→France: make it closer to source |
Wanderer602 (talk | contribs) →Finland: been well over a week, and nothing has come up which would support keeping the camps section in. use talk page if you want to include it. |
||
Line 69: | Line 69: | ||
===Finland=== |
===Finland=== |
||
{{Off-topic|Finnish military administration in Eastern Karelia|date=January 2012}} |
|||
{{See also|Russians_in_Finland#Manifestations_of_intolerance}} |
{{See also|Russians_in_Finland#Manifestations_of_intolerance}} |
||
In Finland, russophobia has been studied since |
In Finland, russophobia has been studied since the 1970s. The history of russophobia has two main theories. One of them considers the Finns and the Russians have been the arch-enemy throughout history. The position is considered to have been dominated at least the 1700s since the days of the [[Greater Wrath]], when the Russians "occupied by Finland and raped it." This view largely assumes that through the centuries, "Russia is a violent slayer and Finland is an innocent, virginal victim". In 1920s and 1930s this anti-Russian and anti-Communism propaganda had a fertile ground. Failed Russian actions to [[Russification of Finland|terminate Finnish autonomy and cultural uniqueness]] (1899–1905 and 1908–1917) contributed greatly to both the anti-Russian feelings in Finland. |
||
Other theory |
Other theory considers that russophobia sentiment was born in Finland at the time of [[Finnish Civil War|civil war]] 1917–1918, and was anti-Russian political and ideological [[White Finland]] created a confrontation by deliberately blow and spread. The russophobia was created against the external threat of the Soviet Union and it was almost a national duty in 1920s and 1930s. During the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|World War II]] Finns organized [[East Karelian concentration camps|internment camps]] to the [[Finnish military administration in Eastern Karelia|occupied East Karelia]] where ethnic segregation between 'relatives' ([[Finnic peoples|Finnic population]]) and 'non-relatives' (other, primarily Russian population) took place which has been attributed to russophobia. |
||
====Finnish policies during the WWII==== |
|||
During the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|World War II]], [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim|Mannerheim]], Commander-in-Chief of [[Finland]], issued a so-called second [[Sword Scabbard Declaration]], ordering an invasion, alongside with the [[Wehrmacht|Nazi army]], of the [[Karelia]] region of the USSR. |
|||
[[File:Konclagers.jpg|thumb|alt=Children in a Finnish-run concentration camp in Russia.|150px|right|Children in a Finnish-run camp for "non-relative [to Finns] peoples" in Russia during the [[World War II]]. Sign in [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Russian language|Russian]] says: <i>"Transfer camp. Entering the camp and speaking through [[barbwire]] is prohibited. Violators will be shot."</i><ref>[http://www.aroundspb.ru/finnish/sepp/sepp1.php [[Mannergeim]]'s order was to encamp only "non-relative [to Finns]" population, which, in effect, meant "ethnic Russians". Tens of thousands "non-relatives" in Karelia and other regions of the USSR were sent to [[concentration camps]] by Finns.]</ref>]] |
|||
The Finnish administration divided local population by [[ethnicity]] into "relative" [to Finns] and "non-relative" peoples. Ethnic Russians (46.7% of the population of the territories occupied by Finns) and [[Ukrainians]] (1.3%) were the majority of the "non-relative" population. [[Karelians|Karels]] (39.6%) and [[Finns]] (8.5%) were the two main ethnic groups of "relatives". "Non-relatives" were initially discriminated in wages, provision of food, and their freedom of movement was more severely restricted. On 8 July 1941 Mannerheim ordered to send masses of "non-relative" population to concentration camps, with goals of creating a source of a [[forced labor]], hindering partisan activities and moving civilians away from the war zone. Later aim was to [[ethnic cleansing|cleanse]] the "non-relative" ethnic Russian population<ref>[http://www.aroundspb.ru/finnish/sepp/sepp3.php - "это означало очищение оккупированной территории от людей иной национальности, а конкретнее — от русских..."/ "...this meant cleansing of all the occupied territory of people of other ethnicity, more precisely Russians..."]</ref>, forcing it after the war out to the areas outside of the [[Greater Finland]], and repopulate the area with Finnic peoples that were relocated by Finns and Nazi Germans from other occupied Soviet territories.<ref>Laine A. Suur-Suomen kahdet kasvot. Itä-Karjalan siviiliväestön asema suomalaisessa miehityshallinnossa. 1941—1944. Helsinki: Keuruu, 1982. S. 105—106</ref><ref>Морозов К. А. Карелия в годы Великой Отечественной войны (1941—1945). Петрозаводск, 1983. С. 10.</ref><ref>Seppälä H. Suomalaista rotuerottelua: Itä-Karjalan venäläisväestö suomalaisen sotilashallinnon keskitysleirillä 1941—1944 // Ulkopolitiikka. 2005. Vol. 2. № 2. S. 124.</ref><ref>[http://www.aroundspb.ru/finnish/sepp/sepp1.php#_T7160 Helge Seppälä. Finland as an occupying nation. - ''See data on wages, food provision, work conditions, use of child labor, camps, etc.'']</ref> |
|||
Of the 64 thousands of Soviet prisoners of war, 18 thousands died during their captivity majority of them due to malnutrition. Roughly 24 thousands of the local population were sent to concentration camps, and about 4 thousands of them perished primarily due to malnutrition and related conditions.<ref>Heikki Ylikangas, ''[http://www2.vnk.fi/julkaisukansio/2004/j05-heikki-ylikankaan/pdf/fi.pdf Heikki Ylikankaan selvitys Valtioneuvoston kanslialle]'', Government of Finland</ref><ref name=Laine>Laine, Antti, ''Suur-Suomen kahdet kasvot'', 1982, ISBN 951-1-06947-0, Otava</ref><ref name="Jatkosota">Maanpuolustuskorkeakoulun historian laitos, ''Jatkosodan historia 1-6'', 1994</ref> |
