THC Science

Christianity and colonialism are often closely associated with each other because Catholicism and Protestantism were the state religions of the European colonial powers^[1] and in many ways they acted as the "religious arms" of those powers.^[2] According to Edward Andrews, Christian missionaries were initially portrayed as "visible saints, exemplars of ideal piety in a sea of persistent savagery". However, by the time the colonial era drew to a close in the last half of the twentieth century, missionaries became viewed as "ideological shock troops for colonial invasion whose zealotry blinded them",^[3] colonialism's "agent, scribe and moral alibi."^[4]

Background

Christianity is targeted by critics of colonialism because the tenets of the religion were used to justify the actions of the colonists.^[5] For example, Toyin Falola asserts that there were some missionaries who believed that "the agenda of colonialism in Africa was similar to that of Christianity".^[6] Falola cites Jan H. Boer of the Sudan United Mission as saying, "Colonialism is a form of imperialism based on a divine mandate and designed to bring liberation – spiritual, cultural, economic and political – by sharing the blessings of the Christ-inspired civilization of the West with a people suffering under satanic oppression, ignorance and disease, effected by a combination of political, economic and religious forces that cooperate under a regime seeking the benefit of both ruler and ruled."^[6]

Edward Andrews writes:

Historians have traditionally looked at Christian missionaries in one of two ways. The first church historians to catalogue missionary history provided hagiographic descriptions of their trials, successes, and sometimes even martyrdom. Missionaries were thus visible saints, exemplars of ideal piety in a sea of persistent savagery. However, by the middle of the twentieth century, an era marked by civil rights movements, anti-colonialism, and growing secularization, missionaries were viewed quite differently. Instead of godly martyrs, historians now described missionaries as arrogant and rapacious imperialists. Christianity became not a saving grace but a monolithic and aggressive force that missionaries imposed upon defiant natives. Indeed, missionaries were now understood as important agents in the ever-expanding nation-state, or "ideological shock troops for colonial invasion whose zealotry blinded them."^[3]

According to Jake Meador, "some Christians have tried to make sense of post-colonial Christianity by renouncing practically everything about the Christianity of the colonizers. They reason that if the colonialists’ understanding of Christianity could be used to justify rape, murder, theft, and empire then their understanding of Christianity is completely wrong. "^[7]

According to Lamin Sanneh, "(m)uch of the standard Western scholarship on Christian missions proceeds by looking at the motives of individual missionaries and concludes by faulting the entire missionary enterprise as being part of the machinery of Western cultural imperialism." As an alternative to this view, Sanneh presents a different perspective arguing that "missions in the modern era have been far more, and far less, than the argument about motives customarily portrayed."^[8]

Michael Wood asserts that the indigenous peoples were not considered to be human beings and that the colonisers was shaped by "centuries of Ethnocentrism, and Christian monotheism, which espoused one truth, one time and version of reality."^[9]

Age of Discovery

During the Age of Discovery, the Catholic Church inaugurated a major effort to spread Christianity in the New World and to convert the Native Americans and other indigenous people. The missionary effort was a major part of, and a partial justification for the colonial efforts of European powers such as Spain, France and Portugal. Christian Missions to the indigenous peoples ran hand-in-hand with the colonial efforts of Catholic nations. In the Americas and other colonies in Asia and Africa, most missions were run by religious orders such as the Augustinians, Franciscans, Jesuits and Dominicans.

In both Portugal and Spain, religion was an integral part of the state and evangelization was seen as having both secular and spiritual benefits. Wherever these powers attempted to expand their territories or influence, missionaries would soon follow. By the Treaty of Tordesillas, the two powers divided the world between them into exclusive spheres of influence, trade and colonization. The Roman Catholic world order was challenged by the Netherlands and England. Theoretically, it was repudiated by Grotius's Mare Liberum. Portugal's and Spain's colonial policies were also challenged by the Roman Catholic Church itself. The Vatican founded the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide in 1622 and attempted to separate the churches from the influence of the Iberian kingdoms.

Americas

Jan van Butselaar writes that "for Prince Henry the Navigator and his contemporaries, the colonial enterprise was based on the necessity to develop European commerce and the obligation to propagate the Christian faith."^[10]

Christian leaders and Christian doctrines have been accused of justifying and perpetrating violence against Native Americans found in the New World.^[11]

Spanish missions

Adriaan van Oss wrote:

If we had to choose a single, irreducible idea underlying Spanish colonialism in the New World, it would undoubtedly be the propagation of the Catholic faith. Unlike such other European colonizing powers as England or the Netherlands, Spain insisted on converting the natives of the lands it conquered to its state religion. Miraculously, it succeeded. Introduced in the context of Iberian expansionism, Catholicism outlived the empire itself and continues to thrive, not as an anachronistic vestige among the elite, but as a vital current even in remote mountain villages. Catholic Christianity remains the principal colonial heritage of Spain in America. More than any set of economic relationships with the outside world, more even than the language first brought to America's shores in 1492, the Catholic religion continues to permeate Spanish-American culture today, creating an overriding cultural unity which transcends the political and national boundaries dividing the continent.^[12]

The Spanish were the first of the future European countries to colonize North and South America. They came into the region predominantly through Cuba and Puerto Rico and into Florida.^[13] The Spaniards were committed, by Vatican decree, to convert their New World indigenous subjects to Catholicism. However, often initial efforts (both docile and coerced) were questionably successful, as the indigenous people added Catholicism into their longstanding traditional ceremonies and beliefs. The many native expressions, forms, practices, and items of art could be considered idolatry and prohibited or destroyed by Spanish missionaries, military, and civilians. This included religious items, sculptures, and jewelry made of gold or silver, which were melted down before shipment to Spain.^[14]

Though the Spanish did not impose their language to the extent they did their religion, some indigenous languages of the Americas evolved into replacement with Spanish, and lost to present day tribal members. When more efficient they did evangelize in native languages. The introduction of writing systems to the Quechua, Nahuatl and Guarani peoples may have contributed to their expansion.^{[citation needed]}

In the early years most mission work was undertaken by the religious orders. Over time it was intended that a normal church structure would be established in the mission areas. The process began with the formation of special jurisdictions, known as apostolic prefectures and apostolic vicariates. These developing churches eventually graduated to regular diocesan status with the appointment of a local bishop. After decolonization, this process increased in pace as church structures altered to reflect new political-administrative realities. ^[15]

Ralph Bauer describes the Franciscan missionaries as having been "unequivocally committed to Spanish imperialism, condoning the violence and coercion of the Conquest as the only viable method of bringing American natives under the saving rule of Christianity."^[16] Jordan writes "The catastrophe of Spanish America's rape at the hands of the Conquistadors remains one of the most potent and pungent examples in the entire history of human conquest of the wanton destruction of one culture by another in the name of religion"^[17]

Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican friar on the island of Hispaniola, was the first member of the clergy to publicly denounce all forms of enslavement and oppression of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.^[18] Theologians such as Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de las Casas drew up theological and philosophical bases for the defense of the human rights of the colonized native populations, thus creating the basis of international law, regulating the relationships between nations.

