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==Coastal forest==
==Coastal forest==
The dry land along the Big Bend Coast is largely covered by forests known as [[Southern coastal plain hydric hammock|coastal hammocks]]. Comparison of Landsat images and ground-based photographs taken years apart document loss of trees in coastal hammocks, which has been particularly severe close to the boundary between hammocks and salt marshes. One study area of {{Convert|540|km2|sqmi}} that included forest within {{Convert|2|km|mi}} of the coast showed a loss of {{Convert|126|km2|sqmi}} of hammock trees from 2003 to 2016. Another study found that {{Convert|148|km2|sqmi}} of coastal hammock had been lost between 1875 and 1995. McCarthy, et al., state that the death of trees in coastal hammocks on the Big Bend Coast has accelerated since 2010.{{Sfn|McCarthy|Dimmitt|DiGeronimo|Muller-Karger|2022|pp=913, 917}}
The dry land along the Big Bend Coast is largely covered by forests known as [[Southern coastal plain hydric hammock|coastal hammocks]]. The hammocks contain a variety of trees, including loblolly pine (''[[Pinus taeda]]''), American maple (''[[Acer rubrum]]''), American elm (''Ulmus americana''), laurel oak (''[[Quercus laurifolia]]''), water oak (''[[Quercus nigra]]''), sweet gum (''[[Liquidambar styraciflua]]'') swamp bay, (''[[Persea palustris]]''), sweetbay (''[[Magnolia virginiana]]''), sugarberry (''[[Celtis laevigata]]''), southern live oak (''[[Quercus virginiana]]''), red cedar (''[[Juniperus virginiana]]'' var. ''silicicola''), and sabal palm, (''[[Sabal palmetto]]'').{{Sfn|Williams|MacDonald|McPherson|Mirti|p=256}} Comparison of Landsat images and ground-based photographs taken years apart document loss of trees in coastal hammocks, which has been particularly severe close to the boundary between hammocks and salt marshes. One study area of {{Convert|540|km2|sqmi}} that included forest within {{Convert|2|km|mi}} of the coast showed a loss of {{Convert|126|km2|sqmi}} of hammock trees from 2003 to 2016. Another study found that {{Convert|148|km2|sqmi}} of coastal hammock had been lost between 1875 and 1995. McCarthy, et al., state that the death of trees in coastal hammocks on the Big Bend Coast has accelerated since 2010.{{Sfn|McCarthy|Dimmitt|DiGeronimo|Muller-Karger|2022|pp=913, 917}}


==Sea level rise==
==Sea level rise==

Revision as of 01:36, 25 October 2023

Big Bend Coast of Florida in blue

The Big Bend Coast is the marshy coast extending about 350 kilometres (220 mi) from the western end of Apalachee Bay down the west coast of peninsular Florida to the Anclote River or Anclote Key. It partially overlaps the coast line of the Big Bend region of Florida, and is coterminous with the coast line of the Nature Coast region of Florida. Most of the coast, remains undeveloped, with extensive salt marshes, mangrove forests, seagrass meadows, and oyster reefs offshore, and coastal hammocks onshore.

Geography

The Big Bend Coast is variously defined as extending from the mouth of the Ocklockonee River, or of the St. Marks River, at the western end of Apalachee Bay, to the mouth of the Anclote River or to Anclote Key, just offshore of that river mouth. It is sometimes divided into two parts, the Big Bend Proper, from the Ochlockonee River to the Withlacoochee River, and the Springs Coast, from the Withlacoochee River to the Anclote River.[1] The northern part of the coast, the Big Bend Proper, is sometimes divided into four areas for study and discussion purposes: Apalachee Bay, Deadmans Bay (centered on the mouth of the Steinhatchee River), Suwannee Sound (centered on the mouth of the Suwannee River), and Wacasassa Bay.[2] The Big Bend Coast is sometimes a component in the larger Wilderness Coast that also includes the coast west of Apalachee Bay to Cape San Blas.[3] The Big Bend Proper includes the coasts of Wakulla, Jefferson, Taylor, Dixie, and Levy counties, while the Springs Coast includes the coasts of Citrus, Hernando and Pasco counties.

