebook/dp/B004XJ4YGU |url-status=live}}</ref> Myanmar<ref name="urlMyanmars military accused of genocide in damning UN report | Myanmar | The Guardian">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/27/myanmars-military-accused-of-genocide-by-damning-un-report |title=Myanmar's military accused of genocide in damning UN report {{pipe}} Myanmar {{pipe}} The Guardian |work=[[The Guardian]] |format= |date=27 August 2018 |access-date=2 December 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710094303/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/27/myanmars-military-accused-of-genocide-by-damning-un-report |url-status=live}}</ref> and India<ref name="AkshayWilfred1994">{{cite book |first1=Akshayakumar Ramanlal |last1=Desai |first2=Wilfred |last2=D'Costa |title=State and Repressive Culture: A Case Study of Gujarat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ubk4qXLI9AQC&pg=PA99 |year=1994 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-702-9 |page=99}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/11599524 |title=Internal Violence: The "Police Action" in Hyderabad - CSSH |last1=Purushotham |first1=Sunil |access-date=2 December 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111050547/https://www.academia.edu/11599524 | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Report on Godhra riots |url=http://www.sabrang.com/tribunal/ |website=www.sabrang.com |publisher=Concerned Citizens Tribunal Report |access-date=4 July 2017 |archive-date=15 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200115112215/https://www.sabrang.com/tribunal/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Jaffrelot |first=Christophe |title=Communal Riots in Gujarat: The State at Risk?|journal=Heidelberg Papers in South Asian and Comparative Politics |date=July 2003 |page=16 |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/4127/1/hpsacp17.pdf |access-date=5 November 2013 |archive-date=4 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204131058/http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/4127/1/hpsacp17.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kazi">{{Cite book |last=Kazi |first=Seema |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t343/e0165?_hi=0&_pos=1 |title=Gender and Militarization in Kashmir |work=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |quote=Sordid and gruesome as the militant record of violence against Kashmiri women and civilians is, it does not compare with the scale and depth of abuse by Indian State forces for which justice has yet to be done. |access-date=2 December 2022 |archive-date=13 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213021623/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t343/e0165?_hi=0&_pos=1 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |first=Akhilesh |last=Pillalamarri |title=India's Anti-Sikh Riots, 30 Years On |url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/10/indias-anti-sikh-riots-30-years-on/ |magazine=[[The Diplomat]] |access-date=3 May 2016 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710033902/https://thediplomat.com/2014/10/indias-anti-sikh-riots-30-years-on/ |url-status=live}}</ref> have been documented. Paraguay has also been accused of carrying out a genocide against the [[Aché people|Aché]] whose case was brought before the [[Inter-American Human Rights Commission]]. The commission gave a provisional ruling that genocide had not been committed by the state but expressed concern over "possible abuses by private persons in remote areas of the territory of Paraguay".{{sfn|Quigley|2006|p=125}} Yazadi genocide in Iraq remains a case of major concern.<ref name="CSM">{{cite news |last=Arraf |first=Jane |date=7 August 2014 |title=Islamic State persecution of Yazidi minority amounts to genocide, UN says |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2014/0807/Islamic-State-persecution-of-Yazidi-minority-amounts-to-genocide-UN-says-video |newspaper=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808154839/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2014/0807/Islamic-State-persecution-of-Yazidi-minority-amounts-to-genocide-UN-says-video |archive-date=8 August 2014 |access-date=8 August 2014}}</ref>
-{{Genocide}}
-The genocide of indigenous tribes is still an ongoing feature in the modern world, with the ongoing depopulation of the [[Jivaroan peoples|Jivaro]], [[Yanomami]] and other tribes in [[Brazil]] having been described as genocide.{{sfn|Scherrer|2003|p=294}} Multiple incidents of rioting against the muslim community in India have been described as genocidal in nature.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nation.com.pk/07-Mar-2020/hindustan-history-of-genocide-and-communal-violence|title=Hindustan: history of genocide and communal violence|date=7 March 2020|website=The Nation}}</ref> Paraguay has also been accused of carrying out a genocide against the [[Aché people|Aché]] whose case was brought before the [[Inter-American Human Rights Commission]]. The commission gave a provisional ruling that genocide had not been committed by the state, but did express concern over "possible abuses by private persons in remote areas of the territory of Paraguay."{{sfn|Quigley|2006|p=125}}
+Hitchcock and Twedt say that even though genocidal actions against Indigenous peoples continue, most states and even the United Nations avoid criticizing other nations for this.<ref name=":62">{{Cite book |last1=Hitchcock |first1=Robert K. |url=http://archive.org/details/centuryofgenocid0000unse |title=Century of genocide : critical essays and eyewitness accounts |last2=Twedt |first2=Tara M. |date=1997 |publisher=New York : Routledge |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-415-94429-8 |editor-last=Totten |editor-first=Samuel |edition=3rd |pages=362–3 |chapter=Chapter 13 Physical and Cultural Genocide of Indigenous Peoples |quote=Most states, along with the United Nations, have been reluctant to criticize individual nations for their actions on the pretense that this would constitute a violation of sovereignty. They have also tended to accept government denials of genocides at face value. As a result, genocidal actions continue. |editor-last2=Parsons |editor-first2=William S.}}</ref>
-===Brazil===
-{{main|Genocide of indigenous peoples in Brazil}}
+===Afghanistan===
+{{further|Persecution of Hazaras}}
+For many years the indigenous [[Hazaras]] in Afghanistan have been subjected to genocide.<ref>https://minorityrights.org/communities/hazaras/</ref> One of the most tragic example is the [[1998 Mazar-i-Sharif massacre]] that left from 2,000 to 20,000 during that event alone.<ref name=SHARIFFMASSACRE>{{cite news |last1=Gizabi |first1=Akram |title=Opinion: US–Taliban peace talks betray the trust of the Afghan people |url=https://www.militarytimes.com/opinion/2019/07/14/opinion-ustaliban-peace-talks-betray-the-trust-of-the-afghan-people/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031050612/https://www.militarytimes.com/opinion/2019/07/14/opinion-ustaliban-peace-talks-betray-the-trust-of-the-afghan-people/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-10-31 |agency=Military Times |ref=Mazarmassacres}}</ref><ref name=Ibrahimi>{{cite journal |last1=Ibrahimi |first1=Niamatullah |title=DIVIDE AND RULE: STATE PENETRATION IN HAZARAJAT (AFGHANISTAN) FROM THE MONARCHY TO THE TALIBAN |journal=Crisis States Research Center |date=January 2009 |volume=Working Paper 42 - Development as State Making - |pages=14 |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/95939/WP42.2.pdf}}</ref>
+=== Bangladesh ===
+{{further|Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict}}
+According to [[Amnesty International]] and [[Reference Services Review]], the Indigenous [[Chakma people]] of the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts|Chittagong hill tracts]] were allegedly subjected to genocidal violence between the 1970s and the 1990s. Their population had been dwindling since the military rule launched by dictator Major General [[Ziaur Rahman]], who took control of the country after a military coup in 1975 and reigned from 1975 to 1981. Later, his successor Lieutenant General [[HM Ershad]] who reigned from 1982 to 1990.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hidden Bangladesh: Violence and Brutality in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.|url=https://www.amnesty.org.uk/groups/wirksworth-and-district/hidden-bangladesh-violence-and-brutality-chittagong-hill-tracts|access-date=2021-10-11|website=www.amnesty.org.uk|archive-date=18 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018053423/https://www.amnesty.org.uk/groups/wirksworth-and-district/hidden-bangladesh-violence-and-brutality-chittagong-hill-tracts|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gray |first=Richard A. |date=1994-01-01 |title=Genocide in the Chittagong Hill tracts of Bangladesh |journal=[[Reference Services Review]] |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=59–79 |doi=10.1108/eb049231 |issn=0090-7324}}</ref> In response, the Indigenous Chakma rebels led by [[Manabendra Narayan Larma|M.N. Larma]] (killed in 1983) started an [[Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict|insurgency]] in the region in 1977. The Bangladeshi government had settled hundreds of thousands of Bengali people in the region who now constitute the majority of the population there.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sattar |first=Maher |date=June 24, 2015 |title=Bangladesh indigenous ban 'worse than apartheid' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2015/6/24/bangladesh-indigenous-ban-worse-than-apartheid |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |language=en |access-date=8 November 2021 |archive-date=8 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108054350/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2015/6/24/bangladesh-indigenous-ban-worse-than-apartheid |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=December 1987 |title=Attacks Continue on Indigenous People in the Chittagong Hill Tracts |url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/attacks-continue-indigenous-people-chittagong-hill-tracts |website=[[Cultural Survival]] |access-date=12 October 2021 |archive-date=28 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028170716/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/attacks-continue-indigenous-people-chittagong-hill-tracts |url-status=live}}</ref> On 11 September 1996, the Indigenous rebels reportedly abducted and killed 28 to 30 Bengali woodcutters.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a838a.html |title=Refworld {{pipe}} Human Rights Situation |access-date=8 November 2021 |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212145130/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a838a.html |url-status=live}}</ref> After democracy was reestablished in the country, fresh rounds of talks began in 1996 with the newly elected prime minister [[Sheikh Hasina Wajed]] of the [[Awami League]], the daughter of the late Father of the Nation [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] and the representatives of the Indigenous rebels.<ref name="CV3">{{cite book |last=Majumder |first=Shantanu |year=2012 |chapter=Parbatya Chattagram Jana-Samhati Samiti |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Parbatya_Chattagram_Jana-Samhati_Samiti |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |access-date=9 November 2021 |archive-date=20 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120203138/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Parbatya_Chattagram_Jana-Samhati_Samiti |url-status=live}}</ref> A [[Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord|peace treaty]] was signed between the Government and the Indigenous people on 2 December 1997, ending the 20-year-long insurgency and all hostilities in the region.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://legalcounselbd.com/by-executing-cht-peace-accord-bangladesh/ |title=By Executing CHT Peace Accord Bangladesh Entered A Glorious Chapter Of Peace Implementation - 2009 |publisher=Legalcounselbd.com |date=2 December 2020|access-date=2021-12-12 |archive-date=8 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108103419/https://legalcounselbd.com/by-executing-cht-peace-accord-bangladesh/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
+=== Brazil ===
+{{main|Human rights in Brazil|Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil}}
 [[File:Indian protesters from Vale do Javarí in Belém 2009 1530FP8886.jpg|thumb|Indigenous protesters from [[Vale do Javari]] in Belém]]
-From the late 1950s until 1968, the state of Brazil submitted their indigenous peoples of Brazil to violent attempts to integrate, pacify and acculturate their communities. In 1967 public prosecutor Jader de Figueiredo Correia, submitted the [[Figueiredo Report]] to the [[Brazilian military government|dictatorship]] which was then ruling the country, the report which ran to seven thousand pages was not released until 2013. The report documents genocidal crimes against the indigenous peoples of Brazil, including mass murder, torture and bacteriological and chemical warfare, reported slavery, and sexual abuse. The rediscovered documents are being examined by the [[National Truth Commission]] who have been tasked with the investigations of human rights violations which occurred in the periods 1947 through to 1988. The report reveals that the IPS had enslaved indigenous people, tortured children and stolen land. The Truth Commission is of the opinion that entire tribes in [[Maranhão]] were completely eradicated and in [[Mato Grosso]], an attack on thirty [[Cinta Larga people|Cinturão Largo]] left only two survivors. The report also states that landowners and members of the IPS had entered isolated villages and deliberately introduced [[smallpox]]. Of the one hundred and thirty-four people accused in the report the state has as yet not tried a single one,{{sfn|Watts|2013}} since the Amnesty Law passed in the end of the dictatorship does not allow trials for the abuses which happened in such period.  The report also detailed instances of mass killings, rapes, and torture, Figueiredo stated that the actions of the IPS had left the indigenous peoples near extinction. The state abolished the IPS following the release of the report. The [[Red Cross]] launched an investigation after further allegations of [[ethnic cleansing]] were made after the IPS had been replaced. {{sfn|Garfield|2001|p=143}}{{sfn|Warren|2001|p=84}}
+From the late 1950s until 1968, the state of Brazil submitted their Indigenous peoples to violent attempts to integrate, pacify and acculturate their communities. In 1967, public prosecutor Jader de Figueiredo Correia submitted the [[Figueiredo Report]] to the then-ruling [[Brazilian military government|dictatorship]]. The report, which comprised seven thousand pages, was not released until 2013. It documents genocidal crimes against the Indigenous peoples of Brazil, including mass murder, torture, bacteriological and chemical warfare, reported slavery, and sexual abuse. The rediscovered documents are being examined by the [[National Truth Commission]] which has been tasked with the investigations of human rights violations that occurred between 1947 and 1988. The report reveals that the Indian Protection Service (IPS) had enslaved Indigenous people, tortured children, and stolen land. The Truth Commission considers that entire tribes in [[Maranhão]] were eradicated and that in [[Mato Grosso]] an attack on 30 [[Cinta Larga people|Cinturão Largo]] left only two survivors. The report also states that landowners and members of the IPS had entered isolated villages and deliberately introduced [[smallpox]]. Of the 134 people accused in the report, the state has until date not tried a single one,{{sfn|Watts|2013}} since the Amnesty Law passed in the end of the dictatorship does not allow trials for abuses that happened in that period. The report also details instances of mass killings, rapes, and torture, Figueiredo stated that the actions of the IPS had left Indigenous peoples near extinction. The state abolished the IPS following the release of the report. The [[Red Cross]] launched an investigation after further allegations of [[ethnic cleansing]] were made after the IPS had been replaced.{{sfn|Garfield|2001|p=143}}{{sfn|Warren|2001|p=84}}
-===China===
+=== Canada ===
-{{main|Uyghur genocide}}
+{{main|Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women}}
+In 2019 a government inquiry reported that Canada was complicit in a race-based genocide against indigenous women, where indigenous women are twelve times more likely to be killed or to disappear than other women in Canada.<ref>{{cite news |date=3 June 2019 |title=Canada 'complicit in race-based genocide' of indigenous women |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-48503545 |work=[[BBC News]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404140352/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-48503545 |archive-date=4 April 2023}}</ref>
-The Uyghur genocide is the ongoing series of [[Human rights#Violations|human rights abuses]] perpetrated by the [[Government of China|Chinese government]] against the native [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]] people and other ethnic and religious minorities in and around the [[Xinjiang|Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]] (XUAR) of the [[China|People's Republic of China]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=3 October 2020|title=Uyghur American Association holds rally in US to raise awareness about Muslim genocide in China|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/art-and-culture/uyghur-american-association-holds-rally-in-us-to-raise-awareness-about-muslim-genocide-in-china/story-3CudRMYaUrcvHUpUO3BeBO.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Allen-Ebrahimian|first=Bethany|date=10 February 2021|title=Norway's youth parties call for end to China free trade talks|work=[[Axios (website)|Axios]]|url=https://www.axios.com/norways-youth-parties-call-for-end-to-china-free-trade-talks-cd070721-7390-4e7e-a6e9-b6494793d411.html|url-status=live|quote=...[O]pposition to China's Uyghur genocide is gaining momentum in Norway, where some politicians are fearful of jeopardizing ties with Beijing.}}</ref><ref name=":362">{{Cite news|date=2021-02-08|title=Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215|access-date=2021-02-08}}</ref> Since 2014,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Davidson|first=Helen|date=18 September 2020|title=Clues to scale of Xinjiang labour operation emerge as China defends camps|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/18/clues-to-scale-of-xinjiang-labour-operation-emerge-as-china-defends-camps|url-status=live|access-date=}}</ref> the [[Government of China|Chinese government]], under the direction of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) during the [[Xi Jinping Administration|administration]] of [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP general secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]], has pursued policies leading to more than one million [[Muslims]]<ref name="aj20182">{{Cite news|date=10 August 2018|title=One million Muslim Uighurs held in secret China camps: UN panel|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/8/10/one-million-muslim-uighurs-held-in-secret-china-camps-un-panel|url-status=live|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Welch|first1=Dylan|last2=Hui|first2=Echo|last3=Hutcheon|first3=Stephen|date=24 November 2019|title=The China Cables: Leak reveals the scale of Beijing's repressive control over Xinjiang|publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)]]|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-25/china-cables-beijings-xinjiang-secrets-revealed/11719016|url-status=live|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Mourenza|first=Andrés|date=31 January 2021|title=Los exiliados uigures en Turquía temen la larga mano china|work=[[El País]]|url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2021-01-31/los-exiliados-uigures-en-turquia-temen-la-larga-mano-china.html|url-status=live|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Child|first=David|date=27 Jan 2021|title=Holocaust Memorial Day: Jewish figures condemn Uighur persecution|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/27/holduk-jewish-leaders-use-holocaust-day-to-denounce-uighur-abuses|url-status=live|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=28 June 2020|title=Trump signs bill pressuring China over Uighur Muslim crackdown|work=[[The Daily Star (Lebanon)]]|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/World/2020/Jun-18/507667-trump-signs-bill-pressuring-china-over-uighur-muslim-crackdown.ashx|url-status=live|access-date=}}</ref> (the majority of them [[Uyghurs]]) being held in secretive [[Xinjiang internment camps|internment camps]] without any [[legal process]]<ref name="Xi Jinping2">{{Cite news|last=Stroup|first=David R.|date=19 November 2019|title=Why Xi Jinping's Xinjiang policy is a major change in China's ethnic politics|work=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/11/19/why-xi-jinpings-xinjiang-policy-is-major-change-chinas-ethnic-politics/|access-date=24 November 2019}}</ref><ref name="hrw._UN:U2">{{Cite web|date=10 July 2019|title=UN: Unprecedented Joint Call for China to End Xinjiang Abuses|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217070044/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses|archive-date=17 December 2019|access-date=18 December 2020|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref> in what has become the largest-scale detention of ethnic and religious minorities since [[the Holocaust]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=McNeill|first=Sophie|date=14 July 2019|title=The Missing: The families torn apart by China's campaign of cultural genocide|work=[[ABC News (Australia)]]|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-07-14/chinas-crackdown-on-uyghurs-tearing-families-apart/11221614|url-status=live|quote=It appears to be the largest imprisonment of people on the basis of religion since the Holocaust.