The Native Americans only gave way to the force of the European after they were overcome with the diseases the Europeans had spread.^[19] The Evangelization of the natives in the Americas began with private colonization. The Crown tried to establish rules to protect the natives against any unjust war of conquest. The Spanish could start a war against those who rejected the kings authority and who were aware and also rejected Christianity. There was a doctrine developed that allowed the conquest of natives if they were uncivilized.^[13]

Friars and Jesuits learned native languages instead of teaching the natives Spanish because they were trying to protect them from the colonists’ negative influences. In addition, the missionaries felt it was important to show the positive aspects of the new religion to the natives after the epidemics and harsh conquest that had just occurred.^[19]

French missions

The Jesuit order (the Society of Jesus) established missions among the Iroquois in North America by the 1650s–1660s. Their success in the study of indigenous languages Was appreciated by the Iroquois, who helped them expand into the Great Lakes region by 1675. Their order was banished from France in 1736, but they did not entirely disappear from North America, and an American diocese was established in 1804.^[20]

In the 1830s Marist missionaries from the Catholic Society of Mary promoted missions to various Pacific islands Oceana. The head of the order Friar Jean-Claude Colin and Bishop Jean-Baptiste-François Pompallier worked in close conjunction with the colonized imperialism and colony-building program of the French government.^[21] Trouble arose in Hawaii, where the local government strongly favored Protestant missionaries from the United States over the Picpusien Fathers, who had established a mission in Honolulu in 1827. Puritanical American missionaries wanted the Catholics expelled until the French Navy arrived in 1839 and issued an ultimatum to tolerate the Catholics.^[22]

Jesuit missions

Various missions and initiatives of the Jesuits predated, accompanied and followed western colonization across the world. In Lithuania, since 1579 the Jesuit-founded Vilnius University spearheaded Counterreformation, eradication of indigenous religion and language. At around the same time in China, Korea and Japan Jesuit missions predated western military incursions by a couple of centuries. The incursions were not only ideological but scientific – the Jesuits reformed the Chinese lunisolar calendar in 1645, a change described as “pathological”^[23]. 17th-century India deserved a mission to study Brahmanical knowledge^[24] and Christianizing missions were dispatched to native North Americans. Jesuit missions were documented in biannual Jesuit Relations:

In "Harvest of Souls: The Jesuit Missions and Colonialism in North America, 1632–1650", Carole Blackburn uses the Jesuit Relations to shed light on the dialogue between Jesuit missionaries and the Native peoples of northeastern North America. In 1632 Jesuit missionary Paul Le Jeune, newly arrived at the fort of Quebec, wrote the first of the Relations to his superior in Paris, initiating a series of biannual mission reports that came to be known as the Jesuit Relations. Blackburn presents a contemporary interpretation of the 1632–1650 Relations, arguing that they are colonizing texts in which the Jesuits use language, imagery, and forms of knowledge to legitimize relations of inequality with the Huron and Montagnais. (...) Blackburn shows that this resulted in the displacement of much of the content of the message and demonstrates that the Native people's acts of resistance took up and transformed aspects of the Jesuits' teachings in ways that subverted their authority.^[25]

In 1721, Jesuit Ippolito Desideri tried to Christianize Tibetans but permission from the Order was not granted.^[26]

Jesuits themselves participated in economic colonization, founding and operating vast ranches in Peru^[27] and Argentina^[28] to this day. Jesuit reductions were socialist theocratic settlements for indigenous people specifically in the Rio Grande do Sul area of Brazil, Paraguay and neighbouring Argentina in South America, established by the Jesuit Order early in the 17th century and wound up in the 18th century with the banning of the order in several European countries.

A large body of scientific work exists examining entanglements between Jesuit missions, western science emanating from Jesuit-founded universities, colonization and globalization. Since the global Jesuit network grew so large as to necessitate direct connections between branches without passing though Vatican, Jesuit order can be seen as one of the earliest examples of global organizations and globalization.

Japan

First Christian missionaries arrived in Kyushu in 1542 from Portugal and brought gunpowder with them. Jesuit Francis Xavier arrived in 1550.^[29].

India

The Goa Inquisition was an extension of the Portuguese Inquisition in colonial-era Portuguese India. The Inquisition was established to force conversion to the Roman Catholic Church and maintain Catholic orthodoxy in the Indian dominions of the Portuguese Empire. The institution persecuted Hindus, Muslims, Bene Israels, New Christians and the Judaizing Nasranis by the colonial era Portuguese government and Jesuit clergy in Portuguese India. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774 to 1778, continued thereafter and finally abolished in 1820.

As was the case elsewhere, physical force and religious propaganda were combined with extractive economic policies. Xenddi was a discriminatory religious tax imposed on Hindus by the colonial era Portuguese Christian government in 17th-century Goa with the pretext that Hindus did not own any land in Goa and only the Christians did. Oppressive and arbitrary, its collection based on severe extortions and abuses, the tax was considered to be an example of religious intolerance by the neighboring Maratha Empire, which made its abolishment a condition for a mutual armistice agreement. Goan government initially refused, stating that the Xenddi tax was a matter of the Church, which the Portuguese state cannot interfere in. Expanded to all of Portuguese colonies in the Indian subcontinent by 1705, the Xenddi tax was abolished in 1840.

In India, the British missionaries were often in conflict with British administrators and businessmen. Missionaries had moderate success among the scheduled classes. In French-controlled Vietnam, and a Japanese-controlled Korea, the Christian missionaries had significant success in terms of membership.^[30]

Christianity had a more subtle effect, reaching far beyond the converted population to potential modernizers. The introduction of European medicine was especially important, as well as the introduction of European political practices and ideals such as religious liberty, mass education, mass printing, newspapers, voluntary organizations, colonial reforms, and especially liberal democracy.^[31]

Violence against Christians in India can be seen within the context of colonialism.

Africa

Although there were some earlier small-scale efforts, the major missionary activities from Europe and North America came late in the 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa.^[32]

Christian evangelists were intimately involved in the colonial process in southern Africa.^[33] The missionaries discovered increasingly that the medical and educational services they could provide were highly welcome to Africans who were not responsive to theological appeals. When Christian missionaries came to Africa, some native peoples were very hostile and not accepting of the missionaries in Africa. Even though there were some Christian missionaries that went about colonizing the native Africans in unchristian ways^{[definition needed]} there were some missionaries were truly devoted to colonizing through peaceful means and truly thought that the people of Africa needed to be taught that Jesus was their Savior.^[34]

David Livingstone (1813–1873), a Scottish missionary, became world-famous in the Anglophone world. He worked after 1840 north of the Orange River with the London Missionary Society, as an explorer, missionary and writer. He became one of the most popular British heroes of the late 19th-century Victorian era. He had a mythical status that operated on a number of interconnected levels: Protestant missionary martyr, inspirational story of rising from the poor, scientific investigator and explorer, imperial reformer, anti-slavery crusader, and advocate of British commercial and colonial expansion.