|||
====Modern anti-Russian sentiment in Finland==== |
|||
According to polls in 2004 62% of Finnish citizens had a negative view of Russia.<ref name="HelsSan"/> The main reasons where general distrust of major owers in world politics (in the same poll conducted during the [[Iraq War]], 56% of Finns had a negative view of United States)<ref name="HelsSan"/> and historically rooted antipathy. [[Ingrian_Finns#Ingrians_in_the_Soviet_Union|Deportation]] of [[Ingrian Finns]], autochthones of [[St. Petersburg]], [[Ingria]] and other Soviet repressions against its Finnish minorities have contributed negative view of Russia and Russians.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}. |
According to polls in 2004 62% of Finnish citizens had a negative view of Russia.<ref name="HelsSan"/> The main reasons where general distrust of major owers in world politics (in the same poll conducted during the [[Iraq War]], 56% of Finns had a negative view of United States)<ref name="HelsSan"/> and historically rooted antipathy. [[Ingrian_Finns#Ingrians_in_the_Soviet_Union|Deportation]] of [[Ingrian Finns]], autochthones of [[St. Petersburg]], [[Ingria]] and other Soviet repressions against its Finnish minorities have contributed negative view of Russia and Russians.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}. |
||
Revision as of 07:58, 28 January 2012
Part of a series on |
Discrimination |
---|
![]() |
Russophobia (Russian: Русофобия) refers to a diverse spectrum of prejudices, dislikes or fears of Russia, Russians, or Russian culture. Its opposite is Russophilia. The contemporary concept of Russophobia has wide circulation in right-wing anti-democratic reform circles within Russia and was used to construct stab-in-the-back myths about the fall of the Soviet Union and is seen as the rallying point of xenophobes and defenders of autocracy.[1]
In modern international politics the term "Russophobia" is also used more specifically to describe clichés preserved from the times of the Cold War.[2][3] Many prejudices, often introduced as elements of political war against the Soviet Union, are still observed in the discussions of the relations with Russia—whose leadership are seen as manipulating perceptions of Russia and its history by means of deliberate distortions and omissions in representing its Soviet past.[4] The extent of Russophobia varies country by country and depends not only on the geography but also the fraction of the society.[citation needed]
"Russophobe" as a codeword for Jew has been popularized in Russia by the leading figure in the Russian nationalist anti-Jewish movement Igor Shafarevich.[5]
History
![Barbaric Russian invasion.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/La_Barbarie_et_Le_Chol%C3%A9ra-Morbus_Entrant_en_Europe.png/250px-La_Barbarie_et_Le_Chol%C3%A9ra-Morbus_Entrant_en_Europe.png)
On 19 October 1797 the French Directory received a document from a Polish general, Michał Sokolnicki, entitled "Aperçu sur la Russie". This became known as the so-called "Testament of Peter the Great" and was first published in October 1812, during the Napoleonic wars, in Charles Louis-Lesur's much-read Des progrès de la puissance russe: this was at the behest of Napoleon I, who ordered a series of articles to be published showing that "Europe is inevitably in the process of becoming booty for Russia".[6][7] Subsequent to the Napoleonic wars, propaganda against Russia was continued by Napoleon's former confessor, Dominique Georges-Frédéric de Pradt, who in a series of books portrayed Russia as "despotic" and "Asiatic" power hungry to conquer Europe.[8]
In 1843 the Marquis de Custine published his hugely successful 1800-page, four volume travelogue La Russie en 1839. Custine's scathing narrative reran what were by now clichés which presented Russia as a place where "the veneer of European civilization was too thin to be credible". Such was its huge success that several official and pirated editions quickly followed, as well as condensed versions and translations in German, Dutch and English. By 1846 approximately 200 thousand copies had been sold.[9]
The Prometheism political strategy conceived by Polish chief of state Józef Piłsudski sought to weaken the threat of Tsarist Russia and later the Soviet Union by facilitating its breakup into its constituent parts.
The influential British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote controversially on Russia, that the oppression in Russia, rooted in the Red Revolution, perhaps was "the fruit of some beastliness in the Russian nature”, also attributing "cruelty and stupidity" to tyranny in both the "Old Russia" (tsarist) and "New Russia" (Soviet).[10]
In the 1930s, Adolf Hitler enhanced the Russophobe stereotypes with his racial theory of subhumans, in part to rationalize and justify the German invasion of the Soviet Union and the atrocities committed against its populace. The notion of Russian — and Slavs in general — as an "inferior race" was actively used in Nazi propaganda.
"Need, hunger, lack of comfort have been the Russians' lot for centuries. No false compassion, as their stomachs are perfectly extendible. Don't try to impose the German standards and to change their style of life. Their only wish is to be ruled by the Germans. <...> Help yourselves, and may God help you!" ("12 precepts for the German officer in the East", 1941) [11]
Modern Russophobia peaked during the Cold War, driven by Western fears of the Soviet role in communism's mission to take over the "Free World". The Sino-Soviet split saw more of a stand against Soviet communism rather than communism in general.