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Rajagopalan|first1=Megha|last2=Killing|first2=Alison|date=3 December 2020|title=Inside A Xinjiang Detention Camp|work=[[BuzzFeed News]]|url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/meghara/inside-xinjiang-detention-camp|url-status=live|access-date=}}</ref> Critics of the policy have described it as the [[Sinicization]] of [[Xinjiang]] and have called it an [[ethnocide]] or [[cultural genocide]],{{refn|<ref name="indy">{{Cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-muslim-children-uighur-family-separation-thought-education-a8989296.html  |title='Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education' |work=[[The Independent]] |date=5 July 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422051855/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-muslim-children-uighur-family-separation-thought-education-a8989296.html |archive-date=22 April 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cultural-genocide-for-repressed-minority-of-uighurs-bp0w6dw89 |title='Cultural genocide' for repressed minority of Uighurs |work=[[The Times]] |date=17 December 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425012712/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cultural-genocide-for-repressed-minority-of-uighurs-bp0w6dw89 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/chinese-oppression-of-the-uighurs-like-cultural-genocide-a-1298171.html |title=China's Oppression of the Uighurs 'The Equivalent of Cultural Genocide' |work=[[Der Spiegel]] |date=28 November 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121105242/https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/chinese-oppression-of-the-uighurs-like-cultural-genocide-a-1298171.html |archive-date=21 January 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.ft.com/content/48508182-d426-11e9-8367-807ebd53ab77 |title=Fear and oppression in Xinjiang: China's war on Uighur culture |work=[[Financial Times]] |date=12 September 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414154451/https://www.ft.com/content/48508182-d426-11e9-8367-807ebd53ab77 |archive-date=14 April 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Uyghur Minority in China: A Case Study of Cultural Genocide, Minority Rights and the Insufficiency of the International Legal Framework in Preventing State-Imposed Extinction |year=2020 |doi=10.3390/laws9010001 |last1=Finnegan |first1=Ciara |journal=Laws |volume=9 |page=1 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=508909415820545;res=IELIAC |title=China's crime against Uyghurs is a form of genocide |date=Summer 2019 |access-date=2020-04-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201093948/https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=508909415820545;res=IELIAC |archive-date=2020-02-01 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} while some governments, activists, independent [[NGO|NGOs]], [[human rights]] experts, academics, government officials, independent researchers, and the [[East Turkistan Government-in-Exile]] have called it a [[genocide]].{{refn|<ref name="fore_Mene">{{Cite web |title=Menendez, Cornyn Introduce Bipartisan Resolution to Designate Uyghur Human Rights Abuses by China as Genocide |publisher=[[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]] |date=October 27, 2020 |access-date=December 18, 2020 |url= https://www.foreign.senate.gov/press/ranking/release/menendez-cornyn-introduce-bipartisan-resolution-to-designate-uyghur-human-rights-abuses-by-china-as-genocide}}</ref><ref name="blac_Blac">{{Cite web |title=Blackburn Responds to Offensive Comments by Chinese State Media |publisher=U.S. Senator [[Marsha Blackburn]] of Tennessee |date=December 3, 2020 |access-date=December 18, 2020 |url= https://www.blackburn.senate.gov/2020/12/blackburn-responds-to-offensive-comments-by-chinese-state-media/accb2b20-54e8-4926-a643-5f2a1cde31fa}}</ref><ref name="icij_Brit">{{Cite web |title=British lawmakers call for sanctions over Uighur human rights abuses |last=Alecci |first=Scilla |publisher=[[International Consortium of Investigative Journalists]] |date=October 14, 2020 |access-date=December 18, 2020 |url= https://www.icij.org/investigations/china-cables/british-lawmakers-call-for-sanctions-over-uighur-human-rights-abuses/}}</ref><ref name="ourc_Comm">{{Cite web |title=Committee News Release - October 21, 2020 - SDIR (43-2) |publisher=[[House of Commons of Canada]] |date=October 21, 2020 |access-date=December 18, 2020 |url= https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/43-2/SDIR/news-release/10903199  }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-02-08|title=Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215|access-date=2021-02-08}} </ref>}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shesgreen|first=Dierdre|date=2 April 2021|title=The US says China is committing genocide against the Uyghurs. Here's some of the most chilling evidence.|work=[[USA Today]]|url=https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/politics/2021/04/02/is-china-committing-genocide-what-you-need-know-uyghurs/7015211002/|url-status=live}}</ref> In particular, critics have highlighted the concentration of Uyghurs in state-sponsored internment camps,{{refn|<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://apnews.com/61cdf7f5dfc34575aa643523b3c6b3fe|title=Woman describes torture, beatings in Chinese detention camp|last=Danilova|first=Maria|date=2018-11-27|work=[[Associated Press]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213063324/https://apnews.com/61cdf7f5dfc34575aa643523b3c6b3fe|archive-date=2019-12-13|access-date=2019-12-02}}</ref><ref name=":26">{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-concentrationcamps-idUSKCN1S925K|title=China putting minority Muslims in 'concentration camps,' U.S. says|last=Stewart|first=Phil|date=2019-05-04|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=2019-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208091303/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-concentrationcamps-idUSKCN1S925K|archive-date=2019-12-08|url-status=live}}</ref>}} suppression of Uyghur [[Islam in China|religious practices]],{{refn|<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Congressional Research Service|date=18 June 2019|title=Uyghurs in China|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10281.pdf|journal=Congressional Research Service|access-date=2 December 2019|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218075723/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10281.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canadian-went-to-china-to-debunk-reports-of-anti-muslim-repression-but-was-shocked-by-treatment-of-uyghurs|title=Canadian went to China to debunk reports of anti-Muslim repression, but was 'shocked' by treatment of Uyghurs|last=Blackwell|first=Tom|date=25 September 2019|work=[[National Post]]|access-date=2019-12-02|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218075726/https://nationalpost.com/news/canadian-went-to-china-to-debunk-reports-of-anti-muslim-repression-but-was-shocked-by-treatment-of-uyghurs|url-status=live}}</ref>}} political [[indoctrination]],<ref name="reut_Musl">{{Cite news|date=September 9, 2018|title=Muslim minority in China's Xinjiang face 'political indoctrination': Human Rights Watch|work=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-rights/muslim-minority-in-chinas-xinjiang-face-political-indoctrination-human-rights-watch-idUSKCN1LQ01F|url-status=live|access-date=December 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109032307/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-rights/muslim-minority-in-chinas-xinjiang-face-political-indoctrination-human-rights-watch-idUSKCN1LQ01F|archive-date=9 November 2020}}</ref> severe ill-treatment,<ref name="bhrc">{{cite web|title=Responsibility of States under International Law to Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang, China|url=https://www.barhumanrights.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/2020-Responsibility-of-States-to-Uyghurs_Final.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921202046/https://www.barhumanrights.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/2020-Responsibility-of-States-to-Uyghurs_Final.pdf|archive-date=21 September 2020|access-date=18 December 2020|publisher=Bar Human Rights Committee}}</ref> and extensive evidence<ref>{{Cite news|last=Falconer|first=Rebecca|date=9 March 2021|title=Report: "Clear evidence" China is committing genocide against Uyghurs|work=[[Axios (website)|Axios]]|url=https://www.axios.com/report-clear-evidence-china-genocide-uyghur-muslims-3c50f075-89c8-47c2-9506-9433e7d5a51a.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Vanderklippe|first=Nathan|date=9 March 2011|title=Lawsuit against Xinjiang researcher marks new effort to silence critics of China's treatment of Uyghurs|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-lawsuit-against-xinjiang-researcher-marks-new-effort-to-silence/|url-status=live}}</ref> of human rights abuses including [[Compulsory sterilization|forced sterilization]], [[Birth control|contraception]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Samuel|first=Sigal|date=10 March 2021|title=China's genocide against the Uyghurs, in 4 disturbing charts|work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]]|url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/22311356/china-uyghur-birthrate-sterilization-genocide|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="urlChina Forces Birth Control on Uighurs to Suppress Population | Voice of America - English">{{cite web|title=China Forces Birth Control on Uighurs to Suppress Population &#124; Voice of America - English|url=https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/china-forces-birth-control-uighurs-suppress-population|accessdate=|format=}}</ref> and [[Forced abortion|abortion]].{{refn|<ref name="urlwww.dw.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/china-uighur-women-reportedly-sterilized-in-attempt-to-suppress-population/a-54018051 |title= China: Uighur women reportedly sterilized in attempt to suppress population |format= |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |date=1 July 2020 |access-date=14 March 2021}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://www.heritage.org/asia/commentary/chinas-forced-sterilization-uighur-women-cultural-genocide|title=China's Forced Sterilization of Uighur Women Is Cultural Genocide|last1=Enos|first1=Olivia|last2=Kim|first2=Yujin|date=29 August 2019|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202230646/https://www.heritage.org/asia/commentary/chinas-forced-sterilization-uighur-women-cultural-genocide|archive-date=2 December 2019|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="bbc">{{Cite news|date=2020-06-29|title=China 'using birth control' to suppress Uighurs|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53220713|access-date=2020-07-07|archive-date=2020-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629222610/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53220713|url-status=live}}</ref>}} Chinese authorities confirmed that birth rates dropped by almost a third in 2018 in Xinjiang, but denied reports of forced sterilization and genocide.<ref name="cnn-fax">{{cite news |last1=CNN |first1=Ivan Watson, Rebecca Wright and Ben Westcott |title=Xinjiang government confirms huge birth rate drop but denies forced sterilization of women |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/21/asia/xinjiang-china-response-sterilization-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=26 September 2020 |work=CNN |date=21 September 2020}}</ref>
+Research done in 2017 has shown that Indigenous peoples in Canada suffer from a disproportionate burden of mental illness. Colonialism plays a large role in the mental health of Indigenous people, leading to an increase in suicide and substance abuse. Colonialism as a structure can construct mental illness due to its set of norms. Health outcomes such as infant mortality, high rates of acute or chronic pain and high rates of injury with social inequalities have been linked to poverty and racism colonialism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Macklem |first=Patrick |title=Indigenous difference and the Constitution of Canada |date=2001 |publisher=University of Toronto Press}}{{page needed|date=May 2024}}</ref>
-===Colombia===
-In the protracted conflict in Colombia, indigenous groups such as the Awá, Wayuu, Pijao and Paez people have become subjected to intense violence by right-wing paramilitaries, leftist guerrillas, and the Colombian army.{{sfn|Jackson|2009}}{{sfn|Jackson|2002}} Drug cartels, international resource extraction companies and the military have also used violence to force the indigenous groups out of their territories.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iwgia.org/regions/latin-america/colombia/860-update-2011-colombia |title=Update 2011 – Colombia |publisher=Iwgia.org |access-date=27 August 2013}}</ref><ref>Pedro García Hierro. 2008. Colombia: The Case of the Naya. IWGIA Report 2 [http://www.iwgia.org/iwgia_files_publications_files/0025_Colombia_Report.pdf]</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/50801aea6.html |title=UNHCR report on Indigenous peoples in Colombia |publisher=Unhcr.org |date=18 October 2012 |access-date=27 August 2013}}</ref> The [[National Indigenous Organization of Colombia]] argues that the violence is genocidal in nature, but others question whether there is a "genocidal intent" as required in international law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrbrief.org/2013/03/situation-of-human-rights-of-indigenous-peoples-in-colombia-2/ |title=Situation of Human Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Colombia |publisher=Hrbrief.org |date=16 March 2013 |access-date=27 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=User Name: Brandon Barrett |url=http://colombiareports.co/indigenous-leader-accuses-colombia-of-genocide-over/ |title=Indigenous leader accuses Colombian govt of genocide Colombia News &#124; Colombia Reports – Colombia News &#124; Colombia Reports |publisher=Colombiareports.co |date=27 April 2012 |access-date=27 August 2013}}</ref>
-===Congo (DRC)===
+=== China ===
+==== Tibet ====
+{{Main|Human rights in Tibet}}
+{{See also|Chinese imperialism|History of Tibet (1950–present)|Sinicization of Tibet|Tibetan independence movement|Tibetan sovereignty debate}}
+On 5 June 1959, Shri Purshottam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate of the Indian [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]] presented a report on Tibet to the [[International Commission of Jurists]] (an [[non-governmental organisation|NGO]]):
+{{blockquote|From the facts stated above the following conclusions may be drawn: ... (e) To examine all such evidence obtained by this Committee and from other sources and to take appropriate action thereon and in particular to determine whether the crime of Genocide – for which already there is strong presumption – is established and, in that case, to initiate such action as envisaged by the Genocide Convention of 1948 and by the Charter of the United Nations for suppression of these acts and appropriate redress;<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.icj.org/news.php3?id_article=3415&lang=en&print=true |title=Tibet – Summary of a Report on Tibet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402061305/http://www.icj.org/news.php3?id_article=3415&lang=en&print=true |archive-date=2012-04-02 |publisher=[[International Commission of Jurists]] |first1=Shri Purshottam |last1=Trikamdas}}</ref>}}
+According to the Tibet Society of the UK, "In all, over one million [[Tibetans]], a fifth of the population, had died as a result of the [[Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China|Chinese occupation]] right up until the end of the [[Cultural Revolution]]."<ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=White |title=Himalayan Tragedy: The Story of Tibet's Panchen Lamas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNIKAAAAYAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=[[Tibet Society of the UK]] |isbn=978-0-9542179-0-7 |page=98 |access-date=22 September 2016 |archive-date=17 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517110136/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNIKAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>
+==== Xinjiang ====
+{{main|Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party|East Turkestan independence movement|Freedom of religion in China|History of Xinjiang|Human rights in China#Uyghurs|Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China|Islam in China#People's Republic of China|Islamophobia in China|Racism in China|Secession in China|persecution of Uyghurs in China|Xinjiang conflict|Xinjiang internment camps}}
+The [[Government of China|Chinese government]] is accused of having committed a series of [[Human rights|human rights abuses]] against the native [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]] people and other ethnic and religious minorities, both inside and around the [[Xinjiang|Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]] (XUAR) of the [[China|People's Republic of China]], that have frequently been characterized as a genocide.<ref>{{Cite news|date=3 October 2020 |title=Uyghur American Association holds rally in US to raise awareness about Muslim genocide in China |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/art-and-culture/uyghur-american-association-holds-rally-in-us-to-raise-awareness-about-muslim-genocide-in-china/story-3CudRMYaUrcvHUpUO3BeBO.html |access-date=5 April 2021 |archive-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328221906/https://www.hindustantimes.com/art-and-culture/uyghur-american-association-holds-rally-in-us-to-raise-awareness-about-muslim-genocide-in-china/story-3CudRMYaUrcvHUpUO3BeBO.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Allen-Ebrahimian |first=Bethany |date=10 February 2021 |title=Norway's youth parties call for end to China free trade talks |work=[[Axios (website)|Axios]] |url=https://www.axios.com/norways-youth-parties-call-for-end-to-china-free-trade-talks-cd070721-7390-4e7e-a6e9-b6494793d411.html |quote=...[O]pposition to China's Uyghur genocide is gaining momentum in Norway, where some politicians are fearful of jeopardizing ties with Beijing. |access-date=5 April 2021 |archive-date=10 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210183539/https://www.axios.com/norways-youth-parties-call-for-end-to-china-free-trade-talks-cd070721-7390-4e7e-a6e9-b6494793d411.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":362">{{Cite news|date=2021-02-08 |title=Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |access-date=2021-02-08 |archive-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331054728/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2014,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Davidson |first=Helen |date=18 September 2020 |title=Clues to scale of Xinjiang labour operation emerge as China defends camps |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/18/clues-to-scale-of-xinjiang-labour-operation-emerge-as-china-defends-camps |archive-date=6 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306024300/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/18/clues-to-scale-of-xinjiang-labour-operation-emerge-as-china-defends-camps |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Government of China|Chinese government]], under the direction of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) during the [[Xi Jinping Administration|administration]] of [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP general secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]], has pursued policies which have led to the imprisonment of more than one million [[Islam in China|Muslims]]<ref name="aj20182">{{Cite news|date=10 August 2018 |title=One million Muslim Uighurs held in secret China camps: UN panel |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/8/10/one-million-muslim-uighurs-held-in-secret-china-camps-un-panel |archive-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331150034/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/8/10/one-million-muslim-uighurs-held-in-secret-china-camps-un-panel |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Welch |first1=Dylan |last2=Hui |first2=Echo |last3=Hutcheon |first3=Stephen |date=24 November 2019 |title=The China Cables: Leak reveals the scale of Beijing's repressive control over Xinjiang |publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)]] |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-25/china-cables-beijings-xinjiang-secrets-revealed/11719016 |archive-date=27 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127230330/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-25/china-cables-beijings-xinjiang-secrets-revealed/11719016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Mourenza |first=Andrés |date=31 January 2021 |title=Los exiliados uigures en Turquía temen la larga mano china |language=es |trans-title=Uyghur exiles in Turkey fear the long Chinese hand |work=[[El País]] |url=https://elpais.com/internacional/2021-01-31/los-exiliados-uigures-en-turquia-temen-la-larga-mano-china.html |archive-date=23 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323205050/https://elpais.com/internacional/2021-01-31/los-exiliados-uigures-en-turquia-temen-la-larga-mano-china.