French Catholic missionaries worked in the extensive colonial holdings in Africa. However, in independent Ethiopia (Abyssinia), four French Franciscan sisters arrived in 1897, summoned there by the Capuchin missionaries. By 1925, they were very well-established, running an orphanage, a dispensary, a leper colony and 10 schools with 350 girl students. The schools were highly attractive to upper-class Ethiopians.^[35]

In French West Africa in the 1930s, a serious debate emerged between the French missionaries on the one side, and the upper-class local leadership that had been attending French schools in preparation for eventual leadership. Many of them had become Marxists, and French officials worried that they were creating their own Frankenstein monster. The French shifted priorities to set up rural schools for the poor lower classes, and an effort to support indigenous African culture and produce reliable collaborators with the French regime, instead of far-left revolutionaries seeking to overthrow it. The French plan to work through local traditional chiefs. For the same reason they also set up Koranic schools and Muslim areas. The traditional chiefs would be paid larger salaries and have charge of tax collection, local courts, military recruiting, and obtaining forced labor for public works projects. The Governments program seemed a threat to the ambitions of the Marxist locals and they wanted them closed. The Marxist incited labor strikes, amd encouraged immigration to British territories. When the fire-right Petain government came to power in Vichy France in 1940, a high priority was to remove the educated Marxist elite from any positions of authority in French West Africa.^[36]

Long-term impact

Walter Rodney a Marxist historian based at the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania developed an influential attack on Europe in How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (1972). He mentioned the missionaries:

The Christian missionaries were much part of the colonizing forces as were the explorers, traders and soldiers. There may be room for arguing whether in a given colony the missionaries brought other colonialist forces or vice versa, but there is no doubting the fact that missionaries were agents of colonialism in the practical sense whether or not they saw themselves in that light.^[37]

According to Heather Sharkey, the real impact of the activities of the missionaries is still a topic open to debate in academia today.^[38] Sharkey asserted that "the missionaries played manifold roles in colonial Africa and stimulated forms of cultural, political and religious change." "Historians still debate the nature of their impact and question their relation to the system of European colonialism in the continent." She noted that the missionaries did great good in Africa, providing crucial social services such as modern education and health care that would have otherwise not been available. Sharkey said that, in societies that were traditionally male-dominated, female missionaries provided women in Africa with health care knowledge and basic education.^[39]

Current Christian perspectives

Pope Francis, a Jesuit, has frequently criticized the colonialism and neocolonialism of the Christian nations of the Global North, referring to colonialism as "blasphemy against God" and saying that "many grave sins were committed against the native peoples of America in the name of God." Speaking with hindsight and on the basis of current theology, Francis said: "No actual or established power has the right to deprive peoples of the full exercise of their sovereignty." He also speaks of “the new colonialism [which] takes on different faces. At times it appears as the anonymous influence of mammon: corporations, loan agencies, certain ‘free trade’ treaties, and the imposition of measures of ‘austerity’ which always tighten the belt of workers and the poor."^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43]

References

^ Melvin E. Page, Penny M. Sonnenburg (2003). Colonialism: an international, social, cultural, and political encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 496. Of all religions, Christianity has been most associated with colonialism because several of its forms (Catholicism and Protestantism) were the religions of the European powers engaged in colonial enterprise on a global scale.
^ Bevans, Steven. "Christian Complicity in Colonialism/ Globalism" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-24. Retrieved 2010-11-17. The modern missionary era was in many ways the 'religious arm' of colonialism, whether Portuguese and Spanish colonialism in the sixteenth Century, or British, French, German, Belgian or American colonialism in the nineteenth. This was not all bad — oftentimes missionaries were heroic defenders of the rights of indigenous peoples
^ ^a ^b Andrews, Edward (2010). "Christian Missions and Colonial Empires Reconsidered: A Black Evangelist in West Africa, 1766–1816". Journal of Church & State. 51 (4): 663–691. doi:10.1093/jcs/csp090.
^ Comaroff, Jean; Comaroff, John (2010) [1997]. "Africa Observed: Discourses of the Imperial Imagination". In Grinker, Roy R.; Lubkemann, Stephen C.; Steiner, Christopher B. (eds.). Perspectives on Africa: A Reader in Culture, History and Representation (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 32.
^ Meador, Jake. "Cosmetic Christianity and the Problem of Colonialism – Responding to Brian McLaren". Retrieved 2010-11-17. According to Jake Meador, "some Christians have tried to make sense of post-colonial Christianity by renouncing practically everything about the Christianity of the colonizers. They reason that if the colonialists' understanding of Christianity could be used to justify rape, murder, theft, and empire then their understanding of Christianity is completely wrong.
^ ^a ^b Falola, Toyin (2001). Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologies. University Rochester Press. p. 33.
^ Meador, Jake. "Cosmetic Christianity and the Problem of Colonialism – Responding to Brian McLaren". Retrieved 2010-11-17.
^ Sanneth, Lamin (April 8, 1987). "Christian Missions and the Western Guilt Complex". The Christian Century. The Christian Century Foundation: 331–334. Archived from the original on July 6, 2017. Retrieved 2010-12-02.
^ Conquistadors, Michael Wood, p. 20, BBC Publications, 2000
^ Gerrie ter Haar; James J. Busuttil, eds. (2005). Bridge or barrier: religion, violence, and visions for peace, Volume 2001. Brill. p. 125.
^ Carroll, Vincent, Christianity on trial: arguments against anti-religious bigotry, p 87.
^ van Oss, Adriaan C. Catholic Colonialism: A Parish History of Guatemala, 1524–1821.
^ ^a ^b "Christianity and Colonial Expansion in the Americas | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2019-05-05.
^ Golden, Brenda (2010-08-24). "A Native Take on Terrorism, the Towers and Tolerance".
^ Hastings, Adrian, A World History of Christianity, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000, pp 330–349
^ Bauer, Ralph (2001). Finding colonial Americas: essays honoring J.A. Leo Lemay. University of Delaware Press. p. 35.
^ "In the Name of God : Violence and Destruction in the World's Religions", M. Jordan, 2006, p. 230
^ Hanke, Lewis. (1946) Free Speech in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America. The Hispanic American Historical Review, 26,2:135–149. Page 142.
^ ^a ^b MacCulloch, Diarmaid, author. (2011). Christianity : the first three thousand years. ISBN 9780143118695. OCLC 698442581. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Daniel Hechenberger, "The Jesuits: History and Impact: From Their Origins Prior to the Baroque Crisis to Their Role in the Illinois Country." Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 100#2 (2007): 85–109 Online.
^ William Jennings, "The First Marist Missionaries and French Colonial Policy in the Pacific (1836–42)." "French History & Civilization (2014), Vol. 5, pp 112–122.
^ Mary Ellen Birkett, "Forging French Colonial Policy in the Pacific." French Colonial History 8.1 (2007): 155–169.
^ Martzloff, Jean-Claude (2015). Astronomy and Calendars – The Other Chinese Mathematics: 104 BC – AD 1644. Springer.
^ Županov, Ines G. (2000). Disputed Mission: Jesuit Experiments and Brahmanical Knowledge in Seventeenth-century India. Oxford University Press.
^ Blackburn, Carole (2000). Harvest of Souls: The Jesuit Missions and Colonialism in North America, 1632–1650. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP.
^ Lopez Jr., Jinpa, Donald S., Thupten (2017). Dispelling the Darkness: A Jesuit’s Quest for the Soul of Tibet. Harvard University Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Cushner, Nicholas P. (1980). Lords of the Land: Sugar, Wine, and Jesuit Estates of Coastal Peru, 1600–1767. SUNY Press.
^ Cushner, Nicholas P. (1983). Jesuit Ranches and the Agrarian Development of Colonial Argentina, 1650–1767. SUNY Press.
^ Hoffman, Michael (2014-12-20). "Christian missionaries find Japan a tough nut to crack". The Japan Times Online. ISSN 0447-5763. Retrieved 2019-05-05.
^ Samuel Hugh Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia, Vol. II: 1500–1900 (2003) online.
^ Robert D. Woodberry, "The missionary roots of liberal democracy." American Political Science Review 106#2 (2012): 244–274. online Archived 2017-08-09 at the Wayback Machine
^ Kenneth Scott Latourette, The Great Century: North Africa and Asia 1800 A.D. to 1914 A.D. (A History of The Expansion of Christianity, Volume 6) (1943) pp 301–464.
^ Comaroff, Jean; Comaroff, John (1986). "Christianity and Colonialism in South Africa b". American Ethnologist. 13 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1525/ae.1986.13.1.02a00010.
^ Chiwanza, Takudzwa Hillary. "How Christianity Was Used to Exploit Africans". The African Exponent. Retrieved 2019-05-05.
^ Pierre Guidi, "‘For good, God, and the Empire’: French Franciscan sisters in Ethiopia 1896–1937." History of Education 47.3 (2018): 384–398. online
^ James E. Genova, . "Conflicted missionaries: power and identity in French West Africa during the 1930s." The Historian 66.1 (2004): 45–66. Online
^ Gerald K. Tanye (2010). The Church-as-family and Ethnocentrism in Sub-Saharan Africa. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 64. ISBN 9783643107978.
^ Heather J. Sharkey, Cultural Conversions: Unexpected Consequences of Christian Missionary Encounters in the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia (Syracuse UP, 2013).
^ Taimur Khan, "Religion in colonial Africa: Professor Heather Sharkey spoke about the role of Christian missionaries in the region" The Daily Pennsylvanian Oct 29, 2002
^ "Pope Francis Apologizes to Indigenous Peoples for 'Grave Sins' of Colonialism". IndianCountryToday.com. Retrieved 2019-09-25.
^ "Pope Francis: Ideological colonization a 'blasphemy against God'". Crux. 2017-11-21. Retrieved 2019-09-25.
^ Soloway, Benjamin. "Pope Francis Apologizes for Church's Colonial Sins". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 2019-09-25.
^ Reuters (2015-07-10). "Unbridled capitalism is the 'dung of the devil', says Pope Francis". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2019-09-25. {{cite news}}: |last= has generic name (help)