Geology

The Big Bend Coast is a drowned karst region, covered with salt marsh and mangrove forests. It includes freshwater springs, oyster reefs, and the delta of the Suwannee River. There are barrier islands west of the Ocklockonee River and south starting with Anclote Key, but there are no barrier islands between those places. The Big Bend Coast has little or no sand or mud. The karst topography has produced an irregular, frequently exposed, bedrock surface.[4][5][6][7]

Rivers

All of the rivers that reach the Gulf of Mexico along the Big Bend Coast are at least partly spring-fed. There are 14 rivers (and many smaller streams) reaching the coast between the Ochlockonee River at the western end of the Big Bend Coast and the Anclote River at the southern end, including the St. Marks, Aucilla, Econfina, Fenholloway, Steinhatchee, Suwannee, Waccasassa, Withlacoochee, Crystal, Homosassa, Chassahowitzka, Weeki Wachee, and Pithlachascotee rivers, and Spring Warrior Creek.[1] Largest is the Suwannee River, with a small delta near the middle of the coast.[7] The coast between the Withlacoochee and Anclote rivers is known as the Springs Coast. Four short (4 to 12 km long) rivers, the Crystal, Homosasso, Chassahowitzka, and Weeki Wachee rivers, are fed almost entirely by first-magnitude springs, as there is almost no surface runoff in the area. The entire lengths of the Crystal, Homosassa and Chassahowitzka rivers are subject to tidal influence. At the southern end of the Springs Coast, the Pithlachascotee and Anclote rivers arise further inland, but are almost entirely spring-fed.[8][9]

The many rivers and smaller streams flowing to the Big Bend Coast lower the salinity of the nearshore water. The seasonality of rainfall produces seasonal variations in the salinity of the waters along the Big Bend Proper (the rivers of the Springs Coast are almost completely fed by springs, and have little or no seasonal variation in flow). Rainfall from tropical cyclones may also lower the salinity of nearshore waters. The shallowness of nearshore waters also mean that the water temperature is strongly affected by the air temperature. Tropical species may be killed by cold weather, or may migrate southward or to deeper water less subject to cooling in winter.[10]

Intertidal zone

Salt marshes (in brown) of the coast between the Cedar Keys and the mouth of the Waccasassa River in 1856 (Detail of 1856 Waccasassa Bay Nautical Chart)

The Big Bend Coast is subject to little or no wave energy. Tidal range is 73 to 75 cm for all of the Big Bend Coast.[11] In the mid-20th century the intertidal zone of the Big Bend Coast consisted of salt marshes up to 10 kilometres (6 mi) wide, dominated by herbaceous (non-woody) plants, including Juncus roemerianus, Distichlis spicata, Sporobolus pumilus (formerly Spartina patens), and Salicornia species.[12][13] As of 2023, mangrove forests are replacing salt marshes in the intertidal zone along the southern part of the Big Bend Coast from the Cedar Keys to Anclote Key.[14][a] Mussels, oysters, fiddler crabs, marsh periwinkles (the snail Littoraria irrorata), crown conch (Melongena corona), flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus), and blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) are abundant in the salt marshes. The vegetation of the salt marshes have been called "perhaps the most productive in the world."[16] Salinity levels and temperatures can seasonally become extreme in salt marshes, potentially killing many fish and invertebrates. Most species found in salt marshes have developed behavioral strategies, such as migration, to cope with the extremes.[17] Marsh creeks carry freshwater runoff from the land to the gulf, and provide another habitat for many species. Glass shrimp and killifish are lifelong residents of marsh creeks. Pink shrimp, blue crabs, stone crabs, mullet, red drum, and Gulf flounder live in marsh creeks as juveniles.[18]

Oyster reefs

Although relatively rare, there are some outcroppings of limestone bedrock in the water along coast. Oyster reefs are found on such outcroppings, particularly close to the intertidal zone in the nearshore zone. Oyster reefs often include mussels, slipper shells, and barnacles. Porcelain crabs, mud crabs, peppermint shrimp, snapping shrimp, annelid worms, gobies and toadfish commonly live in the crevices of oyster reefs. Oysters are preyed on by juvenile stone crabs, blue crabs, oyster drills, and crown conchs.[19]