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Child |first=David |date=27 Jan 2021 |title=Holocaust Memorial Day: Jewish figures condemn Uighur persecution |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/27/holduk-jewish-leaders-use-holocaust-day-to-denounce-uighur-abuses |archive-date=31 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210331102854/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/27/holduk-jewish-leaders-use-holocaust-day-to-denounce-uighur-abuses |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=28 June 2020 |title=Trump signs bill pressuring China over Uighur Muslim crackdown |work=[[The Daily Star (Lebanon)]] |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/World/2020/Jun-18/507667-trump-signs-bill-pressuring-china-over-uighur-muslim-crackdown.ashx |archive-date=12 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212004618/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/World/2020/Jun-18/507667-trump-signs-bill-pressuring-china-over-uighur-muslim-crackdown.ashx |url-status=live}}</ref> (most of them [[Uyghurs]]) in secretive [[Xinjiang internment camps|internment camps]] without any [[legal process]]<ref name="Xi Jinping2">{{Cite news|last=Stroup |first=David R. |date=19 November 2019 |title=Why Xi Jinping's Xinjiang policy is a major change in China's ethnic politics |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/11/19/why-xi-jinpings-xinjiang-policy-is-major-change-chinas-ethnic-politics/ |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-date=20 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120135950/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/11/19/why-xi-jinpings-xinjiang-policy-is-major-change-chinas-ethnic-politics/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="hrw._UN:U2">{{cite web|date=10 July 2019 |title=UN: Unprecedented Joint Call for China to End Xinjiang Abuses |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217070044/https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/07/10/un-unprecedented-joint-call-china-end-xinjiang-abuses |archive-date=17 December 2019 |access-date=18 December 2020 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref> in what has become the largest-scale detention of ethnic and religious minorities since [[World War II]] and [[The Holocaust]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=McNeill |first=Sophie |date=14 July 2019 |title=The Missing: The families torn apart by China's campaign of cultural genocide |work=[[ABC News (Australia)]] |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-07-14/chinas-crackdown-on-uyghurs-tearing-families-apart/11221614 |quote=It appears to be the largest imprisonment of people on the basis of religion since the Holocaust. |access-date=5 April 2021 |archive-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427084719/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-07-14/chinas-crackdown-on-uyghurs-tearing-families-apart/11221614 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Rajagopalan |first1=Megha |last2=Killing |first2=Alison |date=3 December 2020 |title=Inside A Xinjiang Detention Camp |work=[[BuzzFeed News]] |url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/meghara/inside-xinjiang-detention-camp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305010052/https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/meghara/inside-xinjiang-detention-camp |archive-date=5 March 2021 |quote=This massive detention center, the size of 13 football fields, is a cog in the largest-scale detention of ethnic and religious minorities in the world since World War II, in which 1 million or more Muslims, including Uighurs, Kazakhs, and others, have been rounded up and detained in China's western region of Xinjiang}}</ref> Critics of the policy have described it as [[forced assimilation]] and they have also called it an [[ethnocide]] or a [[cultural genocide]],{{refn|<ref name="indy">{{Cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-muslim-children-uighur-family-separation-thought-education-a8989296.html |title='Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education' |work=[[The Independent]] |date=5 July 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422051855/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-muslim-children-uighur-family-separation-thought-education-a8989296.html |archive-date=22 April 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cultural-genocide-for-repressed-minority-of-uighurs-bp0w6dw89 |title='Cultural genocide' for repressed minority of Uighurs |work=[[The Times]] |date=17 December 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425012712/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/cultural-genocide-for-repressed-minority-of-uighurs-bp0w6dw89 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/chinese-oppression-of-the-uighurs-like-cultural-genocide-a-1298171.html |title=China's Oppression of the Uighurs 'The Equivalent of Cultural Genocide' |work=[[Der Spiegel]] |date=28 November 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200121105242/https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/chinese-oppression-of-the-uighurs-like-cultural-genocide-a-1298171.html |archive-date=21 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.ft.com/content/48508182-d426-11e9-8367-807ebd53ab77 |title=Fear and oppression in Xinjiang: China's war on Uighur culture |work=[[Financial Times]] |date=12 September 2019 |access-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414154451/https://www.ft.com/content/48508182-d426-11e9-8367-807ebd53ab77 |archive-date=14 April 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Uyghur Minority in China: A Case Study of Cultural Genocide, Minority Rights and the Insufficiency of the International Legal Framework in Preventing State-Imposed Extinction |year=2020 |doi=10.3390/laws9010001 |last1=Finnegan |first1=Ciara |journal=Laws |volume=9 |page=1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=508909415820545;res=IELIAC |title=China's crime against Uyghurs is a form of genocide |journal=Fourth World Journal |date=Summer 2019 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=76–88 |access-date=2020-04-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201093948/https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=508909415820545;res=IELIAC |archive-date=2020-02-01 |url-status=live |last1=Fallon |first1=Joseph E.}}</ref>}} and some governments, activists, independent [[NGO]]s, [[human rights]] experts, academics, government officials, independent researchers, and the [[East Turkistan Government-in-Exile]] have called it a [[genocide]].{{refn|<ref name="fore_Mene">{{cite web |title=Menendez, Cornyn Introduce Bipartisan Resolution to Designate Uyghur Human Rights Abuses by China as Genocide |publisher=[[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]] |date=October 27, 2020 |access-date=December 18, 2020 |url=https://www.foreign.senate.gov/press/ranking/release/menendez-cornyn-introduce-bipartisan-resolution-to-designate-uyghur-human-rights-abuses-by-china-as-genocide |archive-date=26 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201226160250/https://www.foreign.senate.gov/press/ranking/release/menendez-cornyn-introduce-bipartisan-resolution-to-designate-uyghur-human-rights-abuses-by-china-as-genocide |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="blac_Blac">{{cite web |title=Blackburn Responds to Offensive Comments by Chinese State Media |publisher=U.S. Senator [[Marsha Blackburn]] of Tennessee |date=December 3, 2020 |access-date=December 18, 2020 |url=https://www.blackburn.senate.gov/2020/12/blackburn-responds-to-offensive-comments-by-chinese-state-media/accb2b20-54e8-4926-a643-5f2a1cde31fa |archive-date=13 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113125852/https://www.blackburn.senate.gov/2020/12/blackburn-responds-to-offensive-comments-by-chinese-state-media/accb2b20-54e8-4926-a643-5f2a1cde31fa |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="icij_Brit">{{cite web |title=British lawmakers call for sanctions over Uighur human rights abuses |last=Alecci |first=Scilla |publisher=[[International Consortium of Investigative Journalists]] |date=October 14, 2020 |access-date=December 18, 2020 |url=https://www.icij.org/investigations/china-cables/british-lawmakers-call-for-sanctions-over-uighur-human-rights-abuses/ |archive-date=5 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205093005/https://www.icij.org/investigations/china-cables/british-lawmakers-call-for-sanctions-over-uighur-human-rights-abuses/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ourc_Comm">{{cite web |title=Committee News Release - October 21, 2020 - SDIR (43-2) |publisher=[[House of Commons of Canada]] |date=October 21, 2020 |access-date=December 18, 2020 |url=https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/43-2/SDIR/news-release/10903199 |archive-date=24 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024021902/https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/43-2/SDIR/news-release/10903199 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":362"/>}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Shesgreen |first=Dierdre |date=2 April 2021 |title=The US says China is committing genocide against the Uyghurs. Here's some of the most chilling evidence |work=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/politics/2021/04/02/is-china-committing-genocide-what-you-need-know-uyghurs/7015211002/ |access-date=5 April 2021 |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514130505/https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/politics/2021/04/02/is-china-committing-genocide-what-you-need-know-uyghurs/7015211002/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In particular, critics have highlighted the concentration of Uyghurs in state-sponsored internment camps,{{refn|<ref name="denilova">{{cite news |url=https://apnews.com/61cdf7f5dfc34575aa643523b3c6b3fe |title=Woman describes torture, beatings in Chinese detention camp |last=Danilova |first=Maria |date=2018-11-27 |work=[[Associated Press]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213063324/https://apnews.com/61cdf7f5dfc34575aa643523b3c6b3fe |archive-date=2019-12-13 |access-date=2019-12-02}}</ref><ref name=":26">{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-concentrationcamps-idUSKCN1S925K |title=China putting minority Muslims in 'concentration camps,' U.S. says |last=Stewart |first=Phil |date=2019-05-04 |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=2019-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208091303/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-concentrationcamps-idUSKCN1S925K |archive-date=2019-12-08 |url-status=live}}</ref>}} the suppression of Uyghur [[Islam in China|religious practices]],{{refn|<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Congressional Research Service |date=18 June 2019 |title=Uyghurs in China |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10281.pdf |journal=Congressional Research Service |access-date=2 December 2019 |archive-date=18 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218075723/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF10281.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canadian-went-to-china-to-debunk-reports-of-anti-muslim-repression-but-was-shocked-by-treatment-of-uyghurs |title=Canadian went to China to debunk reports of anti-Muslim repression, but was 'shocked' by treatment of Uyghurs |last=Blackwell |first=Tom |date=25 September 2019 |work=[[National Post]] |access-date=2019-12-02 |archive-date=26 September 2019 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190926093402/https://nationalpost.com/news/canadian-went-to-china-to-debunk-reports-of-anti-muslim-repression-but-was-shocked-by-treatment-of-uyghurs |url-status=live}}</ref>}} political [[indoctrination]],<ref name="reut_Musl">{{Cite news|date=September 9, 2018 |title=Muslim minority in China's Xinjiang face 'political indoctrination': Human Rights Watch |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-rights/muslim-minority-in-chinas-xinjiang-face-political-indoctrination-human-rights-watch-idUSKCN1LQ01F |url-status=live |access-date=December 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109032307/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang-rights/muslim-minority-in-chinas-xinjiang-face-political-indoctrination-human-rights-watch-idUSKCN1LQ01F |archive-date=9 November 2020}}</ref> severe ill-treatment,<ref name="bhrc">{{cite web|title=Responsibility of States under International Law to Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang, China |url=https://www.barhumanrights.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/2020-Responsibility-of-States-to-Uyghurs_Final.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921202046/https://www.barhumanrights.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/2020-Responsibility-of-States-to-Uyghurs_Final.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2020 |access-date=18 December 2020 |publisher=Bar Human Rights Committee}}</ref> and extensive evidence<ref>{{Cite news|last=Falconer |first=Rebecca |date=9 March 2021 |title=Report: "Clear evidence" China is committing genocide against Uyghurs |work=[[Axios (website)|Axios]] |url=https://www.axios.com/report-clear-evidence-china-genocide-uyghur-muslims-3c50f075-89c8-47c2-9506-9433e7d5a51a.html|access-date=5 April 2021 |archive-date=28 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428085910/https://www.axios.com/report-clear-evidence-china-genocide-uyghur-muslims-3c50f075-89c8-47c2-9506-9433e7d5a51a.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Vanderklippe |first=Nathan |date=9 March 2011|title=Lawsuit against Xinjiang researcher marks new effort to silence critics of China's treatment of Uyghurs |work=[[The Globe and Mail]] |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-lawsuit-against-xinjiang-researcher-marks-new-effort-to-silence/ |access-date=5 April 2021 |archive-date=11 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311160851/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-lawsuit-against-xinjiang-researcher-marks-new-effort-to-silence/ |url-status=live}}</ref> of human rights abuses including [[Compulsory sterilization|forced sterilization]], [[Birth control|contraception]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Samuel |first=Sigal |date=10 March 2021 |title=China's genocide against the Uyghurs, in 4 disturbing charts |work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/22311356/china-uyghur-birthrate-sterilization-genocide |access-date=5 April 2021 |archive-date=15 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515200517/https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/22311356/china-uyghur-birthrate-sterilization-genocide |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China Forces Birth Control on Uighurs to Suppress Population |website=[[Voice of America]] |date=29 June 2020 |url=https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/china-forces-birth-control-uighurs-suppress-population |archive-date=23 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523115445/https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/china-forces-birth-control-uighurs-suppress-population |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Forced abortion|abortion]].{{refn|<ref name="urlwww.dw.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/china-uighur-women-reportedly-sterilized-in-attempt-to-suppress-population/a-54018051 |title=China: Uighur women reportedly sterilized in attempt to suppress population |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |date=1 July 2020 |access-date=14 March 2021 |archive-date=16 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316160845/https://www.dw.com/en/china-uighur-women-reportedly-sterilized-in-attempt-to-suppress-population/a-54018051 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/asia/commentary/chinas-forced-sterilization-uighur-women-cultural-genocide |title=China's Forced Sterilization of Uighur Women Is Cultural Genocide |last1=Enos |first1=Olivia |last2=Kim |first2=Yujin |date=29 August 2019 |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202230646/https://www.heritage.org/asia/commentary/chinas-forced-sterilization-uighur-women-cultural-genocide |archive-date=2 December 2019 |access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="bbc">{{Cite news|date=2020-06-29 |title=China 'using birth control' to suppress Uighurs |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53220713 |access-date=2020-07-07 |archive-date=2020-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629222610/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-53220713 |url-status=live}}</ref>}} Chinese authorities confirmed reports which state that birth rates in Xinjiang dropped by almost a third in 2018, but they denied reports of forced sterilization and genocide.<ref name="cnn-fax">{{cite news |author=Ivan Watson, Rebecca Wright and Ben Westcott |title=Xinjiang government confirms huge birth rate drop but denies forced sterilization of women |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/21/asia/xinjiang-china-response-sterilization-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=26 September 2020 |work=CNN |date=21 September 2020 |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927111925/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/09/21/asia/xinjiang-china-response-sterilization-intl-hnk/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
+==== Inner Mongolia ====
+{{See also|Inner Mongolia incident|Inner Mongolian People's Party}}
+In 1966 [[Mao Zedong]] accused the [[Inner Mongolian People's Party]] (IMPP) led by the Mongol [[Ulanhu]] as a “political movement aiming to divide the motherland, China”.<ref name=mongol-genocide/><ref name=mongolsteppe/> That accusation was used to eliminate the Mongol elite and to begin the genocide of the Mongols.<ref name=mongol-genocide/><ref name=mongolsteppe/> The number of Mongol casualties during the [[Cultural Revolution]] is estimated between 16,222 (Chinese government) and 50,000 (independent study).<ref name=mongol-genocide>{{cite web |title=Mongolian Genocide by Communist China during the Cultural Revolution in Inner Mongolia |url=https://www.smhric.org/news_217.htm |website=Southern Mongolia Human Rights Information Center (SMHRIC) |date=July 21, 2008 |author=Yang Haiying |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213223143/https://www.smhric.org/news_217.htm |archive-date=February 13, 2023}}</ref><ref name=mongolsteppe/><ref name="Haiying-pdf"/> The Office of the Inner Mongolia Communist Party Committee published statistics in 1989 which stated the total number of incarcerated Mongols were 480,000.<ref name="Haiying-pdf"/> Independent surveys overseas estimate around half a million arrested and 100,000 deaths.<ref name="Haiying-pdf"/> When including delayed deaths (returning home after imprisonment) is an estimated 300,000 casualties.<ref name="Haiying-pdf">{{cite web |title=The Truth about the Mongolian Genocide during the Chinese Cultural Revolution |author=Yang Haiying |url=https://shizuoka.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_action_common_download&attribute_id=31&file_no=1&item_id=8206&item_no=1 |website=Shizuoka University Repository |date=March 1, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528144259/https://shizuoka.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_action_common_download&attribute_id=31&file_no=1&item_id=8206&item_no=1 |archive-date=May 28, 2023}}</ref> The cultural revolution became ingrained among the peasantry who caused torturing, humiliation and genocide of the Mongols.<ref name=mongolsteppe/> Chinese propaganda teams of the CCP came from outside to Inner Mongolia and perpetrated major atrocities in the 1970s.<ref name="Haiying-pdf"/> The CCP also imposed abortions on the Mongolians.<ref name=mongolsteppe>{{cite book |title= Genocide on the Mongolian Steppe: First-hand Accounts of Genocide in Southern Mongolia during the Chinese Cultural Revolution, Vol. I |author=Yang Haiying |publisher= Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo, 2009. IN: Xlibris, 2017 |isbn= 9781543429848 |url=https://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ_56_1_2020/Genocide_Mongolian_Steppe_Chinese_Cultural_Revolution_Review.pdf |date=2017 |archive-date=January 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124125315/https://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ_56_1_2020/Genocide_Mongolian_Steppe_Chinese_Cultural_Revolution_Review.pdf}}</ref>
+=== Colombia ===
+In the protracted conflict in Colombia,I groups such as the Awá, Wayuu, Pijao, and Paez people have become subjected to intense violence by right-wing paramilitaries, leftist guerrillas, and the Colombian army.{{sfn|Jackson|2009}}{{sfn|Jackson|2002}} Drug cartels, international resource extraction companies and the military have also used violence to force the Indigenous groups out of their territories.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iwgia.org/regions/latin-america/colombia/860-update-2011-colombia |title=Update 2011 – Colombia |publisher=Iwgia.org |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-date=2 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002044100/http://www.iwgia.org/regions/latin-america/colombia/860-update-2011-colombia |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Pedro García Hierro. 2008. Colombia: The Case of the Naya. IWGIA Report 2 [http://www.iwgia.org/iwgia_files_publications_files/0025_Colombia_Report.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012061838/http://www.iwgia.org/iwgia_files_publications_files/0025_Colombia_Report.pdf|date=12 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/50801aea6.html |title=UNHCR report on Indigenous peoples in Colombia |publisher=Unhcr.org |date=18 October 2012 |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012044956/http://www.unhcr.org/50801aea6.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[National Indigenous Organization of Colombia]] argues that the violence is genocidal in nature, but others question whether there is a "genocidal intent" as required in international law.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hrbrief.org/2013/03/situation-of-human-rights-of-indigenous-peoples-in-colombia-2/ |title=Situation of Human Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Colombia |publisher=Hrbrief.org |date=16 March 2013 |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-date=2 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502123143/http://hrbrief.org/2013/03/situation-of-human-rights-of-indigenous-peoples-in-colombia-2/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Brandon Barrett |url=http://colombiareports.co/indigenous-leader-accuses-colombia-of-genocide-over/ |title=Indigenous leader accuses Colombian govt of genocide Colombia News {{pipe}} Colombia Reports – Colombia News {{pipe}} Colombia Reports |publisher=Colombiareports.co |date=27 April 2012 |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012023458/http://colombiareports.co/indigenous-leader-accuses-colombia-of-genocide-over/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
+=== Congo (DRC) ===
 {{Main|Effacer le Tableau}}
-In the Democratic Republic of Congo genocidal violence against the indigenous Mbuti, Lese and Ituri peoples has reportedly been endemic for decades. During the [[Second Congo War|Congo Civil War]] (1998–2003), [[Pygmies]] were hunted down and eaten by both sides in the conflict, who regarded them as subhuman.{{sfn|Altshuler|2011|p=636}} Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of [[Mbuti]] pygmies, has asked the [[UN Security Council]] to recognize cannibalism as a crime against humanity and also as an act of genocide.{{sfn|BBC News|2003}} According to a report by Minority Rights Group International there is evidence of mass killings, cannibalism and rape. The report, which labeled these events as a campaign of extermination, linked much of the violence to beliefs about special powers held by the Bambuti.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3869489.stm |title=DR Congo Pygmies 'exterminated' |work=BBC News |date=6 July 2004 |access-date=27 August 2013}}</ref>  In [[Ituri district]], rebel forces ran an operation code-named "[[Effacer le Tableau]]" (to wipe the slate clean). The aim of the operation, according to witnesses, was to rid the forest of pygmies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=9&ReportId=58647 |title=Pygmies today in Africa |publisher=Irinnews.org |access-date=27 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081117203329/http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=9&ReportId=58647 |archive-date=17 November 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/rebels-eating-pygmies-as-mass-slaughter-continues-in-congo-despite-peace-agreement-601088.html|title=rebels Independent.co.uk}}</ref>{{sfn|Hitchcock|Koperski|2008|p=589}}