@@ Line 14: / Line 14: @@
 Michael Wood asserts that the [[indigenous peoples]] were not considered to be human beings and that the colonisers was shaped by "centuries of [[Ethnocentrism]], and Christian monotheism, which espoused one truth, one time and version of reality."<ref>Conquistadors, Michael Wood, p. 20, BBC Publications, 2000</ref>
-==Classical world==
-<blockquote> In “The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World” Catherine Nixey tells how a militant religion deliberately tried to extinguish the teachings of the Classical world, ushering in unquestioning adherence to the 'one true faith'.<ref name="Nixey">{{cite book|last=Nixey|first=Catherine|title=The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World|publisher=Macmillan|year=2017}}</ref></blockquote>
-==Northern, Prussian, Lithuanian, Livonian Crusades==
-[[Northern Crusades]], including the [[Prussian Crusade]] and [[Lithuanian Crusade]], predated combined deployment of Western European military and religious-ideological propaganda in both Latin America and Asia. Similarly to Christian colonialism in [[Martyrs of Japan|Japan]], [[Chinese Martyrs|China]] and [[Korean Martyrs|Korea]], Christian missionaries were resisted and, if over-persistent, executed ([[Adalbert of Prague|Saint Adalbert]], [[Bruno of Querfurt|Saint Bruno]]). This served as an excuse for full-scale military invasion, looting, ethnic cleansing, enslavement, cultural and religious destruction, [[Christianization]] and suppression of information.<ref>Pluskowski, Aleksander, ''The Archaeology of the Prussian Crusade'', Routledge, 2013</ref><ref name="shc.stanford.edu">Pluskowski, Aleksander, "Crusading into the medieval Baltic: Stanford Humanities Center Q&A with Aleks Pluskowski" [http://shc.stanford.edu/news/qa-research/crusading-medieval-baltic-stanford-humanities-center-qa-aleks-pluskowski ''Stanford Humanities Center'' Dec 12, 2016]</ref>
-Stanford Humanities Center summarizes Aleksander Pluskowski’s “The Archaeology of the Prussian Crusade: Holy War and Colonisation”:
-<blockquote> At the outset of the northern crusades, Christian monarchs across northern Europe commissioned forays into territories that comprise modern-day Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Russia. Pagans or eastern Orthodox Christians, the indigenous populations suffered forced baptisms and the ravages of military occupation. Spearheading, but by no means monopolizing these incursions, the ascendant [[Teutonic Order]] profited immensely from the crusades, as did [[Baltic Germans|German merchants]] who fanned out along trading routes traversing the Baltic frontier.<ref name="shc.stanford.edu"/> </blockquote>
-===Colony of Terra Mariana===
-In what is now [[Latvia]] and [[Estonia]], the [[Teutonic Order]] established [[Terra Mariana]] (1207-1561), a [[colony]] that started as a formal part of [[Holy Roman Empire]] but shortly came under direct control of the [[metropole]] of the [[Holy See]], or the [[Vatican]]. Control was parceled out among [[king of Denmark]], an archbishop, three bishops, [[Livonian Order]], ethnic German colonist merchants and two [[Hanseatic League]] cities.
-In 1236 [[Battle of Saule]] was the first major defeat of the western [[military order|military orders]] in the region. Since 2000 it is celebrated as [[Baltic Unity Day]].
-In 1343-45 the colonial rule, church and lay taxation and discrimination (only 2% of new elites were indigenous) inspired [[Saint George's Night Uprising]] by native peoples. Having set out to initially “kill all the Germans” and Christian monks, the rebels elected four kings, who however were killed when the Germans broke the code of honor and did not grant the kings safe return after negotiations. Oath-breaking towards pagans is an enduring Christian colonial practice worldwide. Interestingly, women participated in the rebellion as equals, killing German women and children. Subsequently the colony was sold by [[Denmark]] to the military-monastic [[Teutonic Order]].
-In 1561, following [[Treaty of Vilnius]], Terra Mariana ceased to exist, with spoils going to [[Sweden]] and [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]].
 ==Age of Discovery==
@@ Line 47: / Line 30: @@
 Christian leaders and Christian doctrines have been accused of justifying and perpetrating violence against Native Americans found in the New World.<ref name="Carroll, Vincent p 87">Carroll, Vincent, ''Christianity on trial: arguments against anti-religious bigotry'', p 87.</ref>
-===Spanish missionaries===
+===Spanish missions===
 {{main|Spanish missions in the Americas}}
@@ Line 70: / Line 53: @@
 [[Friar]]s and Jesuits learned native languages instead of teaching the natives [[Spanish language|Spanish]] because they were trying to protect them from the colonists’ negative influences. In addition, the missionaries felt it was important to show the positive aspects of the new religion to the natives after the [[epidemic]]s and harsh conquest that had just occurred.<ref name=":1" />
-==French missions==
+=== French missions===
 {{main|French colonization of the Americas|France Équinoxiale|Protectorate of missions}}
 The Jesuit order (the Society of Jesus) established missions among the Iroquois in North America by the 1650s–1660s.  Their success in the study of indigenous languages Was appreciated by the Iroquois, who helped them expand into the Great Lakes region by 1675. Their order was banished from France in 1736, but they did not entirely disappear from North America, and an American diocese was established in 1804.<ref>Daniel Hechenberger,  "The Jesuits: History and Impact: From Their Origins Prior to the Baroque Crisis to Their Role in the Illinois Country." ''Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society'' 100#2 (2007): 85–109 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40204675 Online].</ref>
@@ Line 76: / Line 59: @@
 In the 1830s Marist missionaries from the Catholic Society of Mary promoted missions to various Pacific islands Oceana. The head of the order Friar Jean-Claude Colin  and Bishop Jean-Baptiste-François Pompallier worked in close conjunction with the colonized imperialism and colony-building program of the French government.<ref>William Jennings, "The First Marist Missionaries and French Colonial Policy in the Pacific (1836–42)." ''"French History & Civilization'' (2014), Vol. 5, pp 112–122.</ref> Trouble arose in Hawaii, where the local government strongly favored Protestant missionaries from the United States over the  Picpusien Fathers, who had established a mission in Honolulu in 1827. Puritanical American missionaries wanted the Catholics expelled until the French Navy arrived in 1839 and [[Laplace affair|issued an ultimatum]] to tolerate the Catholics.<ref>Mary Ellen Birkett, "Forging French Colonial Policy in the Pacific." ''French Colonial History'' 8.1 (2007): 155–169.</ref>
+=== Jesuit missions===
-==China==
+Various missions and initiatives of the [[Jesuit order|Jesuits]] predated, accompanied and followed western colonization across the world. In Lithuania, since 1579 the Jesuit-founded [[Vilnius University]] spearheaded [[Counterreformation]], eradication of [[Lithuanian mythology|indigenous religion]] and [[Lithuanian language|language]]. At around the same time in China, Korea and Japan Jesuit missions predated western military incursions by a couple of centuries. The incursions were not only ideological but scientific – the Jesuits reformed the Chinese lunisolar calendar in 1645, a change described as “pathological”<ref name="Martzloff">{{cite book|last=Martzloff|first=Jean-Claude|title= Astronomy and Calendars – The Other Chinese Mathematics: 104 BC – AD 1644 |publisher=Springer|year=2015}}</ref>. 17th-century India deserved a mission to study [[Brahmanism|Brahmanical]] knowledge<ref name="Županov">{{cite book|last=Županov|first=Ines G.|title= Disputed Mission: Jesuit Experiments and Brahmanical Knowledge in Seventeenth-century India |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000}}</ref> and Christianizing missions were dispatched to native North Americans. Jesuit missions were documented in biannual Jesuit Relations:
-The Franciscan monk John of Montecorvino (1246–1328) reached the Yuan capital of Cambaluc (Beijing) in 1294 and built his first church there in 1299.
+<blockquote> In "Harvest of Souls: The Jesuit Missions and Colonialism in North America, 1632–1650", Carole Blackburn uses the Jesuit Relations to shed light on the dialogue between Jesuit missionaries and the Native peoples of northeastern North America. In 1632 Jesuit missionary [[Paul Le Jeune]], newly arrived at the fort of Quebec, wrote the first of the Relations to his superior in Paris, initiating a series of biannual mission reports that came to be known as the Jesuit Relations.
-In 1600, [[East India Company]] was founded and first Jesuit [[Jesuit China missions|missionaries]] reached Beijing.
+Blackburn presents a contemporary interpretation of the 1632–1650 Relations, arguing that they are colonizing texts in which the Jesuits use language, imagery, and forms of knowledge to legitimize relations of inequality with the Huron and Montagnais. (...) Blackburn shows that this resulted in the displacement of much of the content of the message and demonstrates that the Native people's acts of resistance took up and transformed aspects of the Jesuits' teachings in ways that subverted their authority.<ref name="Blackburn">{{cite book|last=Blackburn|first=Carole|title=Harvest of Souls: The Jesuit Missions and Colonialism in North America, 1632–1650|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |year=2000}}</ref></blockquote>