Nearshore zone

The nearshore or littoral zone of the Big Bend Coast was estimated to have 3,000 square kilometres (1,200 sq mi) of seagrass meadows in 1999, consisting primarily of the seagrasses Thalassia testudinum (turtlegrass), Syringodium filiforme (manatee grass), and Halodule wrightii (shoal grass). The seagrasses Halophila engelmannii (star grass) and Halophila decipiens (Caribbean seagrass), and the salt-tolerant wetlands grass Ruppia maritima (ditch grass), are also found in the seagrass meadows. Green algae, primarily of the order Bryopsidales, but including some species in the order Dasycladales, are common, and a few brown algae, are either rooted to the floor of the littoral zones, or attached to seagrasses. Other algae, primarily red algae, but also including some green and brown algae species, drift in the waters around and above the seagrass meadows (many of the drift algae species start life as epiphytes on seagrass and rooted algae). In some areas algae outmasses the seagrass.[20] Seagrass meadows stabilize the bottom and slow water flow, which lets suspended particles settle out of the water. This reduces the turbidity of the water, allowing light to penetrate deeper. As a result, the seagrass meadows along the Big Bend Coast extend up to 15 kilometres (9 mi) offshore, in water up to 5 metres (16 ft) deep (seagrasses are usually restricted to waters 2 metres [7 ft] deep or less).[21] The seagrass meadows of the Big Bend Coast are among the largest and least disturbed in the world.[22]

The biological diversity found in seagrass meadows is surpassed only by coral reefs in Florida waters. Seagrass meadows host a wide variety of algae and animals. Red algae and filter-feeding animals, such as sea squirt colonies, sponges, pygmy sea cucumbers, and juvenile scallops, attach to the blades of seagrass, often remaining for rest of their lives. Invertebrates, including hermit crabs, stone crabs, various shrimp species, amphipods, isopods, brittle stars, asteroid starfish, sea cucumbers, pen shells, clams, scallops, sea snails, arrow shrimp (Tozeuma carolinense) and sea urchins live among the seagrasses. Some fish, such as spotted sea trout, seahorses, and pinfish live year-round in the seagrass. Other fish, such as black sea bass, gag grouper, and gray snapper shelter in the seagrass while juveniles. Atlantic Spanish mackerel, bluefish, crevalle jack, pigfish, and spot enter the seagrass meadows to forage.[23]

The seagrasses of the Big Bend Coast are typically found in tropical waters, and are at or near the northern limit of their ranges. The lowest tides of the year generally occur in the winter, and expose the seagrasses to freezing air temperatures for significant periods on the coldest mornings. Such climate stress may reduce the ability of the seagrass to recover from the impacts of pollution and other disturbances caused by human acitivities.[24] Seagrass coverage in the Big Bend Coast may be decreasing. One study estimated that 23 square kilometres (9 sq mi) of seagrass beds had been lost off the mouth of the Fenholloway River because of pollution from pulp mill discharge. Other areas, such as around the mouth of the Suwannee River, the southern end of Suwannee Sound near Cedar Key, and Wacassassa Bay, which were reported to have beds of seagrass in the past, do not have them today.[25] Extensive seagrass beds around Anclote Key, at the southern end of the Big Bend Coast, disappeared in the early 1960s.[26]

Offshore waters

Water from the Caribbean Sea flows northward between Cuba and the Yucatan peninsula into the southeastern Gulf of Mexico. This current splits well south of the western end of the Florida Panhandle, with most the water turning east and then south in the Gulf Loop Current, flowing along the west edge of the Florida Platform and through the Florida Straits to form the Gulf Stream. The West Florida Gyre rotates over the wide continental shelf between the Gulf Loop Current and the Florida peninsula, from the Big Bend Coast to below Tampa Bay.The West Florida Gyre carries larvae from fishes and invertebrates that spawn in the northern Gulf of Mexico close to Big Bend Coast, as well as tropical species.[10]