+In the Democratic Republic of Congo, genocidal violence against the Indigenous Mbuti, Lese, and Ituri peoples has reportedly been endemic for decades. During the [[Second Congo War|Congo Civil War]] (1998–2003), [[Pygmies]] were hunted down and eaten by both sides in the conflict, who regarded them as subhuman.{{sfn|Altshuler|2011|p=636}} Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of [[Mbuti]] pygmies, asked the [[UN Security Council]] to recognize cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.{{sfn|BBC News|2003}} According to a report by Minority Rights Group International, there is evidence of mass killings, cannibalism, and rape. The report, which labeled these events as a campaign of extermination, linked much of the violence to beliefs about special powers held by the Bambuti.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3869489.stm |title=DR Congo Pygmies 'exterminated' |work=BBC News |date=6 July 2004 |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-date=1 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101163258/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3869489.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> In the [[Ituri district]], rebel forces ran an operation code-named "[[Effacer le Tableau]]" (to wipe the slate clean). The aim of the operation, according to witnesses, was to rid the forest of pygmies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=9&ReportId=58647 |title=Pygmies today in Africa |publisher=Irinnews.org |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081117203329/http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=9&ReportId=58647 |archive-date=17 November 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/rebels-eating-pygmies-as-mass-slaughter-continues-in-congo-despite-peace-agreement-601088.html |title=Rebels 'eating Pygmies' as mass slaughter continues in Congo despite peace agreement |first=Basildon |last=Peta |work=[[The Independent]] |access-date=1 November 2017 |archive-date=26 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101226172041/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/rebels-eating-pygmies-as-mass-slaughter-continues-in-congo-despite-peace-agreement-601088.html}}</ref>{{sfn|Hitchcock|Koperski|2008|p=589}}
+=== Darfur ===
-==={{Anchor|East Timor genocide}}East Timor===
+{{Main|Darfur genocide}}
+The Darfur genocide is the systematic killing of ethnic Darfuri people by the [[Republic of Sudan (1985–2019)|Al-Bashir regime]] of the  [[Sudanese government]], which has occurred during the War in Darfur and the ongoing War in Sudan (2023–present) in Darfur.{{sfn|Williams|2012|p=192}}
+=== {{Anchor|East Timor genocide}}East Timor ===
 {{Main|East Timor genocide}}
-{{see also|Indonesian occupation of East Timor}}
+{{see also|History of East Timor#Indonesian invasion and annexation|Indonesian invasion of East Timor|Indonesian occupation of East Timor}}
-Indonesia [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invaded]] [[East Timor]] or Timor-Leste, which had previously been a Portuguese colony, in 1975. Following this, the Indonesian government encouraged [[East Timor genocide|repressive military policies]] to deal with ethnic protests and armed resistance in the area and encouraged settlement to the region by people from other parts of Indonesia. The violence between 1975 and 1993 had claimed between 120,000 and 200,000 people. The repression entered the international spotlight in 1991 when a protest in [[Dili]] was disrupted by Indonesian forces who killed over 250 people and disappeared hundreds of others. The [[Santa Cruz massacre]], as the event became known, drew significant international attention to the issue (highlighted with the 1996 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] being provided to Catholic Bishop [[Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo|Carlos Belo]] and resistance leader [[José Ramos-Horta]]). Following the international outcry, the Indonesian government began organizing a host of paramilitary groups in East Timor which continued harassing and killing pro-independence activists. At the same time, the Indonesian government significantly increased efforts at population resettlement to the area and destruction of infrastructure and the environment used by East Timorese communities. This eventually resulted in an [[International Force for East Timor|international intervention force]] to be deployed for a vote by the population for independence of East Timor in 1999. The vote was significant in favor of independence and the Indonesian forces withdrew, although paramilitaries continued carrying out reprisal attacks for a few years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dunn|first=James|chapter=Genocide in East Timor|title=Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts|editor1=Samuel Totten |editor2=William S. Parsons|year=2009|publisher=Routledge|location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cotton|first=James|title=The Emergence of an Independent East Timor: National and Regional Challenges|journal=Contemporary Southeast Asia|year=2000|volume=22|issue=1|pages=1–22|doi=10.1355/CS22-1A|url=http://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/ISEAS/Journal.jsp?cSeriesCode=CS34/1}}</ref> A UN Report on the Indonesian occupation identified starvation, defoliant and napalm use, torture, rape, sexual slavery, disappearances, public executions, and extrajudicial killings as sanctioned by the Indonesian government and the entire colflict resulting in reducing the population to a third of its 1975 level.<ref>{{cite news|last=Powell|first=Sian|title=UN verdict on East Timor|newspaper=The Australian|date=19 January 2006|url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/east_timor/unverdict.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060512142628/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/east_timor/unverdict.html|archive-date=12 May 2006}}</ref>
+[[Indonesia]] [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invaded]] [[East Timor]] or Timor-Leste, which had previously been a [[Portuguese Timor|Portuguese colony]], in 1975. Following the invasion, the Indonesian government implemented [[East Timor genocide|repressive military policies]] in an attempt to quell ethnic protests and armed resistance in the area. People from other parts of Indonesia were encouraged to settle in the region. The violence which occurred between 1975 and 1993 claimed between 120,000 and 200,000 lives. The repression entered the international spotlight in 1991 when a protest in [[Dili]] was disrupted by Indonesian forces which killed over 250 people and disappeared hundreds of others. The [[Santa Cruz massacre]], as the event became known, drew a significant amount of international attention to the issue (it was highlighted when the 1996 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] was awarded to Catholic Bishop [[Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo|Carlos Belo]] and resistance leader [[José Ramos-Horta]]).
+Following the international outcry, the Indonesian government began to organize a host of paramilitary groups which continued to harass and kill pro-independence activists in East Timor. At the same time, the Indonesian government significantly increased its population resettlement efforts in the area and intensified the destruction of the infrastructure and the environment used by East Timorese communities. In response to this policy, an [[International Force for East Timor|international intervention force]] was eventually deployed to East Timor in order to monitor a vote for the independence of East Timor by its population in 1999. The vote was significantly in favor of independence and the Indonesian forces withdrew, but paramilitaries continued to carry out reprisal attacks for a few years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dunn |first=James |chapter=Genocide in East Timor |title=Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts |editor1-first=Samuel |editor1-last=Totten |editor2-first=William S. |editor2-last=Parsons |year=2009 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Cotton |first=James |title=The Emergence of an Independent East Timor: National and Regional Challenges |journal=[[Contemporary Southeast Asia]] |year=2000 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1355/CS22-1A |url=http://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/ISEAS/Journal.jsp?cSeriesCode=CS34/1 |access-date=12 December 2021 |archive-date=1 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101151710/http://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/ISEAS/Journal.jsp?cSeriesCode=CS34%2F1 |url-status=live}}</ref> A UN Report on the Indonesian occupation identified starvation, defoliant and napalm use, torture, rape, sexual slavery, disappearances, public executions, and extrajudicial killings as sanctioned by the Indonesian government and the entire colflict. As a result, East Timorese population declined to a third of its original size of 1975.<ref>{{cite news|last=Powell |first=Sian |title=UN verdict on East Timor |newspaper=[[The Australian]] |date=19 January 2006 |url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/east_timor/unverdict.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060512142628/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/east_timor/unverdict.html |archive-date=12 May 2006}}</ref>
 === {{Anchor|Guatemalan genocide}}Guatemala ===
 {{Main|Guatemalan genocide}}
+During the [[Guatemalan Civil War]] (1960–1996), state forces carried out [[Guatemalan genocide|violent atrocities]] against [[Maya peoples|Mayans]]. The government considered them to be aligned with the communist insurgents. Guatemalan armed forces carried out three campaigns that have been described as genocidal.
-During the [[Guatemalan Civil War]] (1960–1996), the state forces carried out [[Guatemalan genocide|violent atrocities]] against the [[Maya peoples|Maya]]. The government considered the Maya to be aligned with the communist insurgents, which they sometimes were but often were not. Guatemalan armed forces carried out three campaigns that have been described as genocidal. The first was a [[scorched earth]] policy which was also accompanied by mass killing, including the forced conscription of Mayan boys into the military where they were sometimes forced to participate in massacres against their own home villages. The second was to hunt down and exterminate those who had survived and evaded the army and the third was the forced relocation of survivors to "reeducation centers" and the continued pursuit of those who had fled into the mountains.{{sfn|Sanford|2008|p=545}} The armed forces used [[genocidal rape]] of women and children as a deliberate tactic. Children were bludgeoned to death by beating them against walls or thrown alive into mass graves where they would be crushed by the weight of the adult dead thrown atop them.{{sfn|Franco|2013|p=80}} An estimated 200,000 people, most of them Maya, disappeared during the Guatemalan Civil War.{{sfn|Hitchcock|Koperski|2008|p=589}} After the 1996 peace accords, a legal process was begun to determine the legal responsibility of the atrocities, and to locate and identify the disappeared. In 2013 former president [[Efraín Ríos Montt]] was convicted of genocide and crimes against humanity, and was sentenced to 80 years imprisonment.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|author=Will Grant |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-22490408 |title=BBC News – Guatemala's Rios Montt found guilty of genocide |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=11 May 2013 |access-date=27 August 2013}}</ref> Ten days later, the [[Constitutional Court of Guatemala]] overturned the conviction.<ref name="Reuters">{{cite news|last=Reuters |title=Guatemala's top court annuls Rios Montt genocide conviction |url=http://ca.news.yahoo.com/guatemala-court-annuls-rios-montt-genocide-conviction-020715897.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616155051/http://ca.news.yahoo.com/guatemala-court-annuls-rios-montt-genocide-conviction-020715897.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 June 2013 |date=20 May 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{cite news|newspaper=The Guardian|date=20 May 2013|title=Ríos Montt genocide case collapses|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/21/rios-montt-genocide-case-collapses}}</ref>
+The first was a [[scorched earth]] policy which was also accompanied by mass killing, including the forced conscription of Mayan boys into the military where they were sometimes forced to participate in massacres against their own home villages. The second was to hunt down and exterminate those who had survived and evaded the army; and the third was the forced relocation of survivors to "reeducation centers" and the continuous pursuit of those who had fled into the mountains.{{sfn|Sanford|2008|p=545}}
+The armed forces used [[genocidal rape]] of women and children as a deliberate tactic. Children were bludgeoned to death by beating them against walls or being thrown alive into mass graves where they would be crushed by the weight of an adult corpse thrown atop them.{{sfn|Franco|2013|p=80}} An estimated 200,000 people, most of them Mayans, disappeared during the Guatemalan Civil War.{{sfn|Hitchcock|Koperski|2008|p=589}}
+After the 1996 peace accords, a legal process to determine the legal responsibility of the atrocities and to locate and identify the disappeared ones began. In 2013, former president [[Efraín Ríos Montt]] was convicted of genocide and crimes against humanity. He was sentenced to 80 years of imprisonment<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |author=Will Grant |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-22490408 |title=BBC News – Guatemala's Rios Montt found guilty of genocide |publisher=BBC |date=11 May 2013 |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-date=31 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130831201120/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-22490408 |url-status=live}}</ref> but the [[Constitutional Court of Guatemala]] overturned his conviction only ten days later.<ref name="Reuters">{{cite news|agency=Reuters |title=Guatemala's top court annuls Rios Montt genocide conviction |url=http://ca.news.yahoo.com/guatemala-court-annuls-rios-montt-genocide-conviction-020715897.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616155051/http://ca.news.yahoo.com/guatemala-court-annuls-rios-montt-genocide-conviction-020715897.html |archive-date=16 June 2013 |date=20 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=20 May 2013 |title=Ríos Montt genocide case collapses |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/21/rios-montt-genocide-case-collapses |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403075308/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/21/rios-montt-genocide-case-collapses |url-status=live}}</ref>
-===Yazidi genocide in Iraq===
-The [[Yazidis]] are a group of monotheistic indigenous minority in the Middle East, who have often been victims of violence and stigma from Islamist extremists in [[Iraq]] (most recently ISIL, although other Islamist groups were involved in the past), with multiple studies concluding acts of genocide on the Yazidi community in Iraq, including mass killings and rape.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gsp.yale.edu/case-studies/iraq-yazidi|title=Iraq/Yazidi &#124; Genocide Studies Program|website=gsp.yale.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/08/1069432|title=Six years after genocide, international community must prioritize justice for Yazidi community|date=3 August 2020|website=UN News}}</ref> While centuries of violence have been reported, recent examples include deadly terrorist attacks targeting the Yazidi community including the [[2007 Yazidi communities bombings]] and the [[Sinjar massacre|August 2014 Sinjar massacre]]. Yazidi women and girls have often been kept as sex slave and been subjected to slave trade by [[ISIL]] terrorists during the most recent events of the [[genocide of Yazidis by ISIL]], which forced the displacement of over 500,000 Yazidis being displaced from Iraq. In 2014 alone 5000 Yazidis were killed, while the genocide has existed long before that and is still ongoing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-uncovered/isis-terror-one-yazidis-battle-chronicle-death-people-n461566|title=ISIS Terror: One Yazidi's Battle to Chronicle the Death of a People|publisher=MSNBC|date=23 November 2015|access-date=17 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316115552/http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-uncovered/isis-terror-one-yazidis-battle-chronicle-death-people-n461566|archive-date=16 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=The 2014 Yazidi genocide and its effect on Yazidi diaspora|journal=The Lancet|volume=390|issue=10106|pages=1946|last=Denkinger J.K., Windthorst P., El Sount C.R.-O., Blume M., Sedik H., Kizilhan J.I., Gibbons N., Pham P., Hillebrecht J., Ateia N., Nikendei C., Zipfel S., Junne F.|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32701-0|pmid=29115224|year=2017|doi-access=free}}</ref>
-===Indonesia===
+=== Indonesia ===
 {{See also|Papua conflict|Human rights in Indonesia}}
-From the time of its independence until the late 1960s, the [[Indonesia]]n government sought control of [[Western New Guinea|the western half]] of the island of [[New Guinea]], which had remained under the control of the Netherlands.{{sfn|Vickers|2013|p=142}} When it finally achieved internationally recognized control of the area, a number of clashes occurred between the Indonesian government and the [[Free Papua Movement]]. The government of Indonesia began a series of measures aimed to suppress the organization in the 1970s and the suppression reached high levels in the mid-1980s.{{sfn|Premdas|1985|pp=1056–1058}} The resulting human rights abuses included extrajudicial killings, torture, disappearances, rape, and harassment of indigenous people throughout the province.{{sfn|Lowenstein Clinic report|2004|p=71}} A 2004 report by the Allard K. Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic at [[Yale Law School]] identified both the mass violence and the [[Transmigration program|transmigration policies]] which encouraged mostly Balinese and Javanese families to relocate to the area as strong evidence "that the Indonesian government has committed proscribed acts with the intent to destroy the West Papuans as such, in violation of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide."{{sfn|Lowenstein Clinic report|2004|p=75}} Genocide against indigenous people in the region were key claims made in the U.S. case of [[Beanal v. Freeport]], one of the first lawsuits where indigenous people outside the U.S. petitioned to get a ruling against a multinational corporation for environmental destruction outside of the U.S. While the petitioner, an indigenous leader, claimed that the mining company [[Freeport-McMoRan]] had committed genocide through environmental destruction which "resulted in the purposeful, deliberate, contrived and planned demise of a culture of indigenous people," the court found that genocide pertains only to destruction of indigenous people and did not apply to the destruction of the culture of indigenous people; however, the court did leave open the opportunity for the petitioners to amend their filings with additional claim.{{sfn|Khokhryakova|1998|p=475}}
+From the time of its independence until the late 1960s, the [[Indonesia]]n government sought control of [[Western New Guinea|the western half]] of the island of [[New Guinea]], which had remained under the control of the Netherlands.{{sfn|Vickers|2013|p=142}} When it finally achieved internationally recognized control of the area, several clashes occurred between the Indonesian government and the [[Free Papua Movement]]. The government of Indonesia began a series of measures aimed to suppress the organization in the 1970s, which reached high levels in the mid-1980s.{{sfn|Premdas|1985|pp=1056–1058}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Kjell |date=2015-10-01 |title=Colonialism and Cold Genocide: The Case of West Papua |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/gsp/vol9/iss2/5 |journal=Genocide Studies and Prevention |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=9–25 |doi=10.5038/1911-9933.9.2.1270 |issn=1911-0359 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
+The resulting human rights abuses included extrajudicial killings, torture, disappearances, rape, and harassment of Indigenous people throughout the province.{{sfn|Lowenstein Clinic report|2004|p=71}} A 2004 report by the Allard K. Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic at [[Yale Law School]] identified both the mass violence and the [[Transmigration program|transmigration policies]] which encouraged mostly Balinese and Javanese families to relocate to the area as strong evidence "that the Indonesian government has committed proscribed acts with the intent to destroy the West Papuans as such, in violation of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide."{{sfn|Lowenstein Clinic report|2004|p=75}}
+Genocide against Indigenous people in the region was key to claims made in the U.S. case of ''[[Beanal v. Freeport]]'', one of the first lawsuits where Indigenous people outside the U.S. petitioned to get a ruling against a multinational corporation for environmental destruction outside of the U.S. While the petitioner, an Indigenous leader, claimed that the mining company [[Freeport-McMoRan]] had committed genocide through environmental destruction which "resulted in the purposeful, deliberate, contrived and planned demise of a culture of indigenous people", the court found that genocide pertains only to the destruction of an Indigenous people and did not apply to the destruction of the culture of Indigenous people; however, the court did leave open the opportunity for the petitioners to amend their filings with an additional claim.{{sfn|Khokhryakova|1998|p=475}}
+=== Israel ===
+{{Main article|Palestinian genocide accusation}}