+In 1721, Jesuit Ippolito Desideri tried to Christianize Tibetans but permission from the Order was not granted.<ref name="Lopez Jr., Jinpa">{{cite book|last=Lopez Jr., Jinpa|first=Donald S., Thupten|title=Dispelling the Darkness: A Jesuit’s Quest for the Soul of Tibet|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref>
-[[Matteo Ricci]] was an early leader of Jesuit-led campaigns to [[Christianization|Christianize]] China which involved almost 1,000 priests over ~250 years. China fought back by way of [[Nanjing incident of 1616]] and by executing select Christian missionaries, known as [[Chinese Martyrs]]. [[Opium wars]], waged against China by British [[East India Company]] and British military, followed together with Christian-inspired [[total war]] [[Taiping Rebellion]] and [[Jintian Uprising]] led by [[Hong Xiuquan]], his [[God Worshipping Society]] and the affiliated [[Tiandihui]] resulted in loss of 10–30 million lives and destruction of countless [[Taoist]] and [[Buddhist]] [[temples]] and [[shrines]] in order to create [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]]; additional 2 million Chinese lives were lost during [[Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)]]. The Chinese fought against this by way of the anti-Christian [[Boxer Rebellion]], [[Anti-Christian Movement (China)|Anti-Christian Movement]] and [[Nanking incident of 1927]].
+Jesuits themselves participated in economic colonization, founding and operating vast ranches in Peru<ref name="Cushner">{{cite book|last=Cushner|first=Nicholas P.|title=Lords of the Land: Sugar, Wine, and Jesuit Estates of Coastal Peru, 1600–1767|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1980}}</ref> and Argentina<ref name="Cushner 2">{{cite book|last=Cushner|first=Nicholas P.|title=Jesuit Ranches and the Agrarian Development of Colonial Argentina, 1650–1767|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1983}}</ref> to this day. [[Jesuit reductions]] were socialist theocratic settlements for indigenous people specifically in the Rio Grande do Sul area of Brazil, Paraguay and neighbouring Argentina in South America, established by the Jesuit Order early in the 17th century and wound up in the 18th century with the banning of the order in several European countries.
-Perceived connection between Christianity and colonization were described in [[The Christian Occupation of China]] and [[Zhu Zhixin]]’s much-reprinted book “What is Jesus?”, where he describes [[Jesus]] as ”a dishonest, intolerant, selfish, wrathful and vengeful idol” (p.&nbsp;1207) and an ordinary illegitimate peasant child who became the leader of a band of mystical enthusiasts (with bandit elements) such as were often found in Chinese history. [[Boxers and Saints]] are companion graphic novels by a [[Roman Catholic]] author purporting to illustrate the ideological split in Chinese society during the [[Boxer Rebellion]].
+A large body of scientific work exists examining entanglements between Jesuit missions, western science emanating from Jesuit-founded universities, colonization and globalization. Since the global Jesuit network grew so large as to necessitate direct connections between branches without passing though Vatican, Jesuit order can be seen as one of the earliest examples of global organizations and globalization.
-[[Sun Yat Sen]], [[Chiang Kai Shek]], [[Charlie Soong]], the [[Soong sisters]] and [[T. V. Soong]] were Christians, with the Soong sisters and brothers descended, via their maternal grandmother, from [[Xu Guangqi]], an early Chinese Jesuit convert. [[Sun Yat Sen]] and [[Chiang Kai Shek]] were also affiliated with [[Tiandihui]].
-==Korea==
-In 1592, the first [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)|Japanese invasion of Korea]] was led by a Catholic, [[Konishi Yukinaga]], included 18,000 [[kirishitan]] troops (out of the total 150,000) and was assisted by Spanish [[Jesuit]] priest [[Gregorio Céspedes|Gregorio de Cespedes]].
-Christian missionaries in Korea were eventually met with force and became [[Korean martyrs]], which became pretext for [[French campaign against Korea]]{{Dubious |Korean section raises questions|reason=The vast majority of "Korean martyrs" were indigenous Koreans, not foreign missionaries. Wording seems to imply that foreign missionaries were the primary subject of the persecutions.|date=April 2020}}. [[Donghak]] and [[Donghak Peasant Revolution]] were Korean reactions against [[Christianization]] attempts such as [[Seohak]]. Korea already had an earlier indigenous scientific and social modernization movement in [[Silhak]], so [[Seohak]] can be seen as a Christian, western-underwritten alternative to Silhak.
-Korean Christians actively solicited foreign (western and Chinese) intervention on their behalf. For example, during [[Catholic Persecution of 1801|Sinyu Persecution]]
-<blockquote> Hwang, a persecuted Catholic and nephew of renowned scholar Yag-yong Jung, was exiled for having been sympathetic to Catholicism despite later losing interest. He attempted to send correspondence to Catholic priests in Beijing detailing the persecution and pleading with the Qing dynasty to intervene on behalf of Catholics in Joseon, with Western ships if necessary. The letter was intercepted en route, and Hwang was executed on December 10 (the 5th of 11th lunar month). </blockquote>
-Christianization in Korea was largely managed by [[Paris Foreign Missions Society]].
-The North Korean [[Kim dynasty (North Korea)|Kim dynasty]] has Christian roots in [[Kim Il-sung]]:
-<blockquote> Kim said that he was raised in a Presbyterian family, that his maternal grandfather was a Protestant minister, that his father had gone to a missionary school and was an elder in the [[Presbyterian Church]], and that his parents were very active in the religious community. </blockquote>
-During the [[Korean War]],
-<blockquote>With solid support from their home churches, individual missionaries and the overall missionary activities not only shaped the development of Korean Christianity, but also influenced the views of American policy-makers in Washington and American civilian officials and military generals stationed in Korea. The Korean War, therefore, marked an unparalleled intimate collaboration between state and non-state actors in American diplomatic history. It not only maximized American political, economic, social, and cultural influence in Korea, but also led to the exceptional growth of Christianity in postwar South Korea<ref name="Haga">{{cite book|last=Haga|first=Kai Yin Allison|title=An overlooked dimension of the Korean War: The role of Christianity and American missionaries in the rise of Korean nationalism, anti -colonialism, and eventual civil war, 1884–1953|publisher=W&M ScholarWorks|year=2007}}</ref></blockquote>
-In the aftermath of the war, Korean Christian leaders played key role in determining leadership of South Korea going forward:
-<blockquote>Korean Christians found many job opportunities in the [American] military government. From 1946 to 1949, Christians gradually moved from the political periphery to the political center, taking up important roles in the formation of a separate regime in South Korea. With the support of the Christian community, refugees, and rightists, [[Syngman Rhee]] [a Christian] emerged as the victor in South Korean politics <ref name="Haga">{{cite book|last=Haga|first=Kai Yin Allison|title=An overlooked dimension of the Korean War: The role of Christianity and American missionaries in the rise of Korean nationalism, anti -colonialism, and eventual civil war, 1884–1953|publisher=W&M ScholarWorks|year=2007}}</ref></blockquote>
-There is a growing body of work on colonial missionary practices in contemporary Korea. <ref name="Kang">{{cite book|last=Kang|first=Shin Ji|title= Postcolonial Reflection on the Christian Mission: The Case of North Korean Refugees in China and South Korea |publisher=social sciences|year=2016}}</ref>
 ==Japan==
 First [[Christian missionaries]] arrived in [[Kyushu]] in 1542 from Portugal and brought gunpowder with them. Jesuit [[Francis Xavier]] arrived in 1550.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/12/20/national/history/christian-missionaries-find-japan-tough-nut-crack/|title=Christian missionaries find Japan a tough nut to crack|last=Hoffman|first=Michael|date=2014-12-20|work=The Japan Times Online|access-date=2019-05-05|language=en-US|issn=0447-5763}}</ref>.
-The period of attempted mercantilist Jesuit-Portuguese colonization of Japan is known as [[Nanban trade]]. It roughly coincides with [[Sengoku period]] of internecine conflict in Japan. Portuguese, possessing gunpowder canons, and Jesuit order became actors and, for a short time, kingmakers in this conflict.