Coastal forest

The dry land along the Big Bend Coast is largely covered by forests known as coastal hammocks. The hammocks contain a variety of trees, including loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), American maple (Acer rubrum), American elm (Ulmus americana), laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia), water oak (Quercus nigra), sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) swamp bay, (Persea palustris), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), southern live oak (Quercus virginiana), red cedar (Juniperus virginiana var. silicicola), and sabal palm, (Sabal palmetto).[27] Comparison of Landsat images and ground-based photographs taken years apart document loss of trees in coastal hammocks, which has been particularly severe close to the boundary between hammocks and salt marshes. One study area of 540 square kilometres (210 sq mi) that included forest within 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) of the coast showed a loss of 126 square kilometres (49 sq mi) of hammock trees from 2003 to 2016. Another study found that 148 square kilometres (57 sq mi) of coastal hammock had been lost between 1875 and 1995. McCarthy, et al., state that the death of trees in coastal hammocks on the Big Bend Coast has accelerated since 2010.[28]

Sea level rise

The sea level is rising faster at Cedar Key than at other locations around the Gulf of Mexico, with a 22% to 25% faster increase over the global average rate predicted by 2060. As of 1973, the rate of sea level rise was 25 centimetres (9.8 in) per century. The rate of sea level rise has been accelerating on the Big Bend Coast in recent years. The sea level rose at Cedar Key an average of 2.56 millimetres (0.10 in) per year for 1940 through 2016, but the rate was 10.2 millimetres (0.40 in) for 2000 to 2016, and 16.5 millimetres (0.65 in) for 2010 to 2016.[29]

Precolumbian history

Evidence of human presence in what is now the Big Bend Coast goes back more than 14,000 years, when Paleoindians butchered or scavenged mastodons at the Page-Ladson site on the Aucilla River.[30] Evidence of Paleoindian presence has also been found at the Edward Ball Wakulla Springs State Park, on the Wakulla River, a tributary of the St. Marks River. The seacoast was up to 70 miles (113 km) away from Page-Ladson at the time than it is now, as the sea level was about 100 metres (328 ft) lower.[31] Early sites in the area that have been inundated by rising sea levels include the Econfina Channel site and the J&J Hunt Submerged Archaeological Site, in Apalachee Bay.[32] More recent mounds that were formerly on higher ground are now surrounded by water.[33]

About 500 BCE, the Deptford archaeological culture spread along the Big Bend Coast north of Cedar Key. The Deptford culture was oriented to the coast, with major ceremonial sites, such as the Crystal River Archaeological State Park, on the Crystal River, the Garden Patch Archeological Site, near Horseshoe Beach, Florida, and Shell Mound, near Cedar Key[34] located on the coast, and only minor, limited use sites inland. By about 100 CE, the north peninsular coast varieties of the Weeden Island culture replaced the Deptford culture along the Big Bend Coast east and south of the Aucilla River, while the Swift Creek culture became established west of the Aucilla. The northwest Florida variety of the Weeden Island culture in turn replaced the Swift Creek culture west of the Aucilla River around 300. The Bird Hammock site, near Wakulla Beach, Florida, was apparently a ceremonial center during the Swift Creek and Weeden Island periods. The Fort Walton culture replaced Weeden Island in the area west of the Aucilla River around 900. At around the same time, the northern variety of the Safety Harbor culture appeared along the Big Bend Coast south of the mouth of the Withlacoochee River.[35] The Roberts Island complex, on the Crystal River, appears to have replaced the Crystal River site as a ceremonial center in the Weeden Island and Safety Harbor periods. The Weeki Wachee Mound, at Weeki Wachee Springs, was another ceremonial center during the Safety Harbor period.[36]

Populated places

The Big Bend Proper (from the Ochlockonee River to the Withlacoochee River) is sparsely populated.[22] Municipalities and census-designated places on the Big Bend Proper include (from north to south) St. Marks (population 274 in 2020), in Wakulla County, Steinhatchee (population 1,049 in 2020), in Taylor County, Horseshoe Beach (population 165 in 2020), in Dixie County, Cedar Key (population 687 in 2020), in Levy County, and Inglis (population 1,476 in 2020) and Yankeetown (population 588 in 2020) in Levy County.