+Throughout the extended [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|Israeli-Palestinian conflict]], the [[Israel|State of Israel]] has been accused of committing a genocide against Palestinians. Events such as the [[Nakba]], the [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]], the [[blockade of the Gaza Strip]], the [[2014 Gaza War]], and the 2023 [[Israel–Hamas war]] have been used as examples of evidence for a genocide committed by Israel.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2016 |title=The Genocide of the Palestinian People: An International Law and Human Rights Perspective |url=https://ccrjustice.org/sites/default/files/attach/2016/10/Background%20on%20the%20term%20genocide%20in%20Israel%20Palestine%20Context.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102093049/https://ccrjustice.org/sites/default/files/attach/2016/10/Background%20on%20the%20term%20genocide%20in%20Israel%20Palestine%20Context.pdf |archive-date=2023-11-02 |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=Center for Constitutional Rights}}</ref> Statements made by Israeli officials have also been described by genocide scholars as dehumanizing the population of Gaza and used as evidence for "genocidal intent."<ref name="Bartov">{{cite news |last=Bartov |first=Omer |date=10 November 2023 |title=Opinion {{!}} What I Believe as a Historian of Genocide |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/10/opinion/israel-gaza-genocide-war.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218055737/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/10/opinion/israel-gaza-genocide-war.html |archive-date=18 December 2023 |access-date=16 December 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
 === {{Anchor|Myanmar|Burma}}Myanmar/Burma ===
 [[File:Displaced Rohingya people in Rakhine State (8280610831) (cropped).jpg|alt=people, mostly children, squatting on the ground|thumb|270x270px|Displaced [[Rohingya people|Rohingya]] people in [[Rakhine State]]]]
-{{main|Internal conflict in Burma|Rohingya conflict|Rohingya genocide|Rohingya persecution in Myanmar (2016–present)}}
+{{main|Internal conflict in Myanmar|Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar|Rohingya conflict|Rohingya genocide|Rohingya persecution in Myanmar (2016–present)}}
-In [[Myanmar]] (Burma), the long-running civil war between the Military Junta and the insurgents has resulted in widespread atrocities against the indigenous [[Karen people]] some of whom are allied with the insurgents. These atrocities have been described as genocidal.{{sfn|Milbrandt|2012}} Burmese General Maung Hla stated that one day the Karen will only exist "in a museum"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://karennews.org/2012/02/knu-president-saw-tamla-baw-says-peace-needs-a-1000-more-steps.html/ |title=KNU President Saw Tamla Baw says peace needs a 1,000 more steps « Karen News |publisher=Karennews.org |date=2 February 2012 |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610210415/http://karennews.org/2012/02/knu-president-saw-tamla-baw-says-peace-needs-a-1000-more-steps.html/ |archive-date=10 June 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The government has deployed 50 battalions in the Northern sector systematically attacking Karen villages with mortar and machine gun fire, and landmines. At least 446,000 Karen have been displaced from their homes by the military.{{sfn|Milbrandt|2012}}{{sfn|Rogers|2004}} The Karen are also reported to have been subjected to forced labor, [[genocidal rape]], child labor and the conscription of child soldiers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/genocides-and-conflicts/burma |title=Burma |publisher=World Without Genocide |date=9 November 2010 |access-date=27 August 2013}}</ref> The [[Rohingya]] people have also been subjected to [[Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar|persecution]] mass killings, genocidal mass rapes and forced displacement. The Myanmar army burned their villages and forced them to flee the country. Mass graves which contain the remains of many victims of genocide were discovered. By 2017 over 700,000 [[Rohingya people]] fled to Bangladesh, whose government was praised for giving shelter to them.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/06/bangladesh-build-worlds-largest-refugee-camps-800000-rohingya|title=Bangladesh to build one of world's largest refugee camps for 800,000 Rohingya|last=Presse|first=Agence France|date=5 October 2017|work=The Guardian|access-date=16 October 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thesundaily.my/archive/myanmar-villages-burn-rakhine-unrest-rages-ETARCH476676|title=Myanmar villages burn as Rakhine unrest rages|website=www.thesundaily.my|language=en|access-date=16 October 2019}}</ref>
+In [[Myanmar]] (Burma), the long-running [[civil war]] between the Military Junta and the insurgents has resulted in widespread atrocities against the Indigenous [[Karen people]], some of whom are allied with the insurgents. These atrocities have been described as genocidal.{{sfn|Milbrandt|2012}} Burmese General Maung Hla stated that one day the Karen will only exist "in a museum"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://karennews.org/2012/02/knu-president-saw-tamla-baw-says-peace-needs-a-1000-more-steps.html/ |title=KNU President Saw Tamla Baw says peace needs a 1,000 more steps « Karen News |publisher=Karennews.org |date=2 February 2012 |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610210415/http://karennews.org/2012/02/knu-president-saw-tamla-baw-says-peace-needs-a-1000-more-steps.html/ |archive-date=10 June 2015}}</ref> The government has deployed 50 battalions in the Northern sector systematically attacking Karen villages with mortar and machine gun fire, and landmines. At least 446,000 Karen have been displaced from their homes by the military.{{sfn|Milbrandt|2012}}{{sfn|Rogers|2004}} The Karen are also reported to have been subjected to forced labor, [[genocidal rape]], child labor, and the conscription of child soldiers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/genocides-and-conflicts/burma |title=Burma |publisher=World Without Genocide |date=9 November 2010 |access-date=27 August 2013 |archive-date=9 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809021848/http://worldwithoutgenocide.org/genocides-and-conflicts/burma |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Rohingya]] people have also been subjected to [[Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar|persecution]] mass killings, genocidal mass rapes and forced displacement. The Myanmar army burned their villages and forced them to flee the country. Mass graves which contain the remains of many victims of genocide were discovered. By 2017 over 700,000 [[Rohingya people]] fled to Bangladesh, whose government was praised for giving shelter to them.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/06/bangladesh-build-worlds-largest-refugee-camps-800000-rohingya |title=Bangladesh to build one of world's largest refugee camps for 800,000 Rohingya |agency=[[Agence France Presse]] |date=5 October 2017 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=16 October 2019 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=4 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004075647/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/06/bangladesh-build-worlds-largest-refugee-camps-800000-rohingya |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thesundaily.my/archive/myanmar-villages-burn-rakhine-unrest-rages-ETARCH476676 |title=Myanmar villages burn as Rakhine unrest rages |website=www.thesundaily.my |language=en |access-date=16 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016083919/https://www.thesundaily.my/archive/myanmar-villages-burn-rakhine-unrest-rages-ETARCH476676 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 === Paraguay ===
-{{Main|Genocide of indigenous peoples in Paraguay}}
+{{Main|Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay}}
-There are 17 indigenous tribes which primarily live in the [[Chaco Province|Chaco]] region of Paraguay. In 2002, their numbers were estimated to be 86,000. During the period between 1954 and 1989, when the military dictatorship of General [[Alfredo Stroessner]] ruled Paraguay, the indigenous population of the country suffered from more loss of territory and human rights abuses than at any other time in the nation's history. In early 1970, international groups claimed that the state was complicit in the genocide of the [[Aché people|Aché]], with charges ranging from kidnapping and the sale of children, withholding medicines and food, slavery and torture.{{sfn|MRGI|2007|p=MRGI}} During the 1960s and 1970s, 85% of the Aché people were killed, often hacked to death with [[machete]]s, in order to make room for the timber industry, mining, farming and ranchers.{{sfn|Churchill|2000|p=433}} According to Jérémie Gilbert, the situation in Paraguay has proven that it is difficult to provide the proof required to show "specific intent", in support of a claim that genocide had occurred. The Aché, whose cultural group is now seen as extinct, fell victim to development by the state who had promoted the exploration of their territories by transnational companies for natural resources. Gilbert concludes that although a planned and voluntary destruction had occurred, it is argued by the state that there was no intent to destroy the Aché, as what had happened was due to development and was not a deliberate action.{{sfn|Gilbert|2006|p=118}}{{sfn|Hitchcock|Koperski|2008|pp=592–3}}
+In 2002, the numbers of the 17 Indigenous tribes, who primarily live in the [[Chaco Province|Chaco]] region of Paraguay, were estimated to be 86,000. Between 1954 and 1989, when the military dictatorship of General [[Alfredo Stroessner]] ruled Paraguay, the Indigenous population of the country suffered from more loss of territory and human rights abuses than at any other time in the nation's history. In early 1970, international groups claimed that the state was complicit in the genocide of the [[Aché people|Aché]], the charges being kidnappings, sale of children, withholding medicines and food, slavery, and torture.{{sfn|MRGI|2007|p=MRGI}}
-===Tibet===
-{{Main|Human rights in Tibet}}
-{{See also|Tibetan sovereignty debate|Sinicization of Tibet|Chinese imperialism}}
-On 5 June 1959 Shri Purshottam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate, [[Supreme Court of India]], presented a report on Tibet to the [[International Commission of Jurists]] (an [[non-governmental organisation|NGO]]):
+During the 1960s and 1970s, 85% of the Aché people were killed, often hacked to death with [[machete]]s, in order to make room for the timber industry, mining, farming, and ranchers.{{sfn|Churchill|2000|p=433}} According to Jérémie Gilbert, the situation in Paraguay has proven that it is difficult to provide the proof required to show "specific intent", in support of a claim that genocide had occurred. The Aché, whose cultural group is now seen as extinct, fell victim to development by the state which had promoted the exploration of their territories by transnational companies for natural resources. Gilbert concludes that although a planned and voluntary destruction had occurred, it is argued by the state that there was no intent to destroy the Aché, as what had happened was due to development and was not a deliberate action.{{sfn|Gilbert|2006|p=118}}{{sfn|Hitchcock|Koperski|2008|pp=592–3}}
-{{quote|From the facts stated above the following conclusions may be drawn: ... (e) To examine all such evidence obtained by this Committee and from other sources and to take appropriate action thereon and in particular to determine whether the crime of Genocide – for which already there is strong presumption – is established and, in that case, to initiate such action as envisaged by the Genocide Convention of 1948 and by the Charter of the United Nations for suppression of these acts and appropriate redress;<ref>[http://www.icj.org/news.php3?id_article=3415&lang=en&print=true Tibet – Summary of a Report on Tibet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402061305/http://www.icj.org/news.php3?id_article=3415&lang=en&print=true |date=2012-04-02 }} Submitted to the [[International Commission of Jurists]] by Shri Purshottam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate, Supreme Court of India</ref>}}
+=== Peru ===
-According to the Tibet Society of the UK, "In all, over one million [[Tibetans]], a fifth of the population, had died as a result of the [[Incorporation of Tibet into the People's Republic of China|Chinese occupation]] right up until the end of the [[Cultural Revolution]]."<ref>{{cite book|author=David White|title=Himalayan Tragedy: The Story of Tibet's Panchen Lamas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNIKAAAAYAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Tibet Society of the UK|isbn=978-0-9542179-0-7|page=98}}</ref>
+{{Main|Forced sterilization in Peru}}
+Between 1996 and 2000, while under the leadership of President [[Alberto Fujimori]], the Peruvian government carried out coercive [[Forced sterilization in Peru|sterilizations]] on approximately 300,000 Peruvian women. The state specifically targeted rural, impoverished, and Indigenous populations through the use of bribes, threats, and deceitful tactics in order to perform tubal ligations and vasectomies without the individuals' informed consent.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Analysis {{!}} Peru's government forcibly sterilized Indigenous women from 1996 to 2001, the women say. Why? |language=en-US |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/02/19/perus-government-forcibly-sterilized-indigenous-women-1996-2001-why/ |access-date=3 March 2023 |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203204709/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/02/19/perus-government-forcibly-sterilized-indigenous-women-1996-2001-why/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
-==Footnotes==
-{{reflist|group=Note}}
-==References==
+=== Sri Lanka ===
+{{main|War crimes during the final stages of the Sri Lankan Civil War}}
-{{Reflist|30em}}
+The crackdown on the [[Sri Lankan Tamils]] during the [[1958 anti-Tamil pogrom]] and the [[Sri Lankan Civil War]] have been described as genocidal in nature by the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CCPR/Shared%20Documents/LKA/INT_CCPR_CSS_LKA_18262_E.pdf |title=Justice for Genocide: Sri Lanka's Genocide Against Tamils |access-date=8 November 2021 |archive-date=24 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124015331/https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CCPR/Shared%20Documents/LKA/INT_CCPR_CSS_LKA_18262_E.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Sri Lankan mobs brutally butchered thousands of Tamil people in 1958, starting a series of genocides over the years that eventually led to a civil war in 1983.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ptsrilanka.org/images/documents/massacres_pogroms_en.pdf |title=Genocide against the Tamil People |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428050130/http://www.ptsrilanka.org/images/documents/massacres_pogroms_en.pdf |access-date=2021-12-12 |archive-date=28 April 2016}}</ref> Since the end of the civil war in 2009, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violating human rights by bombing civilian targets, using of heavy weaponry, abducting and killing of Sri Lankan Tamils and using [[Sexual violence against Tamils in Sri Lanka|sexual violence]].<ref>[http://www.cfr.org/publication/9242/ Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam Backgrounder] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100526145855/http://www.cfr.org/publication/9242/ |date=26 May 2010}} [[Council on Foreign Relations]] - 21 July 2008</ref><ref name="NYT199305012">{{cite news|last=Gargan |first=Edward |date=2 May 1993 |title=Suicide Bomber Kills President of Sri Lanka |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/05/02/world/suicide-bomber-kills-president-of-sri-lanka.html?pagewanted=1 |access-date=8 November 2021 |archive-date=8 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108115135/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/05/02/world/suicide-bomber-kills-president-of-sri-lanka.html?pagewanted=1 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A Decade Without Justice for Sri Lanka's Tamils |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/05/a-decade-without-justice-for-sri-lankas-tamils/ |website=[[The Diplomat]] |language=en-US |access-date=2020-05-18 |archive-date=8 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108110019/https://thediplomat.com/2019/05/a-decade-without-justice-for-sri-lankas-tamils/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
-== Bibliography ==
-{{wikiquotes}}{{refbegin|30em}}
+[[Human Rights Watch]] was the first to accuse the Sri Lankan government of genocide under international law in December 2009. Leading American expert in international law Professor Francis A. Boyle held an emergency meeting with U.N. Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]] to urge to stop the Tamil genocide by providing evidence of crimes against humanity, genocide against Tamils and the international community's failure to stop the slaughter of Tamil civilians in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.claritypress.com/product/the-tamil-genocide-by-sri-lanka/ |title=The Tamil Genocide by Sri Lanka |date=31 October 2018 |access-date=8 November 2021 |archive-date=8 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108110325/https://www.claritypress.com/product/the-tamil-genocide-by-sri-lanka/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Francis Anthony |last1=Boyle |title=The Tamil Genocide by Sri Lanka: The Global Failure to Protect Tamil Rights Under International Law |isbn=978-0932863706 |url=http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/9082654-the-tamil-genocide-by-sri-lanka |year=2009 |publisher=Tamils against genocide |access-date=8 November 2021 |archive-date=28 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028091936/https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/9082654-the-tamil-genocide-by-sri-lanka |url-status=live}}</ref> In February 2020, the US State Department and US Secretary of State [[Mike Pompeo]] announced that General [[Shavendra Silva]], current commander of the Sri Lankan Army, was banned from entering the United States due to war crimes committed by the 53rd division of the Sri Lankan army, in which he has involved through command responsibility <ref>{{cite web|url=https://2017-2021.state.gov/public-designation-due-to-gross-violations-of-human-rights-of-shavendra-silva-of-sri-lanka-under-section-7031c-of-the-department-of-state-foreign-operations-and-related-programs-appropriations-a/ |title=Public Designation, Due to Gross Violations of Human Rights, of Shavendra Silva of Sri Lanka Under Section 7031(c) of the Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Appropriations Act |access-date=8 November 2021 |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212134024/https://2017-2021.state.gov/public-designation-due-to-gross-violations-of-human-rights-of-shavendra-silva-of-sri-lanka-under-section-7031c-of-the-department-of-state-foreign-operations-and-related-programs-appropriations-a/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
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-*{{cite book|title=  White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian |first= Jamie |last=Bisher|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mg6RAgAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1135765958|access-date=24 April 2014}}
-*{{cite book|title=White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian  |first= Jamie |last=Bisher|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28iPAgAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1135765965|access-date=24 April 2014}}
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-*{{cite news |last= Bobrick |first=Benson |date=15 December 2002 |title= How the East Was Won |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/15/books/how-the-east-was-won.html |newspaper= THE NEW YORK TIMES|access-date= 24 May 2014}}
-*{{cite news|last=Brown|first=Thomas|title=Did the U.S. Army Distribute Smallpox Blankets to Indians? Fabrication and Falsification in Ward Churchill's Genocide Rhetoric|newspaper=University of Michigan|year=2006|ref={{sfnref|Brown|2006}} |hdl=2027/spo.5240451.0001.009}}
-*{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2933524.stm |title=DR Congo Pygmies appeal to UN |work=BBC News |date=23 May 2003 |access-date=27 August 2013|ref= {{sfnref|BBC News|2003}} }}
-*{{cite book|last=Barkan|first=Elazar|title=The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521527507|pages=[https://archive.org/details/specterofgenocid00robe/page/117 117–140]|chapter=Genocide of indigenous peoples|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/specterofgenocid00robe/page/117}}
-*{{cite book|last=Ball|first=Howard|title=Genocide : a reference handbook|url=https://archive.org/details/genocidereferenc0000ball|url-access=registration|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-488-7|chapter=Early 20th-Century "Genocides"}}
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-*{{cite book|last=Begovich|first=Milica|title=Civil Wars of the World|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1851099191|editor=Karl R. DeRouen, Uk Heo}}
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-*{{cite book|last=Cave|first=Alfred A.|year=2008|chapter=Genocide in the Americas|title=The Historiography of Genocide|url=https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston|url-access=limited|editor=Dan Stone|publisher=Palgrave MAcMillan|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston/page/n287 273]–296|isbn=9781403992192}}
-*{{cite book|last1=Chakma|first1=Kabita|title=Everyday Occupations: Experiencing Militarism in South Asia and the Middle East|chapter=Indigenous Women and Culture in the Colonized Chittagong Hills Tracts of Bangladesh|year=2013|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0812244878|first2=Glen |last2=Hill|editor=Kamala Visweswaran|pages=132–157}}
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-*{{cite book|last=Gump|first=James O.|title=The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux|year=1994|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0803270596|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/dustroselikesmok0000gump_x5e4}}
-*{{cite book|last=Grenke|first=Arthur|title=God, Greed, and Genocide: The Holocaust Through the Centuries|year=2005|publisher=New Academia Publishing|isbn=978-0976704201}}
-*{{cite book|last=[[Isabel V. Hull|Hull]]|first=[[Isabel V. Hull|Isabel V.]]|title=The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective|url=https://archive.org/details/specterofgenocid00robe|url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521527507|editor=Robert Gellately, Ben Kiernan}}
-*{{cite book|last1=Hitchcock|first1=Robert K.|last2=Koperski|first2=Thomas E.|year=2008|chapter=Genocides against Indigenous peoples|title=The Historiography of Genocide|url=https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston|url-access=limited|editor=Dan Stone|publisher=Palgrave MAcMillan|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston/page/n591 577]–618|isbn=9781403992192}}
-*{{cite book|last=Hinton|first=Alexander L.|title=Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide|year=2002|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520230293}}