-Nanban trade was characterized by Jesuit missionaries granting Japanese elites rights to trade with [[Macau]] in exchange for [[baptism]]; sending trading embassies of baptized Japanese elites to Europe and the Americas; facilitating Portuguese military help to baptized Japanese elites in their internal wars; securing the port and fortress of Nagasaki for perpetual use of [[Jesuit order]] in exchange for baptism and Portuguese military help to a local noble; taxing all Japanese foreign trade going through Nagasaki, especially in silk and silver; establishing Jesuit seminaries to train Japanese Christian priests with help of converted local elites; and producing a large body of investigative work on Japanese cultural anthropology and linguistics. All of this is in line with Jesuit policies elsewhere in the world from Europe to the Americas to other parts of Asia.
-=== Tenshō and Keichō embassies ===
-In 1582 [[Tenshō embassy]] to Europe was sent. It was masterminded by the [[Jesuit]] [[Alessandro Valignano]], sponsored by 3 kirishitan daimyōs related by close family ties ([[Ōmura Sumitada]], [[Ōtomo Sōrin]] and [[Arima Harunobu]]), led by kirishitans [[Itō Mancio|Mancio Itō]], [[Miguel Chijiwa]], Julião Nakaura and Martinho Hara, accompanied by Portuguese Jesuit interpreter Diogo de Mesquita and documented by Portuguese Macau Jesuit Duarte de Sande.
-During their stay in Europe, they met with [[King Philip II of Spain]], [[Francesco I de' Medici]], Grand Duke of Tuscany, [[Pope Gregory XIII]], and his successor [[Pope Sixtus V]]. In Rome, Itō became an honorary citizen and taken into the ranks of European nobility with the title Cavaliere di Speron d'oro ("Knight of the Golden Spur").
-The ambassadors arrived back in Japan on July 21, 1590 and were subsequently ordained as the first Japanese Jesuit fathers by Valignano.
-In the years 1613 through 1620, [[kirishitan]] [[Hasekura Tsunenaga]] headed Keichō embassy to [[Pope Paul V]]. Although Hasekura's embassy was cordially received in Spain and the Vatican, European monarchs such as the King of Spain refused the trade agreements Hasekura had been seeking, citing suppression of Christianity as an excuse and demonstrating a close relationship between Christianity, politics and economics.
-Tenshō and Keichō embassies represented kirishiran daimyō as well as mercantile-colonial Jesuit and Portuguese interests.
-=== Jesuit mercantile colony in Nagasaki ===
-Originally local Japanese daimyo had tried to curry favor with the Jesuit administration in order to have the Portuguese trading ships visit their local ports more frequently. They could achieve that on condition of converting to Catholicism.
-Following burning of [[Yokoseura]] and ending of the foreign trade there, in 1570 Sumitada opened the port of Nagasaki to the Portuguese and sponsored its development. When the Ryūzōji attacked Nagasaki in 1578, the Portuguese assisted Sumitada in repulsing them. Following this event, on June 9, 1580 Sumitada ceded Nagasaki’s port and fortress "in perpetuity" to the [[Society of Jesus]] as gift for baptism performed by [[Gaspar Vilela]], even though Jesuits were supposed to refuse gifts.
-Subsequently [[Portuguese Nagasaki]] emerged as a kirishitan capital of Japan. [[Nagasaki]] re-emerged in the colonial game again in the 1850s as [[Nagasaki foreign settlement]].
-=== Jesuit taxation monopoly, silk and silver trade ===
-Under Jesuit control Nagasaki grew from a town with only one street to an international port rivaling the influence of Jesuit colonies of Goa or Macau. Jesuits had monopoly in taxation over all imported goods coming into Japan. The society was most active in the Japanese silver trade, wherein large quantities of Japanese silver were shipped to Canton in exchange for Chinese silk.
-By 1580, the society was maintaining a community of 150,000 people, 200 churches staffed with 85 Jesuits, including twenty Japanese brothers and an additional 100 acolytes. A decade later, there were 136 Jesuits in Japan with a caretaking staff of up to 300. At the height of the mission, there were about 600 people who were entirely dependent on the society for funds. All of this, in addition to the construction and maintenance of churches, schools, seminaries, and the printing press cost a great deal of money in the context of widespread poverty in Japan at the time.
-Abandoning the silk trade, bringing far more than 12,000 ducats needed annually to pay for the mission, would have been the equivalent to abandoning the mission to Japan.
-=== Jesuit policies in Japan ===
-On his arrival in Japan Valignano saw negligent, abusive and “un-Christian” practices by mission personnel. [[Francisco Cabral]]’s tenure can be summarized as [[racism|racist]] and [[cultural imperialism|culturally imperialist]]:
-<blockquote>In addition to the problems of Japanese language study and racism, some of the Jesuits, and specifically Cabral were in the habit "to regard Japanese customs invariably as abnormal and to speak disparagingly of them. When I first came to Japan, ours (the crowd usually follows the leader), showed no care to learn Japanese customs, but at recreation and on other occasions were continually carping on them, arguing against them, and expressing their preference for our own ways to the great chagrin and disgust of the Japanese.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>Before [he] arrived in Japan, seventeen of Valignano's personally appointed missionaries wrote to him complaining that language training was totally nonexistent. Cabral had protested that it was impossible for Europeans to learn Japanese and that even after fifteen years of study the padres could hardly preach a sermon, even to Christian converts.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>Where Cabral had worked to exclude Japanese men from rising beyond brothers in the Society, Valignano insisted that they be treated equally in every way to Europeans and while the Japanese seminarians would learn Latin for sacramental use [...] Cabral's stated opinion [was] that the Japanese must be adapted to Western ideas and modes of thought.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>Valignano’s detailed instructions on customs and manners suggest that his understanding of Japanese culture was only superficial. Many Jesuits doubted the sincerity of Japanese converts. After Valignano's death, negative reports from Japan resulted in Jesuit headquarters in Rome in 1610s restricting admission and ordination of Japanese Catholics.</blockquote>
-<blockquote>Jesuit emphasis on [[Confession (religion)|confession]] struck the seminarians as terribly improper. Revealing all of one's secret thoughts to a foreign missionary, through an interpreter, was seen as a serious violation of social customs.</blockquote>
-Valignano’s preoccupation was to ensure a cultural fit, mapping Jesuit hierarchy in Japan to that of [[Sen Buddhism|Zen Buddhists]]. A recently emptied Buddhist monastery in [[Arima clan|Arima]] province was converted into a Jesuit seminary. There 22 young Japanese converts began receiving instructions, in Latin and Japanese, in western [[moral theology]], [[western philosophy]] and [[Christian doctrine]], with their daily schedule completely preplanned and including choral performances. The process was repeated two years later at [[Azuchi]] facilitated by [[Oda Hidetaka]] with 33 seminarians. Original décor was left largely unchanged. This pattern was repeated in other seminaries at other sites, and, in the 1580 Principles for the Administration of Japanese Seminaries Valignano notes that the "tatami mats should be changed every year" and that students should wear "katabira (summer clothes) or kimonos of blue cotton" and outdoors a "dobuku (black cloak)." The students are instructed to eat white rice with sauce with a side dish of fish.
-By 1595 the Jesuits printed a Japanese grammar, a dictionary and several books (mostly the lives of saints and martyrs) entirely in Japanese. The main body of the grammar and dictionary was compiled from 1590–1603; when finished, it was a truly comprehensive volume with the dictionary alone containing some 32,798 entries.
-Efforts were made to cultivate Japanese elites by ostentatious displays of wealth and replicate the Japanese institution of [[dojuku]], or novitiate monastics so that kirishitan seminaries appealed to, but in typical Jesuit style were not limited to, many of the same sons of wealthy nobles as the Buddhist tradition of living as a novice in a monastery would have.
-=== Toyotomi and Tokugawa suppression of Jesuits, kirishitans and foreign trade ===
-Following campaign by [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] against the [[Shimazu clan]], the Ōmura retained their holdings, but Nagasaki was taken from the Jesuits and made into a chokkatsu-ryo, or direct landholding, of the Toyotomi administration.
-Following Tokugawa replacement of Toyotomi family, Tokugawa samurai and members of the army were required to forswear Christianity and remove Christian emblems or designs from their clothing. Later, daimyo and commoners were ordered to follow the same restrictions.
-Ambassadors of both missions died of natural causes or following persecution. Itō died in Nagasaki in 1612. Hara was banished from Japan by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1614 and worked from Macau, dying in 1629. Chijiwa left Jesuit order before 1601 and died in Nagasaki in 1633. Nakaura was caught by the Tokugawa shogunate, died by torture in Nagasaki in 1633 and was beatified on November 24, 2008.