The southern part of the Big Bend Coast, the Springs Coast, is more densely populated. Municipalities and census-designated places on or close to the Springs Coast include:

Populated place County 2020 population
Aripeka Pasco 320
Bayonet Point Pasco 26,713
Bayport Hernando 45
Beacon Square Pasco 8,320
Crystal River Citrus 3,396
Elfers Pasco 14,573
Hernando Beach Hernando 2,452
Heritage Pines Pasco 2,136
High Point Hernando 3,873
Holiday Pasco 24,939
Homosassa Citrus 2,299
Homosassa Springs Citrus 14,283
Hudson Pasco 12,944
Jasmine Estates Pasco 21,525
Key Vista Pasco 1,757
Meadow Oaks Pasco 2,848
New Port Richey Pasco 16,728
New Port Richey East Pasco 11,015
North Weeki Wachee Hernando 9,131
Odessa Pasco 8,080
Pine Island Hernando 62
Port Richey Pasco 3,052
Spring Hill Hernando 113,568
Timber Pines Hernando 5,163
Trinity Pasco 11,924
Weeki Wachee Gardens Hernando 1,138

Storm surges

Due to the width of the adjacent continental shelf (over 150 kilometres (93 mi)), low gradient slope of the coast (1:5000), and shelter from the usual wind direction of storms, the Big Bend Coast is generally subject to low wave energy, but is subject to storm surges from hurricanes and other storms. Because of the great width and low slope of the continental shelf along the Big Bend Coast, storm surges are greater in height than those that occur on narrower and steeper continental shelves.[37][38]

Storm surges that are known to have occurred along the Big Bend Coast include:

Protected areas

Almost all of the coastal wetlands of the Big Bend Coast are protected.[52] Protected wetland areas include:

Paddling trails

  • Big Bend Saltwater Paddling Trail[57]
  • The Florida Circumnavigational Paddling Trail runs through the length of the Big Bend Coast.
  • Segment Five (Crooked River/St. Marks Refuge)[58]
  • Segment Six (Big Bend)[59]
  • Segment Six (Nature Coast)[60]

Notes

  1. ^ Two of the mangrove species that grow in Florida, the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) and the white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa), do not grow north of Cedar Key. Black mangroves (Avicennia germinans) can regrow from roots after being killed back by a freeze, and are found by themselves a little further north.[15]
  2. ^ a b A tide gauge was first established at Cedar Key in 1914. Reported storm surge heights prior to that year are not official.[41]