Post-Soviet distrust of Russia and Russians is attributable to backlash against the historical memory of Russification pursued by Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union, and backlash against modern policies of the Russian government.[12]
Vlad Sobell[13] believes current "Russophobic sentiment" in the West reflects the West's failure to adapt and change its historical attitude towards Russia, even as Russia has (in his view) abandoned past ideology for pragmatism, successfully driving its economic revival. With the West victorious over totalitarianism, Russia serves to perpetuate the role of a needed adversary owing to its "unashamed continuity with the communist Soviet Union."[14]
Historic and modern claims of Russophobia by country
![The Museum of Communism.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Museum_of_communism_in_prague_2008-08-06.jpg/150px-Museum_of_communism_in_prague_2008-08-06.jpg)
In the October of 2004, the International Gallup Organization announced that according to its poll,[15] anti-Russia sentiment remained fairly strong throughout Europe and the West in general. It found that Russia was the least popular G-8 country globally. The percentage of population with a negative perception of Russia was 62% in Finland, 57% in Norway, 42% in the Czech Republic and Switzerland, 37% in Germany, 32% in Denmark and Poland, and 23% in Estonia. However, according to the poll, the people of Kosovo had the lowest opinion of Russia: 73% of Kosovar respondents said their opinion was "very negative" or "fairly negative". Overall, the percentage of respondents with a positive view of Russia was only 31%.
A Russian commentator Vyacheslav Nikonov claimed Russia’s image is so negative in the West by quoting his Canadian friend: "The main problem is that these Russians have white skin. If they had been green, or pink, or came from Mars...or had flowers sticking out of their ears, then everybody would have said – well, these people are different, like Turks, or Chinese, or Japanese. We have no questions about the Japanese. They are different, their civilisation is different. But these Russians ... they are white but they have totally different brains ... which is thoroughly suspicious."[1]
Caucasus
In a report by the Jamestown Federation, dealing with the topic of the (extremely positive according to the report) reception of John McCain's statements about Russia's "double standards in the Caucasus" (referring to how Russia recognized South Ossetia but would not let Chechnya go), one Chechen was quoted to have gone so far as to tell the website that Chechnya "cannot exist within the borders of Russia because every 50 years... Russia kills us Chechens".,[16] demonstrating local fear of the Russian government.
Journalist Fatima Tlisova released an article in 2009 discussing the frequent occurrences of Russian Orthodox crosses being sawed off buildings and thrown off mountains in Circassia, due to the cross being associated with the people who initiated the mass expulsions of Circassians.[17]
China
The Chinese Qing dynasty General Zuo Zongtang called for war against Russia during the Ili crisis, saying: "We shall first confront them [the Russians] with arguments...and then settle it on the battlefields."[18][19][20][21]
When Russians consorted with Uyghur prostitutes, in Kashgar, China, it set off rage against them.[22]
In 1930s, a White Russian driver accompanying the Nazi agent Georg Vasel in Xinjiang was afraid to meet the Hui General Ma Zhongying, saying "You know how the Tungans hate the Russians." Tungan is another name for Hui. Georg passed the Russian driver off as German to get through.[23] Ma Zhongying, a general in the Chinese army, then did battle against the Russians during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. He was chief of the Tungan 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army). His brother Ma Hushan fought the Russians again, and killed many Russians in combat, leaving many graves at a memorial to war dead with Russian Orthodox crosses.[24]
Uyghur riots against white Russians in Xinjiang during the Ili Rebellion occurred, with Uyghurs calling for White Russians to be expelled along with Han Chinese. White Russians fled out of fear.[25]
In 1951, Chinese Muslim General Bai Chongxi made a speech to the entire Muslim world calling for a war against Russia, and Bai also called upon Muslims to avoid the Indian leader Nehru, accusing him of being blind to Soviet imperialism.[26][27]
Estonia
According to veteran German author, journalist and Russia-correspondent Gabriele Krone-Schmalz, there is deep disapproval of everything Russian in Estonia,[28] this however has been challenged in a poll conducted by Gallup International[15] which suggests that 23% of Estonians see Russia in negative light while 34% have positive attitude towards Russia.[15]
According to Estonian philosopher Jaan Kaplinski, the birth of anti-Russian sentiment in Estonia dates back to 1940, as there was little or none during the czarist and first independence period, when anti-German sentiment predominated. Kaplinski states the imposition of Soviet rule in 1940 and subsequent actions by Soviet authorities led to the replacement of anti-German sentiment with anti-Russian sentiment within just one year, and characterized it as "one of the greatest achievements of the Soviet authorities".[29] Kaplinski supposes that anti-Russian sentiment could disappear as quickly as anti-German sentiment did in 1940, however he believes the prevailing sentiment in Estonia is sustained by Estonia's politicians who employ "the use of anti-Russian sentiments in political combat," together with the "tendentious attitude of the [Estonian] media."[30] Kaplinski says that a "rigid East-West attitude is to be found to some degree in Estonia when it comes to Russia, in the form that everything good comes from the West and everything bad from the East";[30] this attitude, in Kaplinski's view, "probably does not date back further than 1940 and presumably originates from Nazi propaganda."[30]
The Estonian businessman and politician Tiit Vähi, who briefly served as Estonia's prime minister in 1992 and once more in 1995-1997, described "overall anti-Russian sentiment" as a feature of the populist current in the country's politics, raising it as one among a number of issues with the ruling coalition of Prime Minister Andrus Ansip.[31]
European discrimination watchgroups express worries about the usage of a highly derogatory Estonian term for Russians, tibla, in mainstream media.[32][33]
Finland
In Finland, russophobia has been studied since the 1970s. The history of russophobia has two main theories. One of them considers the Finns and the Russians have been the arch-enemy throughout history. The position is considered to have been dominated at least the 1700s since the days of the Greater Wrath, when the Russians "occupied by Finland and raped it." This view largely assumes that through the centuries, "Russia is a violent slayer and Finland is an innocent, virginal victim". In 1920s and 1930s this anti-Russian and anti-Communism propaganda had a fertile ground. Failed Russian actions to terminate Finnish autonomy and cultural uniqueness (1899–1905 and 1908–1917) contributed greatly to both the anti-Russian feelings in Finland.