-In 1632, 55 Japanese missionaries were martyred in an event called the [[Martyrs of Japan|Great Genna Martyrdom]].
-In 1636, Tokugawa Iemitsu enacted the Sakoku edict which ended almost all contact with the outside world. No Japanese ships were allowed to leave the country under pain of death, and any Japanese who attempted to return from abroad would likewise be executed.
-=== Rangaku ===
-[[Rangaku]] ("Dutch learning", and by extension "Western learning") is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of [[Dejima]] in Nagasaki (following [[Hirado]]) in the period when the country was closed to foreigners between 1641–1853 because of [[sakoku]].
-While other European countries faced ideological and political battles associated with the [[Protestant Reformation]], the Netherlands were a [[Free state (polity)|free state]] and thus a good fit for Japan to acquire knowledge without religious strings attached. In that sense rangoku is somewhat comparable to Korean [[Silhak]], both developing as rejection of Christian religious ideas but accepting of western applied science and technology.
-=== Aftermath ===
-Tokugawa policies remained in force until American Commodore Perry's arrival in 1853. Japan's next embassy to Europe would only occur more than 200 years later, following two centuries of isolation, with the "First Japanese Embassy to Europe" in 1862.
-=== In the arts ===
-In literature, narratives against Christian colonialism include the book “On the obliteration of Christ” by [[Kōtoku Shūsui]].
-In painting the Jesuit  [[Giovanni Niccolò]] was the main promoter of western painting in Japan. He painted portraits of a few key protagonists in the campaign to Christianize Japan.
 ==India==
@@ Line 208: / Line 102: @@
 According to [[Heather J. Sharkey|Heather Sharkey]], the real impact of the activities of the missionaries is still a topic open to debate in academia today.<ref>Heather J. Sharkey, ''Cultural Conversions: Unexpected Consequences of Christian Missionary Encounters in the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia'' (Syracuse UP, 2013).</ref>  Sharkey asserted that "the missionaries played manifold roles in colonial Africa and stimulated forms of cultural, political and religious change."  "Historians still debate the nature of their impact and question their relation to the system of European colonialism in the continent." She noted that the missionaries did great good in Africa, providing crucial social services such as modern education and health care that would have otherwise not been available. Sharkey said that, in societies that were traditionally male-dominated,  female missionaries provided women in Africa with health care knowledge and basic education.<ref>Taimur Khan, "Religion in colonial Africa: Professor Heather Sharkey spoke about the role of Christian missionaries in the region" [https://www.thedp.com/article/2002/10/religion_in_colonial_africa ''The Daily Pennsylvanian'' Oct 29, 2002]</ref>
-== Christian colonialism and the Jesuits ==
-Various missions and initiatives of the [[Jesuit order|Jesuits]] predated, accompanied and followed western colonization across the world. In Lithuania, since 1579 the Jesuit-founded [[Vilnius University]] spearheaded [[Counterreformation]], eradication of [[Lithuanian mythology|indigenous religion]] and [[Lithuanian language|language]]. At around the same time in China, Korea and Japan Jesuit missions predated western military incursions by a couple of centuries. The incursions were not only ideological but scientific – the Jesuits reformed the Chinese lunisolar calendar in 1645, a change described as “pathological”<ref name="Martzloff">{{cite book|last=Martzloff|first=Jean-Claude|title= Astronomy and Calendars – The Other Chinese Mathematics: 104 BC – AD 1644 |publisher=Springer|year=2015}}</ref>. 17th-century India deserved a mission to study [[Brahmanism|Brahmanical]] knowledge<ref name="Županov">{{cite book|last=Županov|first=Ines G.|title= Disputed Mission: Jesuit Experiments and Brahmanical Knowledge in Seventeenth-century India |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000}}</ref> and Christianizing missions were dispatched to native North Americans. Jesuit missions were documented in biannual Jesuit Relations:
-<blockquote> In "Harvest of Souls: The Jesuit Missions and Colonialism in North America, 1632–1650", Carole Blackburn uses the Jesuit Relations to shed light on the dialogue between Jesuit missionaries and the Native peoples of northeastern North America. In 1632 Jesuit missionary [[Paul Le Jeune]], newly arrived at the fort of Quebec, wrote the first of the Relations to his superior in Paris, initiating a series of biannual mission reports that came to be known as the Jesuit Relations.
-Blackburn presents a contemporary interpretation of the 1632–1650 Relations, arguing that they are colonizing texts in which the Jesuits use language, imagery, and forms of knowledge to legitimize relations of inequality with the Huron and Montagnais. (...) Blackburn shows that this resulted in the displacement of much of the content of the message and demonstrates that the Native people's acts of resistance took up and transformed aspects of the Jesuits' teachings in ways that subverted their authority.<ref name="Blackburn">{{cite book|last=Blackburn|first=Carole|title=Harvest of Souls: The Jesuit Missions and Colonialism in North America, 1632–1650|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |year=2000}}</ref></blockquote>
-In 1721, Jesuit Ippolito Desideri tried to Christianize Tibetans but permission from the Order was not granted.<ref name="Lopez Jr., Jinpa">{{cite book|last=Lopez Jr., Jinpa|first=Donald S., Thupten|title=Dispelling the Darkness: A Jesuit’s Quest for the Soul of Tibet|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref>
-Jesuits themselves participated in economic colonization, founding and operating vast ranches in Peru<ref name="Cushner">{{cite book|last=Cushner|first=Nicholas P.|title=Lords of the Land: Sugar, Wine, and Jesuit Estates of Coastal Peru, 1600–1767|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1980}}</ref> and Argentina<ref name="Cushner 2">{{cite book|last=Cushner|first=Nicholas P.|title=Jesuit Ranches and the Agrarian Development of Colonial Argentina, 1650–1767|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1983}}</ref> to this day. [[Jesuit reductions]] were socialist theocratic settlements for indigenous people specifically in the Rio Grande do Sul area of Brazil, Paraguay and neighbouring Argentina in South America, established by the Jesuit Order early in the 17th century and wound up in the 18th century with the banning of the order in several European countries.
-A large body of scientific work exists examining entanglements between Jesuit missions, western science emanating from Jesuit-founded universities, colonization and globalization. Since the global Jesuit network grew so large as to necessitate direct connections between branches without passing though Vatican, Jesuit order can be seen as one of the earliest examples of global organizations and globalization.
 == Current Christian perspectives ==
 [[Pope Francis]], a Jesuit, has frequently criticized the colonialism and [[neocolonialism]] of the Christian nations of the [[Global North]], referring to colonialism as "blasphemy against God" and saying that "many grave sins were committed against the native peoples of America in the name of God." Speaking with hindsight and on the basis of current theology, Francis said: "No actual or established power has the right to deprive peoples of the full exercise of their sovereignty." He also speaks of “the new colonialism [which] takes on different faces. At times it appears as the anonymous influence of mammon: corporations, loan agencies, certain ‘free trade’ treaties, and the imposition of measures of ‘austerity’ which always tighten the belt of workers and the poor."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsmaven.io/indiancountrytoday/archive/pope-francis-apologizes-to-indigenous-peoples-for-grave-sins-of-colonialism-tlGAXDXgwkCkvmn10DjT3Q/|title=Pope Francis Apologizes to Indigenous Peoples for 'Grave Sins' of Colonialism|website=IndianCountryToday.com|language=en|access-date=2019-09-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cruxnow.com/vatican/2017/11/21/pope-francis-ideological-colonization-blasphemy-god/|title=Pope Francis: Ideological colonization a 'blasphemy against God'|date=2017-11-21|website=Crux|language=en-CA|access-date=2019-09-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/07/10/pope-francis-apologizes-for-churchs-colonial-sins/|title=Pope Francis Apologizes for Church's Colonial Sins|last=Soloway|first=Benjamin|website=Foreign Policy|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/10/poor-must-change-new-colonialism-of-economic-order-says-pope-francis|title=Unbridled capitalism is the 'dung of the devil', says Pope Francis|last=Reuters|date=2015-07-10|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-09-25|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
-Leaders of Christian denominations have not apologized for aiding [[Western colonialism]] in Europe, Asia or Latin America and have not offered financial compensation.
 ==References==