-*{{cite book|title= Inside the Ropes: Sportswriters Get Their Game On |editor-first= Zachary Michael |editor-last=Jack|year=2008|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ezDG4aTNIeoC|isbn=978-0803219076|access-date=24 April 2014}}
-*{{cite book|last=Jackson|first=Jean E.|publisher=Report to the AAA Committee for Human Rights|title=The Awá of Southern Colombia: a "Perfect Storm" of Violence|year=2009|url=http://web.mit.edu/anthropology/pdf/articles/jackson/jackson_Awa_CfHR-Report-2009.pdf}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
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-*{{Citation |last=Kiernan |first=Ben |year=2007 |title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10098-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326 }}
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-*{{cite news|last=Meldrum|first=Andrew|title=German minister says sorry for genocide in Namibia|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/aug/16/germany.andrewmeldrum|newspaper=The Guardian|date=16 August 2004|ref= {{sfnRef|Meldrum|2004}}}}
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-*{{cite journal|last=Milbrandt|first=Jay|title=Tracking Genocide: Persecution of the Karen in Burma |journal=Texas International Law Journal|year=2012|ssrn=2047186}}
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-*{{cite book|last=Maybury-Lewis|first=David|chapter=Genocide against Indigenous peoples|title=Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide|year=2002|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520230293}}
-*{{cite news|last=MRGI|first=MRGI|title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Paraguay : Overview|url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce5423.html|newspaper=Minority Rights Group International|year=2007}}
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-*{{cite book|last=O'Brien|first=Sharon|chapter=The Chittagong Hill Tracts|title=Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes against Humanity|editor=Dinah Shelton|publisher=Macmillan Library Reference|year=2004|pages=176–177}}
-*{{cite journal|last=Premdas|first=Ralph R.|title=The Organisasi Papua Merdeka in Irian Jaya: Continuity and Change in Papua New Guinea's Relations with Indonesia|journal=Asian Survey|volume=25|issue=10|year=1985|pages=1055–1074|doi=10.1525/as.1985.25.10.01p0314o}}
-*{{cite book|last=Garfield|first=Seth|title=Indigenous Struggle at the Heart of Brazil: State Policy, Frontier Expansion and the Xavante Indians, 1937-1988|year=2001|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0822326656|page=143}}
-*{{cite book|last=Quigley|first=John B.|title=The Genocide Convention: An International Law Analysis|year=2006|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0754647300}}
-*{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Henry|title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History|chapter=Genocide in Tasmania?|year=2004|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1571814104|editor=A. Dirk Moses}}
-* {{cite book|first=Andres |last=[[Andres Resendez|Resendez]]|title= The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&q=Rese%CC%81ndez%2C%20Andre%CC%81s.%202017.%20The%20other%20slavery%3A%20the%20uncovered%20story%20of%20indian%20enslavement%20in%20America.&pg=PP1|year=2016|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|pages=448|isbn=978-0544602670}}
-*{{cite book|last=Roy|first=Rajkumari|year=2000|title=Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh |location=Copenhagen |publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs}}
-*{{cite book|last=Rogers|first=Benedict|title=A Land without Evil: Stopping the Genocide of Burma's Karen People|publisher=Monarch Books|year=2004}}
-* {{cite book|last=Rosenbaum|first=Alan S.|title=[[Is the Holocaust Unique?|Is the Holocaust unique?: perspectives on comparative genocide]].|publisher=Routledge|year=2018}}
-*{{cite journal|last=Sautman|first=Barry|title=Cultural genocide and Tibet|journal=Tex. Int'l LJ|volume=38|year=2003|issue=173–240|url=http://www.tilj.org/content/journal/38/num2/Sautman173.pdf|access-date=26 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407073958/http://www.tilj.org/content/journal/38/num2/Sautman173.pdf|archive-date=7 April 2014|url-status=dead}}
-*{{cite book|last=Sanford|first=Victoria|title=The Historiography of Genocide|url=https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston|url-access=limited|year=2008|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0230279551|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston/page/n557 543]–571|editor=Dan Stone|chapter=¡Si hubo genocidio en Guatemala! Yes! There was genocide in Guatemala}}
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-*{{cite book|last=Schaller|first=Dominik J.|title=Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History|year=2010|publisher=Berghahn|isbn=978-1845457198|editor=A. Dirk Moses|chapter=13}}
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-*{{cite book|last=Totten|first=Samuel|publisher=Greenwood|title=Dictionary of Genocide: A-L|year=2007|isbn=978-0313329678|author2=Bartrop, Paul Robert}}
-*{{cite web|last1=Trever |first1=David |title=The new book 'The Other Slavery' will make you rethink American history |url=https://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620020336/https://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 June 2019 |website=Los Angeles Times}}
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-*{{cite news|last=Watts|first=Jonathan|title=Brazil's 'lost report' into genocide surfaces after 40 years|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/29/brazil-figueiredo-genocide-report|newspaper=The Guardian|date=19 May 2013|author2=Jan Rocha|ref = {{sfnref|Watts|2013}} }}
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-*{{cite book|title=Russia's Frozen Frontier: A History of Siberia and the Russian Far East 1581 - 1991  |first= Alan|last=Wood|edition=illustrated|year=2011|publisher=A&C Black|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VZZLAQAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0340971246|access-date=24 April 2014}}
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--->*{{cite book|title=  Condé Nast's Traveler, Volume 36 |year=2001|publisher=Condé Nast Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVosAQAAMAAJ|access-date=24 April 2014}}
-*{{cite book|title=Yearbook  |year=1992|publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beJAAQAAIAAJ|access-date=24 April 2014}}
+=== Yazidi genocide in Iraq ===
+{{main|Yazidi genocide}}
+{{further|Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory}}
+[[Yazidis]] are an Indigenous minority group in the Middle East that practices its own monotheistic religion. They have frequently been stigmatized and targeted for violence by [[Islamic extremism|Islamist extremists]] in [[Iraq]] (most recently by [[Genocide of Yazidis by the Islamic State|ISIL]], but other Islamist groups also perpetrated acts of violence against Yazidis in the past), with multiple studies leading researchers to conclude that acts of genocide have been perpetrated against the Yazidi community in Iraq, including [[Mass murder|mass killings]] and [[rape]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Iraq/Yazidi {{pipe}} Genocide Studies Program |url=https://gsp.yale.edu/case-studies/iraq-yazidi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029072213/https://gsp.yale.edu/case-studies/iraq-yazidi |archive-date=29 October 2020 |access-date=28 October 2020 |website=gsp.yale.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=3 August 2020 |title=Six years after genocide, international community must prioritize justice for Yazidi community |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/08/1069432 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030150124/https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/08/1069432 |archive-date=30 October 2020 |access-date=28 October 2020 |website=UN News}}</ref>
+While acts of violence against Yazidis have been documented for centuries, recent acts of violence against them include deadly terrorist attacks such as the [[2007 Yazidi communities bombings]] and the [[Sinjar massacre|August 2014 Sinjar massacre]]. Yazidi women and girls have frequently been kept as [[Sexual slavery|sex slaves]] and have been subjected to slave trading by [[Islamic State|ISIL]] terrorists during the recent events of the [[genocide of Yazidis by ISIL]]. This resulted in the forcible displacement of over 500,000 Yazidis from Iraq. In 2014 alone, 5000 Yazidis were killed, but long before that year, the genocide was already being committed against the Yazidis. It is still going on nowadays.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 November 2015 |title=ISIS Terror: One Yazidi's Battle to Chronicle the Death of a People |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-uncovered/isis-terror-one-yazidis-battle-chronicle-death-people-n461566 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316115552/http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-uncovered/isis-terror-one-yazidis-battle-chronicle-death-people-n461566 |archive-date=16 March 2016 |access-date=17 March 2016 |publisher=[[MSNBC]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tagay|first1=Sefik|last2=Ayhan|first2=Dogan|last3=Catani|first3=Claudia|last4=Schnyder|first4=Ulrich|last5=Teufel|first5=Martin|year=2017 |title=The 2014 Yazidi genocide and its effect on Yazidi diaspora |journal=[[The Lancet]] |volume=390 |issue=10106 |page=1946 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32701-0 |pmid=29115224 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In February 2021, the remains of 104 Yazidis killed by ISIL were found and laid to rest.<ref>{{cite web |date=2021-02-07 |title=Remains of 104 Yazidis killed by ISIL laid to rest in Iraq {{pipe}} ISIL/ISIS News |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/7/remains-of-104-yazidis-killed-by-isil-laid-to-rest-in-iraq |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106153538/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/2/7/remains-of-104-yazidis-killed-by-isil-laid-to-rest-in-iraq |archive-date=6 November 2021 |access-date=2021-12-12 |publisher=Al Jazeera}}</ref>
+== See also ==
+{{See also|Outline of Genocide studies}}
+* [[Apologies to Indigenous peoples]]
+* [[Cultural genocide]]
+* [[Denial of genocides of Indigenous peoples]]
+* [[Ethnocide]]
+== Notes ==
+{{NoteFoot}}
+== References ==
+=== Citations ===
+{{Reflist}}
+=== Sources ===
+{{refbegin|35em}}
+* {{cite web |author=Allard K. Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic, Yale Law School |title=Indonesian Human Rights Abuses in West Papua: Application of the Law of Genocide to the History of Indonesian Control |year=2004 |url=http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Intellectual_Life/West_Papua_final_report.pdf |access-date=5 September 2013 |ref={{sfnRef|Lowenstein Clinic report|2004}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825174228/http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Intellectual_Life/West_Papua_final_report.pdf |archive-date=25 August 2013}}
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+* {{cite book |last=Arens |first=Jenneke |title=Genocide of Indigenous Peoples |chapter=Genocide in the Chittagong Hills Tracts, Bangladesh |year=2010 |publisher=Transaction |isbn=978-1412814959 |editor1-first=Samuel |editor1-last=Totten |editor1-link=Samuel Totten |editor2-first=Robert K. |editor2-last=Hitchcock |pages=[https://archive.org/details/genocidecritical0000unse/page/117 117–142] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/genocidecritical0000unse/page/117}}
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+* {{cite book |editor1-last=Aufderheide |editor1-first=Arthur C. |editor2-last=Rodríguez-Martín |editor2-first=Conrado |editor3-last=Langsjoen |editor3-first=Odin |date=1998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC |title=The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-55203-6 |access-date=30 June 2016 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173835/https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC |url-status=live}}
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+* {{cite journal |last1=Bischoping |first1=K. |last2=Fingerhut |first2=N. |year=1996 |title=Border Lines: Indigenous Peoples in Genocide Studies |journal=[[Canadian Review of Sociology]] |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=481–506 |doi=10.1111/j.1755-618x.1996.tb00958.x}}
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+* {{cite book |last=Bisher |first=Jamie |title=White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian |year=2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28iPAgAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1135765965 |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725234718/https://books.google.com/books?id=28iPAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |last=Black |first=Jeremy |title=War and the World: Military Power and the Fate of Continents, 1450-2000 |year=2008 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpI_YYtvlCAC |isbn=978-0300147698 |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=7 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207161220/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpI_YYtvlCAC |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite news |last=Bobrick |first=Benson |date=15 December 2002 |title=How the East Was Won |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/15/books/how-the-east-was-won.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=24 May 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924141934/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/15/books/how-the-east-was-won.html |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite news |last=Brown |first=Thomas |title=Did the U.S. Army Distribute Smallpox Blankets to Indians? Fabrication and Falsification in Ward Churchill's Genocide Rhetoric |newspaper=[[University of Michigan]] |year=2006 |hdl=2027/spo.5240451.0001.009}}
+* {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2933524.stm |title=DR Congo Pygmies appeal to UN |work=[[BBC News]] |date=23 May 2003 |access-date=27 August 2013 |ref={{sfnref|BBC News|2003}} |archive-date=13 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213023950/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2933524.stm |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |last=Barkan |first=Elazar |title=The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective |year=2003 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0521527507 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/specterofgenocid00robe/page/117 117–140] |chapter=Genocide of indigenous peoples |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/specterofgenocid00robe/page/117}}
+* {{cite book |last=Ball |first=Howard |title=Genocide: a reference handbook |url=https://archive.org/details/genocidereferenc0000ball |url-access=registration |year=2011 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1-59884-488-7 |chapter=Early 20th-Century "Genocides"}}
+* {{cite book |last=Baird |first=David |title=The Choctaw People |year=1973 |publisher=Indian Tribal Series |location=United States |chapter=The Choctaws Meet the Americans, 1783 to 1843 |page=36 |lccn=73-80708}}
+* {{cite book |last=Begovich |first=Milica |title=Civil Wars of the World |year=2007 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1851099191 |editor1-first=Karl R. |editor1-last=DeRouen |editor2-first=Uk |editor2-last=Heo}}
+* {{cite book |last=Byrd |first=Jodi A. |title=The Transit of Empire: Indigenous Critiques of Colonialism |year=2011 |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]] |isbn=978-0816676408}}
+* {{cite book |last=Cave |first=Alfred A. |year=2008 |chapter=Genocide in the Americas |title=The Historiography of Genocide |url=https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston |url-access=limited |editor-first=Dan |editor-last=Stone |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston/page/n287 273]–296 |isbn=9781403992192}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Chakma |first1=Kabita |title=Everyday Occupations: Experiencing Militarism in South Asia and the Middle East |chapter=Indigenous Women and Culture in the Colonized Chittagong Hills Tracts of Bangladesh |year=2013 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |isbn=978-0812244878 |first2=Glen |last2=Hill |editor=Kamala Visweswaran |pages=132–157}}
+* {{cite book |last=Churchill |first=Ward |title=Encyclopedia of Genocide |year=2000 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-0874369281 |editor-first=Israel W. |editor-last=Charny |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofge0000unse}}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=Tai S. |last2=Kelton |first2=Paul |date=2020 |title=Germs, Genocides, and America's Indigenous Peoples |journal=[[Journal of American History]] |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=52–76 |doi=10.1093/jahist/jaaa008 |issn=0021-8723 |doi-access=free}}
+* {{cite book |last=Etkind |first=Alexander |title=Internal Colonization: Russia's Imperial Experience |year=2013 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lpz5q44VVk0C |isbn=978-0745673547 |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=17 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217230155/https://books.google.com/books?id=lpz5q44VVk0C |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |last=Forsyth |first=James |title=A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990 |edition=illustrated, reprint, revised |year=1994 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC |isbn=978-0521477710 |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=27 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627004630/http://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |last=Forsythe |first=David P. |title=Encyclopedia of Human Rights |volume=4 |year=2009 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0195334029}}
+* {{cite book |last=Forge |first=John |title=Designed to Kill: The Case Against Weapons Research |year=2012 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-9400757356}}
+* {{cite book |last=Franco |first=Jean |title=Cruel Modernity |year=2013 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0822354567}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Gigoux |first1=Carlos |title=The Routledge International Handbook of Globalization Studies |year=2011 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0415686082 |last2=Samson |first2=Colin |editor-first=Bryan S. |editor-last=Turner}}
+* {{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Jérémie |title=Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights Under International Law: From Victims to Actors |year=2006 |publisher=Transnational |isbn=978-1571053695}}
+* {{cite book |last=Gump |first=James O. |title=The Dust Rose Like Smoke: The Subjugation of the Zulu and the Sioux |year=1994 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |isbn=978-0803270596 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/dustroselikesmok0000gump_x5e4}}
+* {{cite book |last=Grenke |first=Arthur |title=God, Greed, and Genocide: The Holocaust Through the Centuries |year=2005 |publisher=New Academia Publishing |isbn=978-0976704201}}
+* {{cite book |last=Hull |first=Isabel V. |author-link=Isabel V. Hull |title=The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/specterofgenocid00robe |url-access=registration |year=2003 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0521527507 |editor1-first=Robert |editor1-last=Gellately |editor1-link=Robert Gellately |editor2-first=Ben |editor2-last=Kiernan |editor2-link=Ben Kiernan}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Hitchcock |first1=Robert K. |last2=Koperski |first2=Thomas E. |year=2008 |chapter=Genocides against Indigenous peoples |title=The Historiography of Genocide |url=https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston |url-access=limited |editor-first=Dan |editor-last=Stone |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston/page/n591 577]–618 |isbn=9781403992192}}
+* {{cite book |last=Hinton |first=Alexander L. |author-link=Alexander Laban Hinton |title=Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide |year=2002 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0520230293}}
+* {{cite book |editor-last=Jack |editor-first=Zachary Michael |title=Inside the Ropes: Sportswriters Get Their Game On |year=2008 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ezDG4aTNIeoC |isbn=978-0803219076 |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=5 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105134916/https://books.google.com/books?id=ezDG4aTNIeoC |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Jean E. |publisher=Report to the AAA Committee for Human Rights |title=The Awá of Southern Colombia: a "Perfect Storm" of Violence |year=2009 |url=http://web.mit.edu/anthropology/pdf/articles/jackson/jackson_Awa_CfHR-Report-2009.pdf}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}
+* {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Jean E. |year=2002 |chapter=Caught in the Crossfire: Colombia's indigenous peoples during the 1990s. |editor-first=David |editor-last=Maybury-Lewis |editor-link=David Maybury-Lewis |chapter-url=http://web.mit.edu/anthropology/pdf/articles/jackson/jackson_Caught_in_the_Crossfire.pdf |title=Identities in Conflict: Indigenous peoples and Latin American States |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |pages=107–134}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Juang |first1=Richard |title=Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History |year=2008 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1851094417 |first2=Josiah |last2=Baker |first3=Matthew |last3=Shannon |editor1-first=Richard M. |editor1-last=Juang |editor2-first=Noelle |editor2-last=Morrissette}}
+* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Adam |title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction |year=2010 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0415486187 |edition=2nd |chapter=3. Genocides of Indigenous Peoples}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Jonassohn |first1=Kurt |title=Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations: In Comparative Perspective |year=1998 |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |isbn=978-1560003144 |first2=Karin Solveig |last2=Björnson}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Kang |first=Hyeok hweon |editor-last=Shiau |editor-first=Jeffrey |title=Big Heads and Buddhist Demons:The Korean Military Revolution and Northern Expeditions of 1654 and 1658 |url=http://history.emory.edu/home/assets/documents/endeavors/volume4/Kang.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115010819/http://history.emory.edu/home/assets/documents/endeavors/volume4/Kang.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2014 |journal=Emory Endeavors in World History |volume=4: Transnational Encounters in Asia |edition=2013 |pages=1–22 |access-date=10 March 2014}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Khokhryakova |first=Anastasia |title=Beanal v. Freeport-McMoRan, Inc: Liability of a Private Actor for an International Environmental Tort under the Alien Tort Claims Act |journal=[[Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy]] |year=1998 |volume=9 |pages=463–493}}