Other theory considers that russophobia sentiment was born in Finland at the time of civil war 1917–1918, and was anti-Russian political and ideological White Finland created a confrontation by deliberately blow and spread. The russophobia was created against the external threat of the Soviet Union and it was almost a national duty in 1920s and 1930s. During the World War II Finns organized internment camps to the occupied East Karelia where ethnic segregation between 'relatives' (Finnic population) and 'non-relatives' (other, primarily Russian population) took place which has been attributed to russophobia.
According to polls in 2004 62% of Finnish citizens had a negative view of Russia.[15] The main reasons where general distrust of major owers in world politics (in the same poll conducted during the Iraq War, 56% of Finns had a negative view of United States)[15] and historically rooted antipathy. Deportation of Ingrian Finns, autochthones of St. Petersburg, Ingria and other Soviet repressions against its Finnish minorities have contributed negative view of Russia and Russians.[citation needed].
France
Russophobia was common in France after the French defeat by the Russians in the 1812 War.[34]
Georgia
Many Georgians dislike Russia because the two countries had a war in 2008.[35]
Japan
Most Japanese interaction with Russian individuals – besides in major cities such as Tokyo – happens with seamen and fishermen of the Russian fishing fleet, therefore Japanese people tend to carry the stereotypes associated with sailors over to Russians.[36][37] According to a report by the Cabinet in Japan, the percentage of Japanese who dislike Russia is 15%. (Japanese dislike towards China is 35%, South Korea 20%, and North Korea 80%.)
Kiribati
Russophobia has an impact on the Kirrbati government.[38]
Latvia
According to Andrei Tsygankov, ethnic Russians in Latvia are subjected to ethnic discrimination.[39]
Latvian American doctor and former member of the Civic Union, Aivars Slucis wrote op-eds in the New York Times and Washington Post in which he explains to the Americans that Russians have invading other nations in their genes, and they can only understand the language of force. Slucis wrote that he would personally never treat a Russian patient who came into his office.[40] In November 2010, Ģirts Valdis Kristovskis, the Latvian Foreign Affairs Minister, became embroiled in a scandal with Slucis after email correspondence between the two from 2009 was released by journalist Lato Lapsa. In one of the letters, Slucis stated that he would not be able to treat Russians with the same level of care that we would Latvians, and also stated that in the event of a shortage of medical supplies he would deny Russians the right to access to those supplies. In reply, Kristovskis stated that he approved of "both his assessment and vision of the situation".[41][42] According to Lapsa, Kristovskis was also in agreeance with Slucis advocating for freezing and reviewing all citizenships granted after 1991 with the thought of rescinding a majority.[43]
Mongolia
The 1926 published books "The Nineteenth century and after, Volume 99" and "The Twentieth century, Volume 99" stated that the Mongolians sought "the extermination of Russian colonists".[44][45]
New Zealand
Russophobia was prevalent in New Zealand too.[46]
Poland
Russian officials claim that negative feelings towards Russia are widespread in Poland. The New York Times reported after the Polish daily Gazeta Wyborcza that Gleb Pavlovsky, an advisor to President of Russia Vladimir Putin, complained during his 2005 visit to Warsaw that "Poles talk about Russians the way anti-Semites talk about Jews." [47] On the other hand, Poland's foreign minister Adam Rotfeld thinks that Russian politicians are "looking for an enemy and...find it in Poland.".
According to Boris Makarenko, deputy director of a Moscow-based think tank Center for Political Technologies, anti-Russian sentiments have existed in Poland for more than 200 years. He said that much of the anti-Russian feelings in Poland is caused by grievances of the past. [48] The most contentious issue is the massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, priests and intellectuals in Katyn Forest in 1940. [49] "It is easy to understand why, and I am not going to defend Russia either for three divisions of Poland [at the end of the 18 century] or many other [unjust things done to Poland]. These anti-Russian sentiments resurfaced in the recent decade and there are many examples of that." Makarenko said. He also noted that Poland had criticized Russia’s stance on human rights or press freedom, and had clashed with Russia over the Orange Revolution events in Ukraine.[48]
Jakub Boratyński, the director of international programs at the independent Polish think tank Stefan Batory Foundation, said that anti-Russian feelings have substantially decreased since Poland joined the EU and NATO, and that Poles feel more secure than before, but he also admitted that many people in Poland still look suspiciously at Russian foreign-policy moves and are afraid Russia is seeking to "recreate an empire in a different form." [48]
Romania
There is a wide anti-Russian sentiment in Romania.[50] It dates back to the conflict between Russian and the Ottoman empires in the early 19th century and the ceding of part of the Moldavian principality to Russia by the Ottoman Empire in 1812 after its de facto annexation, and to the annexations during World War II and after by the Soviet Union of Northern Bukovina and Bessarabia and the policies of ethnic cleansing, russification and deportations that have taken place in those territories against ethnic Romanians. Following WWII, Romania, an ally of the Nazi Germany, was occupied by Soviet forces. Soviet dominance over the Romanian economy was manifested through the so-called Sovroms, exacting a tremendous economic toll ostensibly as war-time reparations. Overall, there is a negative perception of everything Russian, including language, culture and people, and of those who take interest in Russia, such individuals seen as pro-Communists or Russophiles.[51][52][53][54]
Russia