International Indigenous and minority rights
Rights	Ancestral domain Free, prior and informed consent Intellectual property Land rights Language Self-determination in Australia in Canada in the United States Traditional knowledge ecological medical Treaty rights in Australia in New Zealand
Governmental organizations	African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights Arctic Council Bureau of Indian Affairs Council of Indigenous Peoples (Taiwan) Fundação Nacional do Índio Government of Bashkortostan Government of the Sakha Republic Government of Tatarstan Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada Ministry for the Development of the Russian Far East and Arctic National Institute of Indigenous Peoples (Mexico) National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (Philippines) Te Puni Kōkiri (New Zealand) United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues
Non-governmental and political organizations	Amazon Watch Assembly of First Nations Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador Congress of Aboriginal Peoples Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin Cultural Survival Indigenous Environmental Network Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs National Indigenous Organization of Colombia Native American Rights Fund Survival International Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization Zapatista Army of National Liberation (more ...)
Issues	Civilizing mission Colonialism Internal colonialism Settler colonialism Cultural appropriation Sports mascots Redface Dakota Access Pipeline protests Discovery doctrine Fortress conservation Green grabbing Homeland Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples Bantustan Autonomous okrugs American Indian reservation Indian colony Indian reserve Ranchería Rancherie Russian republics Urban Indian reserve Manifest destiny Plastic shaman Rainbow Warriors Two-spirit
Legal representation	Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 2007
Historical cases	Chechen–Russian conflict Sri Lankan Civil War 2009 Peruvian political crisis Alta controversy Chiapas conflict Expulsion of the Chagossians High Arctic relocation Human rights in Tibet Indian removal Little Danes experiment Mapuche conflict Oka Crisis Residential schools Canada New Zealand South Africa United States Rubber boom San controversy Stolen Generations Persecution of Uyghurs in China
Indigenous rights • Minority rights