+* {{cite book |last=Kiernan |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Kiernan |year=2007 |title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-10098-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326}}
+* {{cite thesis |last=Kim |first=Kwangmin |title=Saintly Brokers: Uyghur Muslims, Trade, and the Making of Qing Central Asia, 1696–1814 |type=PhD |publisher=[[University of California, Berkeley]] |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpeQhJ3hcwsC |isbn=978-1109101263 |access-date=10 March 2014 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204040822/https://books.google.com/books?id=DpeQhJ3hcwsC |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |last=Lemkin |first=Raphael |author-link=Raphael Lemkin |title=Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: laws of occupation, analysis of government, proposals for redress |location=Clark, NJ |year=2008 |publisher=[[The Lawbook Exchange]] |isbn=978-1584779018}}
+* {{cite book |last=Levene |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Levene |title=Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Meaning of Genocide v. 1: The Meaning of Genocide |year=2005 |publisher=[[I. B. Tauris]] |isbn=978-1850437529}}
+* {{cite book |last=Levene |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Levene |title=Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide |year=2005 |publisher=[[I. B. Tauris]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VzYBAwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0857712899 |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212134017/https://books.google.com/books?id=VzYBAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Tao Tao |title=Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China |first2=David |last2=Faure |year=1996 |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8SBAAAQBAJ |isbn=978-9622094024 |access-date=10 March 2014 |archive-date=21 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721210010/https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8SBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |last=Mann |first=Barbara Alice |title=The Tainted Gift: The Disease Method of Frontier Expansion |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2009}}
+* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Stacie E. |chapter=Native Americans |title=Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes against Humanity |editor-first=Dinah |editor-last=Shelton |publisher=Macmillan Library Reference |year=2004 |pages=740–746}}
+* {{cite news |last=Meldrum |first=Andrew |title=German minister says sorry for genocide in Namibia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/aug/16/germany.andrewmeldrum |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=16 August 2004 |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=4 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504204816/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/aug/16/germany.andrewmeldrum |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |editor-last=Mey |editor-first=Wolfgang |year=1984 |title=Genocide in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh |location=Copenhagen |publisher=[[IWGIA|International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs]]}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Milbrandt |first=Jay |title=Tracking Genocide: Persecution of the Karen in Burma |journal=[[Texas International Law Journal]] |year=2012 |ssrn=2047186}}
+* {{cite book |last=Moshin |first=A. |year=2003 |title=The Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh: On the Difficult Road to Peace |location=Boulder, Col. |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers}}
+* {{cite book |last=Mote |first=Victor L. |title=Siberia: worlds Apart |series=Westview series on the post-Soviet republics |edition=illustrated |year=1998 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qEAjAQAAIAAJ |isbn=978-0813312989 |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=9 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709024523/http://books.google.com/books?id=qEAjAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Madley |first=Benjamin |title=Patterns of frontier genocide 1803–1910: the Aboriginal Tasmanians, the Yuki of California, and the Herero of Namibia |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |year=2004 |volume=6 |issue=2 |url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/Madley.pdf |doi=10.1080/1462352042000225930 |pages=167–192 |s2cid=145079658 |access-date=21 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130626114253/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/Madley.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2013}}
+* {{cite book |last=Mehta |first=Vinod |title=Talking to 'The devil' |year=2008 |publisher=Outlook}}
+* {{cite book |last=Moses |first=A. Dirk |author-link=A. Dirk Moses |title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History |year=2004 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |isbn=978-1571814104 |editor-first=A. Dirk |editor-last=Moses |editor-link=A. Dirk Moses}}
+* {{cite book |last=Maybury-Lewis |first=David |author-link=David Maybury-Lewis |chapter=Genocide against Indigenous peoples |title=Annihilating Difference: The Anthropology of Genocide |year=2002 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0520230293}}
+* {{cite news |author=MRGI |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Paraguay: Overview |url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce5423.html |newspaper=Minority Rights Group International |year=2007 |access-date=21 August 2013 |archive-date=20 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020121130/http://www.refworld.org/docid/4954ce5423.html |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |last=Nunpa |first=Chris Mato |title=Confronting Genocide: Judaism, Christianity, Islam |year=2009 |publisher=[[Lexington Books]] |isbn=978-0739135891 |editor-first=Steven L. |editor-last=Jacobs |chapter=A Sweet-Smelling Sacrifice}}
+* {{cite book |last=O'Brien |first=Sharon |chapter=The Chittagong Hill Tracts |title=Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes against Humanity |editor-first=Dinah |editor-last=Shelton |publisher=Macmillan Library Reference |year=2004 |pages=176–177}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Premdas |first=Ralph R. |title=The Organisasi Papua Merdeka in Irian Jaya: Continuity and Change in Papua New Guinea's Relations with Indonesia |journal=[[Asian Survey]] |volume=25 |issue=10 |year=1985 |pages=1055–1074 |doi=10.2307/2644181 |jstor=2644181}}
+* {{cite book |last=Garfield |first=Seth |title=Indigenous Struggle at the Heart of Brazil: State Policy, Frontier Expansion and the Xavante Indians, 1937-1988 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0822326656 |page=143}}
+* {{cite book |last=Quigley |first=John B. |title=The Genocide Convention: An International Law Analysis |year=2006 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |isbn=978-0754647300}}
+* {{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Henry |title=Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History |chapter=Genocide in Tasmania? |year=2004|publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |isbn=978-1571814104 |editor-first=A. Dirk |editor-last=Moses |editor-link=A. Dirk Moses}}
+* {{cite book |last=Resendez |first=Andres |author-link=Andres Resendez |title=The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&q=Rese%CC%81ndez%2C%20Andre%CC%81s.%202017.%20The%20other%20slavery%3A%20the%20uncovered%20story%20of%20indian%20enslavement%20in%20America.&pg=PP1 |year=2016 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |page=448 |isbn=978-0544602670}}
+* {{cite book |last=Roy |first=Rajkumari |year=2000 |title=Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh |location=Copenhagen |publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs}}
+* {{cite book |last=Rogers |first=Benedict |title=A Land without Evil: Stopping the Genocide of Burma's Karen People |publisher=Monarch Books |year=2004}}
+* {{cite book |last=Rosenbaum |first=Alan S. |title=[[Is the Holocaust Unique?|Is the Holocaust unique?: perspectives on comparative genocide]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-8133-3686-2}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Sautman |first=Barry |title=Cultural genocide and Tibet |journal=[[Texas International Law Journal]] |volume=38 |year=2003 |issue=173–240 |url=http://www.tilj.org/content/journal/38/num2/Sautman173.pdf |access-date=26 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407073958/http://www.tilj.org/content/journal/38/num2/Sautman173.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2014}}
+* {{cite book |last=Sanford |first=Victoria |title=The Historiography of Genocide |url=https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston |url-access=limited |year=2008 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-0230279551 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historiographyge00ston/page/n557 543]–571 |editor-first=Dan |editor-last=Stone |chapter=¡Si hubo genocidio en Guatemala! Yes! There was genocide in Guatemala}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Smithers |first1=Gregory D. |author1-link=Gregory D. Smithers |title=The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |year=2013 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0199677917 |editor1-first=Donald |editor1-last=Bloxham |editor2-first=A. Dirk |editor2-last=Moses |editor2-link=A. Dirk Moses}}
+* {{cite book |last=Scherrer |first=Christian P. |title=Ethnicity Nationalism and Violence: Conflict Management, Human Rights and Multilateral Regimes |year=2003 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |isbn=978-0754609568}}
+* {{cite book |last=Sarkin-Hughes |first=Jeremy |title=Germany's Genocide of the Herero: Kaiser Wilhelm II, His General, His Settlers, His Soldiers |year=2011 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1847010322}}
+* {{cite book |last=Schaller |first=Dominik J. |title=Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History |year=2010 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |isbn=978-1845457198 |editor-first=A. Dirk |editor-last=Moses |editor-link=A. Dirk Moses |chapter=13}}
+* {{cite book |last=Stephan |first=John J. |title=The Russian Far East: A History |edition=illustrated, reprint |year=1996 |publisher=Stanford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jce4rBWjG5wC |isbn=978-0804727013 |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=17 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617144953/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jce4rBWjG5wC |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |first=David E. |last=Stannard |author-link=David Stannard |title=American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World |year=1993 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], USA |isbn=978-0-19-508557-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/americanholocaus00stan}}
+* {{cite book |last=Tatz |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Tatz |title=The Indigenous Experience: Global Perspectives |year=2006 |publisher=[[Canadian Scholars Press]] |isbn=978-1551303000 |editor1-first=Roger |editor1-last=Maaka |editor2-first=Chris |editor2-last=Andersen |chapter=8. Confronting Australian Genocide}}
+* {{cite book |first=Russel |last=Thornton |author-link=Russell Thornton |title=American Indian Holocaust and Survival: ˜a Population History Since 1492 |year=1987 |publisher=Norman: [[University of Oklahoma Press]] |isbn=978-0-8061-2074-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/americanindianho00thor_0}}
+* {{cite book |last=Trafzer |first=Clifford E. |title=Exterminate Them: Written Accounts of the Murder, Rape, and Enslavement of Native Americans During the California Goldrush |year=1999 |publisher=[[Michigan State University]] |isbn=978-0870135019 |editor1-first=Clifford E. |editor1-last=Trafzer |editor2-first=Joel R. |editor2-last=Hyer |chapter=Introduction}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Totten |first1=Samuel |author1-link=Samuel Totten |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |title=Dictionary of Genocide: A-L|year=2007|isbn=978-0313329678 |last2=Bartrop |first2=Paul Robert |author2-link=Paul R. Bartrop}}
+* {{cite news |last1=Trever |first1=David |title=The new book 'The Other Slavery' will make you rethink American history |url=https://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620020336/https://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html |archive-date=20 June 2019 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}
+* {{cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |author-link=Adrian Vickers |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JegNLNYS09UC |access-date=5 September 2013 |year=2013 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-01947-8 |archive-date=3 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503000111/https://books.google.com/books?id=JegNLNYS09UC |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |last=Warren |first=Jonathan W. |title=Racial Revolutions: Antiracism and Indian Resurgence in Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/racialrevolution0000warr |url-access=registration |year=2001 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0822327417 |page=[https://archive.org/details/racialrevolution0000warr/page/84 84]}}
+* {{cite news |last1=Watts |first1=Jonathan |author1-link=Jonathan Watts |title=Brazil's 'lost report' into genocide surfaces after 40 years |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/29/brazil-figueiredo-genocide-report |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=19 May 2013 |first2=Jan |last2=Rocha |ref={{sfnref|Watts|2013}} |access-date=14 December 2016 |archive-date=25 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225064211/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/29/brazil-figueiredo-genocide-report |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |last=Weiser |first=Martin |title=The Herero War – the First Genocide of the 20th Century? |year=2008 |publisher=GRIN Verlag |isbn=978-3638946285}}
+*{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Dianne|title=Race, Ethnicity, and Crime|date=2012|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-915-5|page=192}}
+* {{cite book |last=Wood |first=Alan |title=Russia's Frozen Frontier: A History of Siberia and the Russian Far East 1581 - 1991 |edition=illustrated |year=2011 |publisher=A&C Black |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VZZLAQAAQBAJ |isbn=978-0340971246 |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816165138/https://books.google.com/books?id=VZZLAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
+<!--* {{cite book |last1=Dhamai |first1=Binota Moy |title=The Indigenous World – 2011 |year=2011 |publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs |url=http://www.iwgia.org/regions/asia/bangladesh/847-update-2011-bangladesh |first2=Sanjeeb |last2=Drong}}
+* {{cite book |last=Jensen |first=Marianne |title=Racism Against Indigenous Peoples |year=2001 |publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs |isbn=978-8790730468 |editor1-first=Suhas |editor1-last=Chakma |editor2-first=Marianne |editor2-last=Jensen}}
+* {{cite book |last=Roy |first=Chandra |title=Minorities, Peoples and Self-Determination: Essays in Honour of Patrick Thornberry |year=2005 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |isbn=978-9004143012 |editor1-first=Nazila |editor1-last=Ghanea-Hercock |editor2-first=Alexandra |editor2-last=Xanthaki |editor3-first=Patrick |editor3-last=Thornberry}}
+-->
+* {{cite book |title=Condé Nast's Traveler, Volume 36 |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVosAQAAMAAJ |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=9 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709032702/http://books.google.com/books?id=qVosAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}
+* {{cite book |title=Yearbook |year=1992 |publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beJAAQAAIAAJ |access-date=24 April 2014 |archive-date=9 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709030655/http://books.google.com/books?id=beJAAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}
 {{refend}}
-{{Genocide topics}}
+== Further reading ==
+{{Main|Bibliography of Genocide studies}}
+* Blackhawk, Ned; Kiernan, Ben; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe, eds. (2023). "''Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One''" The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <nowiki>ISBN 978-1-108-48643-9</nowiki>.
+* Brown-Pérez, K.A. (2017). [https://newdiversities.mmg.mpg.de/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/2017_19-02_02_Brown-Perez.pdf ''By Whatever Means Necessary: The U.S. Government’s Ongoing Attempts to Remove Indigenous Peoples During an Era of Self-(De)termination'']. New Diversities, 19(2), 7-23.
+* {{cite journal |last1=Crook |first1=Martin |last2=Short |first2=Damien |last3=South |first3=Nigel |date=August 2018 |title=Ecocide, genocide, capitalism and colonialism: Consequences for indigenous peoples and glocal ecosystems environments |journal=Theoretical Criminology |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=298–317 |doi=10.1177/1362480618787176 |s2cid=150239863 |issn=1362-4806 |url=http://repository.essex.ac.uk/23005/1/RIS%20version%20Crook%20et%20al.%20--%20Ecocide%20Genocide%20Capitalism%20and%20Colonialism.pdf}}
+* {{cite book |editor1-last=Hinton |editor1-first=Alexander Laban |editor2-last=Woolford |editor2-first=Andrew |editor3-last=Benvenuto |editor3-first=Jeff |year=2014 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xBPqBQAAQBAJ |title=Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America |location=Durham, North Carolina |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-7614-9 |access-date=17 December 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Hitchcock |first1=Robert K.|last2=Totten |first2=Samuel |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5wCja8rVdo4C |title=Genocide of Indigenous Peoples: A Critical Bibliographic Review |location=Piscataway, New Jersey |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-41284-455-0 |access-date=17 December 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Kingston |first=Lindsey |date=January 2015 |title=The Destruction of Identity: Cultural Genocide and Indigenous Peoples |journal=[[Journal of Human Rights]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=63–83 |doi=10.1080/14754835.2014.886951 |s2cid=143852776 |issn=1475-4835}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Kühne |first=Thomas |date=September 2013 |title=Colonialism and the Holocaust: continuities, causations, and complexities |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=339–362 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2013.821229 |s2cid=144591957}}
+* Mcdonnell, Michael A. & Moses, A. Dirk (2005) Raphael Lemkin as historian of genocide in the Americas, ''Journal of Genocide Research'', 7:4, 501-529, {{doi|10.1080/14623520500349951}}
+* {{cite book |editor-last=Moses |editor-first=A. D. |editor-link=A. Dirk Moses |date=2008 |title=Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]]}}
+** {{cite journal |last1=Adas |first1=Michael |year=2009 |title=Reviewed work: Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History, A. Dirk Moses |journal=The International History Review |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=860–862 |jstor=40647058}}
+** {{cite journal |last1=Melson |first1=Robert |year=2009 |title=Reviewed work: Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History, A. Dirk Moses |journal=Journal of World History |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=463–466 |doi=10.1353/jwh.0.0062 |jstor=40542813 |s2cid=161204084}}
+* {{cite book |editor1-last=Moses |editor1-first=Dirk |editor2-last=Stone |editor2-first=Dan |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_TndAAAAQBAJ |title=Colonialism and Genocide |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-99753-5 |access-date=17 December 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Rubaii |first1=Nadia M. |first2=Sebastián |last2=Lippez-De Castro |first3=Susan |last3=Appe |date=June 2019 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3406059 |title=Indigenous peoples as victims of past and current genocides: an essential topic for the public administration curriculum in Latin America |journal=Opera |number=25 |pages=29–54 |doi=10.18601/16578651.n25.03|ssrn=3406059 }}
+* {{cite journal |last=Short |first=Damien |date=November 2010 |title=Cultural genocide and indigenous peoples: a sociological approach |journal=The International Journal of Human Rights |publisher=[[Routledge]] |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=833–848 |doi=10.1080/13642987.2010.512126 |s2cid=144763824 |issn=1364-2987}}
+* {{cite book |last=Short |first=Damien |year=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vudiDgAAQBAJ |title=Redefining Genocide: Settler Colonialism, Social Death and Ecocide |location=London |publisher=Zed Books |isbn=978-1-78360-170-7 |access-date=17 December 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}
+* {{cite journal |last=Wolfe |first=Patrick |date=December 2006 |title=Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native |journal=[[Journal of Genocide Research]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=387–409 |doi=10.1080/14623520601056240 |s2cid=143873621 |doi-access=free}}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Woolford |first1=Andrew |last2=Benvenuto |first2=Jeff |date=2 October 2015 |title=Canada and colonial genocide |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=373–390 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2015.1096580 |s2cid=74263719 |doi-access=free}}
+{{genocide topics}}
 [[Category:Genocide of indigenous peoples| ]]
-[[Category:Genocide]]
 [[Category:Anti-indigenous racism]]
+[[Category:Genocide]]
+[[Category:Racially motivated violence]]
+[[Category:Settler colonialism]]
+[[Category:Massacres of ethnic groups]]