Igor Shafarevich associates Russophobia with the historiography inspired by Jewish nationalism,[55] he writes that Russophobes were the enemies of Russian nationalism and specifically characterised the Jews as the special embodiment of anti-Russian antipathy.[56] Russian nationalists accuse the oligarchs of being russophobes who hate Russia. Most believe that the russophobia of the oligarchs is connected to the fact that so many of them are not Russians but Jews, who they claim despise Russians as an inferior ethnic group. Oligarchs such as Boris Berezovsky (who is a convert to Orthodox Christianity) are seen as archetypical Jews. Victor Ilyukin, a Duma deputy, claimed the problems of the Yeltsin era was due to Yeltsin's inner circle consisting "exclusively of one group, the Jews".[57]
Turkey
In the 1900's Turkey's Russophobia was so great that the Russians refused to allow a Turkish Military Attache to accompany their armies.[58]
Ukraine
In a poll held by Kyiv International Sociology Institute in May 2009 in Ukraine 96% of respondents were positive about Russians as ethnic group, 93% respected Russian Federation and 76% respected Russian establishment. In a poll held by Levada Center in Russia in June 2009 75% of respondents respected Ukrainians as ethnic group but 55% were negative about Ukraine as the state.[61]
In contrast to these polls, statistics released October 21, 2010, according to the Institute of Sociology of National Academy of Science of Ukraine, attitudes towards Russians have continued to decrease since 1994. In response to a question gauging tolerance of Russians, 15% of Western Ukrainians responded positively. In Central Ukraine, 30% responded positively (from 60% in 1994); 60% responded positively in Southern Ukraine (from 70% in 1994); and 64% responded positively in Eastern Ukraine (from 75% in 1994). Furthermore, 6-7% of Western Ukrainians would banish Russians entirely from Ukraine, and 7-8% in Central Ukraine responded similarly. This level of sentiment was not found in Southern or Eastern Ukraine.[62]
The right-wing political party "Svoboda",[59][60][63] small on the national scale (2011 polls in Ukraine put there support on between 4% and 5% of the total electorate),[64][65] has invoked radical Russophobic rhetoric[66] (see poster) and has electoral support enough to garner majority support in local councils,[67] as seen in the Ternopil regional council in Western Ukraine.[68] Analysts explained Svoboda’s victory in Eastern Galicia during the 2010 Ukrainian local elections as a result of the policies of the Azarov Government who were seen as too pro-Russian by the voters of "Svoboda".[69][70]
United Kingdom
In Great Britain Russophobia arose during conflicts including the Crimean War[71] and the Anglo-Afghan wars, which were seen as representing Russia's territorial ambitions regarding the British empire in India. This competition for spheres of influence and colonies (see e.g. The Great Game and Berlin Congress) fueled Russophobia in Great Britain. British propaganda of the time took up the theme of Russians as uncultured Asiatic barbarians.[72] The American professor Jimmie E. Cain Jr has claimed that these views were then exported to other parts of the world and were reflected in the literature of late the 19th and early 20th centuries,[71] though this is to miss the fact that these views had been formulated much earlier and already widely published by various French sources since 1812.
Business
In May and June 2006, Russian media cited discrimination against Russian companies as one possible reason why the contemplated merger between the Luxembourg-based steelmaker Arcelor and Russia's Severstal did not finalize. According to the Russian daily Izvestiya, those opposing the merger "exploited the 'Russian threat' myth during negotiations with shareholders and, apparently, found common ground with the Europeans",[73] while Boris Gryzlov, speaker of the State Duma observed that "recent events show that someone does not want to allow us to enter their markets."[74] On 27 July 2006, the New York Times quoted the analysts as saying that many Western investors still think that anything to do with Russia is "a little bit doubtful and dubious" while others look at Russia in "comic book terms, as mysterious and mafya-run."[75]
However, the same article also quoted Aleksandr Temerko, a former vice president of YUKOS, the company which was broken up and sold off by the Russian government, saying that Western investors should treat take-overs by Russian companies with suspicion: "What if tomorrow they decide to grab Mordashov [the oligarch in charge of Severstal] and force him to sell his stock to a state company?... Then some K.G.B. agent will show up at Arcelor and say, 'I'm your new partner'.... Political motives are real; they exist.... Investors are right to fear them." Some Russian activists who are against the greater political control associated with the rule of Putin and the United Russia Party are still disappointed by such Western repulsion, however, as a lack of foreign economic presence and investment is, in their view, one of the reasons why the new government and the KGB can so easily interfere in business and economics. Arcelor shareholders themselves portrayed their doubts about Severstal's bid very differently, and completely unrelated to stereotypes of Russian business practice: they were worried about the manner in which the bid was being presented to them by the Arcelor management, who were in favour of the take-over, and the degree of personal control Mr. Mordashov would have over the new company.[76]
View of Russia in Western media
Some Russian and Western commentators express concern about a far too negative coverage of Russia in Western media (some Russians even describe this as a "war of information").[77][78][79] In April 2007 David Johnson, founder of the Johnson's Russia List, said in interview to the Moscow News: "I am sympathetic to the view that these days Putin and Russia are perhaps getting too dark a portrayal in most Western media. Or at least that critical views need to be supplemented with other kinds of information and analysis. An openness to different views is still warranted." [80]