References

  1. ^ a b Mattson et al. 2007, p. 173.
  2. ^ Mattson 1999, pp. 259, 264.
  3. ^ Hernnkind 2013, p. 3.
  4. ^ A Photo Gallery of Florida's Big Bend Tidal Wetlands, USA: USGS, archived from the original on December 25, 2015
  5. ^ "Status of Knowledge in Florida's Big Bend", GSA, USA: Confex, 2004, archived from the original on February 6, 2012.
  6. ^ Schmidt, Walter (1997). "Geomorphology and Physiography of Florida". In Randazzo, Anthony F.; Jones, Douglas S. (eds.). The Geology of Florida. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. p. 4. ISBN 0-8130-1496-4.
  7. ^ a b Davis 1997, p. 165.
  8. ^ Estevez, Ernest D.; Dixon, L. Kellie; Flannery, Michael S. (1991). "West-Coastal Rivers of Peninsular Florida". In Livingston, Robert J. (ed.). The Rivers of Florida. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 191, 193. ISBN 0-387-97363-X.
  9. ^ "Springs Coast Watershed Overview". Southwest Florida Water Management District. 2018. Retrieved October 14, 2023.
  10. ^ a b Hernnkind 2013, pp. 4–5.
  11. ^ Montague & Wiegert 1990, p. 483.
  12. ^ Montague & Wiegert 1990, p. 488–489.
  13. ^ Hernnkind 2013, p. 8.
  14. ^ "Salt Marshes". Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2023. Retrieved October 15, 2023.
  15. ^ Newfound Harbor Marine Institute: Mangroves - retrieved June 5, 2006
  16. ^ Hernnkind 2013, p. 13.
  17. ^ Hernnkind 2013, p. 5.
  18. ^ Hernnkind 2013, p. 15.
  19. ^ Hernnkind 2013, p. 17.
  20. ^ Mattson 1999, p. 259–260, 263.
  21. ^ Hernnkind 2013, pp. 8–9.
  22. ^ a b Stallings et al. 2015, p. 304.
  23. ^ Hernnkind 2013, pp. 9–12.
  24. ^ Mattson 1999, p. 273.
  25. ^ Mattson 1999, p. 274.
  26. ^ Davis 2016, pp. 44, 53–54.
  27. ^ Williams et al., p. 256.
  28. ^ McCarthy et al. 2022, pp. 913, 917.
  29. ^ McCarthy et al. 2022, p. 913, 915–917.
  30. ^ Halligan, Jessi J.; Waters, Michael R.; Perrotti, Angelina; Owens, Ivy J.; Feinberg, Joshua M.; Bourne, Mark D.; Fenerty, Brendan; Winsborough, Barbara; Carlson, David; Fisher, Daniel C.; Stafford, Thomas W.; Dunbar, James S. (13 May 2016). "Pre-Clovis occupation 14,550 years ago at the Page–Ladson site, Florida, and the peopling of the Americas". Science Advances. 2 (5): e1600375. Bibcode:2016SciA....2E0375H. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1600375. PMC 4928949. PMID 27386553.
  31. ^ Milanich 1994, p. 38–39.
  32. ^ Cook Hale, Jessica W.; Hale, Nathan L.; Garrison, Ervan G. (2019-01-02). "What is past is prologue: excavations at the Econfina Channel site, Apalachee Bay, Florida, USA". Southeastern Archaeology. 38 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1080/0734578X.2018.1428787. ISSN 0734-578X.
  33. ^ DEP (Department of Environmental Protection) (June 3, 2005). "Waccasassa Bay Preserve State Park Unit Management Plan" (PDF). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. p. 20. Retrieved October 18, 2023.
  34. ^ Sassaman, Kenneth E.; Palmiotto, Andrea; Mahar, Ginessa J.; Monés, Micah P.; McFadden, Paullette S. (May 2013). Archaeological Investigations at Shell Mound (8LV42), Levy County, Florida: 2012 Testing (PDF) (Report). Gainesville, Florida: Laboratory of Southeasterm Archaeology, University of Florida. Retrieved October 17, 2023.
  35. ^ Milanich 1994, p. 38–39, 144, 194–195, 358, 389, 392–394.
  36. ^ Hutchinson, Dale L.; Mitchem, Jeffrey M. (1996). "The Weeki Wachee Mound, an Early Contact Period Mortuary Locality in Hernando County West-Central Florida". Southeastern Archaeology. 15 (1): 47–65. ISSN 0734-578X. JSTOR 40713050.
  37. ^ Davis 1997, p. 66.
  38. ^ "Storm Surge Overview". NOAA National Weather Service. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
  39. ^ Barnes 1998, p. 56.
  40. ^ Barnes 1998, pp. 57–58.
  41. ^ "Station Home Page - NOAA Tides & Currents". tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2023-09-12.
  42. ^ Barnes 1998, pp. 58–59.
  43. ^ Barnes 1998, pp. 63–64.
  44. ^ Barnes 1998, pp. 64–65.
  45. ^ Barnes 1998, p. 77.
  46. ^ Castellano, Stephanie (March 30, 2023). "Living on the Edge: Leaving Atsena Otie". WUSF Public Media. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
  47. ^ Barnes 1998, p. 152.
  48. ^ Barnes 1998, pp. 231–232.
  49. ^ Barnes 1998, p. 254.
  50. ^ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1994). "Superstorm of March 1993" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. p. 2‑11. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2018. Retrieved September 8, 2023.
  51. ^ Mayfield, Max (17 November 1998). "Preliminary Report Hurrican Earl" (PDF). NOAA. Mereorlogical Statistics. Retrieved September 8, 2023.
  52. ^ Myers & Ewel 1990, p. 623.
  53. ^ "Big Bend Aquatic Seagrasses Preserve". Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2023. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
  54. ^ "Big Bend Wildlife Management Area". Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2023. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
  55. ^ "St. Martins Marsh Aquatic Preserve". Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2023. Retrieved October 16, 2023.
  56. ^ "Weekiwachee Preserve". Southwwest Florida Water Management District. 2018. Retrieved October 14, 2023.
  57. ^ "Big Bend Saltwater Paddling Trail". Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2023. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
  58. ^ "Florida Circumnavigational Paddling Trail - Segment 5: Crooked River/St. Marks Refuge" (PDF). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
  59. ^ "Florida Circumnavigational Paddling Trail - Segment Six: Big Bend" (PDF). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
  60. ^ "Florida Circumnavigational Paddling Trail - Segment Seven: Nature Coast" (PDF). Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved September 9, 2023.