Revision as of 19:39, 20 June 2024

Genocide debate

Broader conceptions of genocide

United Nations' definition of Genocide

Indigenous peoples of Europe (pre-1947)

British colonization of Ireland

Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks, Karaites

Circassian genocide

Cultural genocide in Scandinavia

Nazi Germany

Indigenous peoples of the Americas (pre-1948)

Causes of Indigenous Deaths

Categorization as a genocide

Spanish colonization of the Americas

British colonization of the Americas

Beaver Wars

Kalinago genocide

Attempted extermination of the Pequot

Massacre of the Narragansett people

French and Indian War and Pontiac's War

Canada

Mexico

Apaches

Mayas

Yaquis

Argentina

Paraguay

Chile

Putumayo genocide

United States colonization of Indigenous territories

Sterilization of Native women

Native American boarding schools

Indian Removal

American Indian Wars

United States acquisition of California

Politics of modern Brazil

Indigenous peoples of Africa (pre-1948)

French colonization of Africa

Algeria

Congo Free State

Spanish colonization of the Canary Islands

Genocide in German South West Africa

Italian occupied Libya

Indigenous peoples of Asia (pre-1947)

Armenian genocide

Russian tsarist conquest of Siberia

Japanese Empire

Colonization of Hokkaido

Colonization of Ryukyu

Cultural genocide in Korea

Vietnamese conquest of Champa

Qing dynasty

Dzungar genocide

Bandanese massacre

March across Samar

Famines in British India

Indigenous peoples of Oceania (pre-1945)

Australia

New Zealand

Moriori genocide

Blackbirding in the Pacific Islands

Contemporary examples

Afghanistan

Bangladesh

Brazil

Canada

China

Tibet

Xinjiang

Inner Mongolia

Colombia

Congo (DRC)

Darfur

East Timor

Guatemala

Indonesia

Israel

Myanmar/Burma

Paraguay

Peru