In 1995, years before Vladimir Putin was elected to his first term, the Pew Research Center for the People and the Press reported: "coverage of Russia and its president, Boris Yeltsin, was decidedly negative, even though national polls continue to find the public feeling positive toward Russia and largely uncritical of Yeltsin." [81]
In February 2007 the Russian creativity agency E-generator put together a "rating of Russophobia" of Western media, using for the research articles concerning a single theme — Russia's chairmanship of G8, translated into Russian by InoSmi.Ru. The score was composed for each edition, negative values granted for negative assessments of Russia, and positive values representing positive ones. The top in the rating were Newsday (-43, U.S.), The Financial Times (-34, Great Britain), The Wall Street Journal (-34, U.S.), Le Monde (-30, France), while editions on the opposite side of the rating were Toronto Star (+27, Canada) and The Conservative Voice (+26, U.S.) [82][83]
Dr. Vlad Sobell claimed that an example of the anti-Russian bias in the West was that in his opinion President Putin was widely assumed to be guilty of the murder of Alexander Litvinenko, without any evidence being considered as necessary. The only proof the Western press needed for Putin's guilt was, that the victim said so himself on his deathbed.[14]
California-based international relations scholar Andrei Tsygankov has remarked that anti-Russian political rhetoric coming from Washington circles has received wide echo in American mainstream media, asserting that "Russophobia's revival is indicative of the fear shared by some U.S. and European politicians that their grand plans to control the world's most precious resources and geostrategic sites may not succeed if Russia's economic and political recovery continues."[84]
See also
- List of anti-ethnic and anti-national terms
- Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs
- Russophilia
- Anti-communism
- Anti-Sovietism
- Racism in Russia
Footnotes
- ^ Horvath, Robert (2005). The legacy of Soviet dissent: dissidents, democratisation and radical nationalism in Russia. Psychology Press. p. 262. ISBN 9780415333207.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Aside from prevalent use in the media, the term "russophobia" was used specifically by Russian ambassador Yuri Fedotov to describe British-Russian relations in 2007. "Envoy complains Britons mistreat Russians". Reuters. 2007-07-08. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
- ^ "The west's new Russophobia is hypocritical - and wrong", The Guardian, June 30, 2006
- ^ Forest, Johnson, Till. Post-totalitarian national identity: public memory in Germany and Russia. Social & Cultural Geography, Volume 5, Number 3, September 2004. Routledge.
- ^ Garrard, John (2008). Russian Orthodoxy resurgent: faith and power in the new Russia. Princeton University Press. p. 262. ISBN 9780691125732.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Neumann, Iver B. "Europe's post-Cold War memory of Russia: cui bono?" in Memory and power in post-war Europe: studies in the presence of the past ed. Jan-Werner Müller. Cambridge University Press, 2002: p. 132
- ^ McNally, Raymond T. "The Origins of Russophobia in France" in American Slavic and East European Review Vol. 17, No. 2 (Apr., 1958): pp. 173-189
- ^ Neumann, 2002: p. 133
- ^ Fisher, David C. “Russia and the Crystal Palace 1851” in Britain, the Empire, and the World at the Great Exhibition of 1851 ed. Jeffery A. Auerbach & Peter H. Hoffenberg. Ashgate, 2008:pp. 123-124.
- ^ A Short View of Russia, Essays in Persuasion, (London 1932) John Maynard Keynes, 297-312
- ^ Russian: Политика геноцида, Государственный мемориальный комплекс «Хатынь»
- ^ Peter Lavelle is a host of CrossTalk show at RT.Peter Lavelle; et al. (2005-07-08). "RP's Weekly Experts' Panel: Deconstructing "Russophobia" and "Russocentric"". Russia Profile. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
{{cite web}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help) - ^ Sobell, currently at the Daiwa Research Institute, is a noted expert in the post-Soviet transition of society.
- ^ a b Western treatment of Russia signifies erosion of reason Dr. Vlad Sobell, 2007
- ^ a b c d e Helsingin Sanomat, October 11, 2004, International poll: Anti-Russian sentiment runs very strong in Finland. Only Kosovo has more negative attitude
- ^ http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=5144
- ^ http://www.circassianworld.com/new/headlines/1377-role-of-orthodox-church-tlisova.html
- ^ John King Fairbank, Kwang-ching Liu, Denis Crispin Twitchett (1980). Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911. Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 0521220297. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
{{cite book}}
: More than one of|pages=
and|page=
specified (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Bruce A. Elleman (2001). Modern Chinese warfare, 1795-1989. Psychology Press. p. 79. ISBN 0415214742. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
{{cite book}}
: More than one of|pages=
and|page=
specified (help) - ^ John Immanuel Chung-yueh Hsü (1995). The rise of modern China. Oxford University Press. p. 322. ISBN 0195087208. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
{{cite book}}
: More than one of|pages=
and|page=
specified (help) - ^ David Scott (2008). China and the international system, 1840-1949: power, presence, and perceptions in a century of humiliation. SUNY Press. p. 104. ISBN 0791476278. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Sir Clarmont Percival Skrine, Pamela Nightingale (1973). Macartney at Kashgar: new light on British, Chinese and Russian activities in Sinkiang, 1890-1918. Methuen. p. 124. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Georg Vasel, Gerald Griffin (1937). My Russian jailers in China. Hurst & Blackett. p. 143. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
{{cite book}}
: More than one of|pages=
and|page=
specified (help) - ^ Memorial to men who died in battle against Ma Hushan, includes Russian Orthodox crosses
- ^ UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPTS TO RESEOLVE POLITICAL PROBLEMS IN SINKIANG; EXTENT OF SOVIET AID AND ENCOURAGEMENT TO REBEL GROUPS IN SINKIANG; BORDER INCIDENT AT PEITASHAN
- ^ "Moslems Urged To Resist Russia". Christian Science Monitor. 25 Sep 1951.