Sources

  • Barnes, Jay (1998). Florida's Hurricane History. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4748-0.
  • Davis, Richard A., Jr. (1997). "Geology of the Florida Coast". In Randazzo, Anthony F.; Jones, Douglas S. (eds.). The Geology of Florida. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1496-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Davis, Richard A. Jr. (2016). Barrier Islands of the Florida Gulf Coast Peninsula. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press. ISBN 978-1-56164-8085.
  • Hernnkind, William F. (March 2013). Sea Life of the Wilderness Coast (PDF) (Report). Tallahassee, Florida: The Florida State University Coastal & Marine Laboratory. Retrieved October 16, 2023.{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Mattson, Robert A. (1999). "Seagrass Ecosystem Characterisitcs, Research, and Management Needs in the Florida Big Bend". In Bortone, Stephen R. (ed.). Seagrasses: Monitoring, Ecology, Physiology, and Management. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-7447-5.
  • Mattson, Robert A.; Frazer, Thomas K.; Hale, Jason; Blitch, Seth; Ahijevych, Lisa (2007). "Florida Big Bend" (PDF). In Handley, L.; Altsman, D.; DeMay, R. (eds.). Seagrass Status and Trends in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: 1940–2002. United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 9, 2023.
  • McCarthy, Matthew J.; Dimmitt, Benjamin; DiGeronimo, Sebastian; Muller-Karger, Frank E. (2022-05-01). "Forest Loss is Accelerating Along the US Gulf Coast". Estuaries and Coasts. 45 (3): 913–919. doi:10.1007/s12237-021-01000-6. ISSN 1559-2731. PMC 8940792. PMID 35401066.
  • Milanich, Jerald T. (1994). Archaeology of Precolumbian Florida. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1273-2.
  • Montague, Clay L.; Wiegert, Richard G. (1990). "Salt Marshes". In Myers, Ronald L.; Ewel, John J. (eds.). Ecosystems of Florida. Orlando, Florida: University of Central Florida Press. ISBN 0-8130-1022-5.
  • Myers, Ronald L.; Ewel, John J. (1990). "Problems, Prospects, and Strategies for Protection". In Myers, Ronald L.; Ewel, John J. (eds.). Ecosystems of Florida. Orlando, Florida: University of Central Florida Press. ISBN 0-8130-1022-5.
  • Stallings, Christopher D.; Mickle, Alexandra; Nelson, James A.; McManus, Michael G.; Koenig, Christopher C. (2015). "Faunal communities and habitat characteristics of the Big Bend seagrass meadows, 2009–2010" (PDF). Ecology. 96 (1): 304–313. doi:10.1890/14-1345.1.
  • Williams, Kimberlyn; MacDonald, Michelina; McPherson, Kelly; Mirti, Thomas H. (2007). "Ecology of the Coastal Edge of Hydric Hammocks on the Gulf Coast of Florida". In Conner, William H.; Doyle, Thomas W.; Krauss, Ken W. (eds.). Ecology of Tidal Freshwater Forested Wetlands of the Southeastern United States. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 255–289. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5095-4_10. ISBN 978-1-4020-5095-4. Retrieved 2023-10-19.
source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Big_Bend_Coast&diff=prev&oldid=1181760716

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