- ^ "CHINESE ASKS ALL MOSLEMS TO FIGHT REDS". Chicago Daily Tribune. 24 Sep 1951.
- ^ Krone-Schmalz, Gabriele (2008). "Zweierlei Maß". Was passiert in Russland? (in German) (4 ed.). München: F.A. Herbig. pp. 45–48. ISBN 9783776625257.
- ^ Subrenat, Jean-Jacques (2004). Estonia: identity and independence. Rodopi. p. 273. ISBN 9042008903.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help); More than one of|pages=
and|page=
specified (help) - ^ a b c Subrenat, Jean-Jacques, A. Bertriko, David Cousins, Alexander Harding, and Richard C. Waterhouse. Estonia: Identity and Independence. Translated by David Cousins, Alexander Harding, Richard C. Waterhouse. Rodopi, 2004. ISBN 90-420-0890-3, ISBN 978-90-420-0890-8. P. 273.
- ^ Hõbemägi, Toomas. "Tiit Vähi: Estonian PM Lies and Doesn’t Even Blink". Baltic Business News. 9 October 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
- ^ "Sixth Periodic Report" on the Implementation of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination Submitted by the Republic of Estonia under Article 9 of the Convention", 2004
- ^ Shmelev, M. Strange accent of the local translation." Daily Vesti, 16.09.2008; the reference taken from "Racism in Estonia", ENAR Shadow Report 2008
- ^ McNally, T. (1958). "The Origins of Russophobia in France: 1812 - 1830". American Slavic and East European Review. XVII (2): 173–189.
- ^ 民调:多数格鲁吉亚人认为本国对俄政策不可接受
- ^ Otaru onsen lawsuit, hearing 7: oral testimonies by the plaintiffs, March 11, 2002, Sapporo district court
- ^ Jon Letman March 31, 2000: Russian visitors boiling over Japanese bathhouses
- ^ Neemia, Uentabo (1988). "Krirbati: Russophobia and Self Determination". In Walker, Ranginui (ed.). The Pacific: peace, security, & the nuclear issue. United Nations University Press. p. 198.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameters:|laydate=
,|coauthors=
,|separator=
,|laysummary=
,|trans_title=
,|month=
,|trans_chapter=
,|chapterurl=
, and|lastauthoramp=
(help) - ^ Tsygankov, Andrei (2009). Russophobia: Anti-Russian Lobby and American Foreign Policy. Palgrave MacMillan. p. 58. ISBN 9780230614185.
- ^ Tsygankov, Andrei (2009). Russophobia: Anti-Russian Lobby and American Foreign Policy. Palgrave MacMillan. p. 44. ISBN 9780230614185.
- ^ Solovyov, Vyacheslav (10 November 2010). "Russophobe remains at his post in Latvia". Voice of Russia. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
- ^ "Integration and Minority Information Service". Latvian Centre for Human Rights. 8 November 2010. Retrieved 17 June 2011.
- ^ Slucis' actual mail to Kristovskis is even worse, KasJauns news portal, retrieved June 10, 2011
- ^ The Nineteenth century and after, Volume 99. Leonard Scott Pub. Co. 1926. p. 28. Retrieved 2011-06-13.
- ^ The Twentieth century, Volume 99. The Nineteenth Century and After. 1926. p. 28. Retrieved 2011-06-13.
- ^ Barratt, Glynn (1981). Russophobia in New Zealand, 1838-1908. Dunmore Press. ISBN 9780908564750.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ "After Centuries of Enmity, Relations Between Poland and Russia Are as Bad as Ever" (free text)
- ^ a b c Radio Free Europe. Eastern Europe: Russian-Polish Tensions Rise Over Attack On Russian Children In Warsaw, by Valentinas Mite. 3 August 2005; last accessed on 14 July 2007
- ^ The Saint Petersburg Times. Lingering Bitterness Over May 9. 26 April 2005. retrieved on 14 July 2007
- ^ Dan Tapalaga: Oleg Serebrian: Tancurile rusesti au intrat in Georgia pentru a apara drepturile cetatenilor rusi. Maine, ne putem astepta la acelasi lucru in Republica Moldova, http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-politic-6844891-audio-video-oleg-serebrian-tancurile-rusesti-intrat-georgia-pentru-apara-drepturile-cetatenilor-rusi-maine-putem-astepta-acelasi-lucru-republica-moldova.htm
- ^ Olga Popescu: Ion Iliescu pentru presa rusa: “Nu stim cine a tras la Revolutie, este o enigma. Probabil au fost oameni extrem de devotati lui Ceausescu", http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-6753081-ion-iliescu-pentru-presa-rusa-nu-stim-cine-tras-revolutie-este-enigma-probabil-fost-oameni-extrem-devotati-lui-ceausescu.htm
- ^ George Roncea: Realitatea TV, ecoul Moscovei în România contra lui Băsescu, http://www.curentul.ro/2010/index.php/2010011138407/Actualitate/Realitatea-TV-ecoul-Moscovei-in-Romania-contra-lui-Basescu/Page-2.html
- ^ Liliana Popa: Traian Basescu tuna impotriva Rusiei, dar apropiatii sai obtin contracte grase de la Gazprom, http://www.financiarul.com/articol_38759/traian-basescu-tuna-impotriva-rusiei-dar-apropiatii--sai-obtin-contracte-grase-de-la-gazprom.html
- ^ Dan Tapalaga: Cortina de vorbe goale, http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-opinii-5598180-cortina-vorbe-goale.htm
- ^ Rossman, Vadim (2002). Russian intellectual antisemitism in the post-Communist era. U of Nebraska Press. p. 171. ISBN 9780803239487.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Klier, John (1995). "Russian Jewry as the 'Little Nation' of the Russian Revolution". In Ro'i, Yaacov (ed.). Jews and Jewish life in Russia and the Soviet Union. Routledge. p. 146. ISBN 9780714646190.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameters:|laydate=
,|coauthors=
,|separator=
,|laysummary=
,|trans_title=
,|month=
,|trans_chapter=
, and|lastauthoramp=
(help); External link in
(help); Unknown parameter|chapterurl=
|chapterurl=
ignored (|chapter-url=
suggested) (help) - ^ Shenfield, Stephen (2003). "Foreign Assistance as Genocide The Crisis in Russia the IMF and Interethnic relations". In Esman, Milton (ed.). Carrots, Sticks, and Ethnic Conflict: Rethinking Development Assistance. Ronald Herring. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780472089277.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameters:|laydate=
,|coauthors=
,|separator=
,|laysummary=
,|trans_title=
,|month=
,|trans_chapter=
, and|lastauthoramp=
(help); External link in
(help); Unknown parameter|chapterurl=
|chapterurl=
ignored (|chapter-url=
suggested) (help) - ^ Towle, Philip (1980). "British Assistance to the Japanese Navy during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5". The Great circle: journal of the Australian Association for Maritime History. 2 (1). Australian Association for Maritime History: 44–54.
- ^ a b Ukraine's orange-blue divide | csmonitor.com
- ^ a b David Duke makes repeat visit to controversial Kyiv university Kyiv Post
- ^ Russians about Ukraine, Ukrainians about Russia (Russian)
- ^ "Institute of Sociology: Love for Russians dwindling in Western Ukraine". zik. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
- ^ "Tiahnybok considers 'Svoboda' as the only right-wing party in Ukraine", Hazeta po-ukrainsky, 06.08.2007. edition, edition
- ^ If parliamentary elections were held next Sunday how would you vote? (recurrent, 2008-2010), Razumkov Centre
- ^ Electoral moods of the Ukrainian population: September 2011, Sociological group "RATING" (Sptember 30, 2011)
- ^ UKRAINIAN APPEALS TO ANTI-SEMITISM IN ELECTION WIN, Internet Centre Anti Racism Europe (November 4, 2010)
- ^ Template:Uk icon Вибори: тотальне домінування Партії регіонів, BBC Ukrainian (November 6, 2010)
- ^ Template:Uk icon Генеральна репетиція президентських виборів: на Тернопільщині стався прогнозований тріумф націоналістів і крах Тимошенко, Ukrayina Moloda (March 17, 2009)
- ^ Nationalist Svoboda scores election victories in western Ukraine, Kyiv Post (November 11, 2010)
- ^ Template:Uk icon Підсилення "Свободи" загрозою несвободи, BBC Ukrainian (November 4, 2010)
- ^ a b Jimmie E. Cain Jr. (15 May 2006), Bram Stoker and Russophobia: Evidence of the British Fear of Russia in Dracula and The Lady of the Shroud, McFarland & Co Inc.,U.S., ISBN 0786424079
- ^ Peter Hopkirk. The Great Game, Kodansha International, 1992, ISBN 4-7700-1703-0
- ^ Как закалялась "Северсталь", by Izvestija 26 June 2006
- ^ Russian: Председатель Госдумы Борис Грызлов, комментируя пропагандистскую кампанию против слияния российской "Северстали" и европейской "Arcelor", заявил, что Россию не хотят пускать на мировые рынки, by Rossijskaya Gazeta 27 June 2006
- ^ Russian Politicians See Russophobia in Arcelor's Decision to Go With Mittal Steel, by the New York Times 27 July 2006
- ^ Rebel investors gear up to sink Russian takeover of Arcelor, by The Observer 18 June 2006
- ^ "Pravda" on Potomac, by Edward Lozansky, Johnson's Russia List, December 2005
- ^ Why are the American media, both liberal and conservative, so unanimously anti-Russian?, by Ira Straus, Johnson's Russia List, January 2005
- ^ Template:Ru icon Western Media "put" Russia "to the place", by km.Ru, June 2007
- ^ Interview with David Johnson by the Moscow News, April 2007
- ^ 1995 report of the Pew Research Center for the People and the Press
- ^ Template:Ru icon Rating of Russophoby, by E-generator, February 2007
- ^ Matveeva, Anna (13 December 2008). "Anna Matveeva: The western media must not spoil the vital relationship between Russia and the west". The Guardian. London.
- ^ Tsygankov, Andrei. "The Russophobia Card". Atlantic Community. 19 May 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
References
- Template:Pl icon/Template:Ru icon ed. Jerzy Faryno, Roman Bobryk, "Polacy w oczach Rosjan — Rosjanie w oczach Polaków. Поляки глазами русских — русские глазами поляков. Zbiór studiów" - conference proceedings; in Studia Litteraria Polono-Slavica; Slawistyczny Ośrodek Wydawniczy Instytutu Slawistyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk, Warszawa 2000, ISBN 83-86619-93-7.
External links
- The Genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain
- Anatol Lieven, Against Russophobia, World Policy Journal, Volume XVII, No 4, Winter 2000/01; a review of a modern Russophobia in international politics.
- New York Times After Centuries of Enmity, Relations Between Poland and Russia Are as Bad as Ever, July 3, 2005 (subscription may be required for full text)
- Sergei Yastrzhembsky: Russophobia Still Rampant
- More Russophobia in International Press
- Corruption, Russophobia Weigh on Poland
- Finnish Russophobia: The Story of an Enemy Image
- Battling Russophobia, Guardian, 2008, by Anna Matveeva