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In [[engineering]], [[fiction]], and [[thought experiment]]s, ''' |
In [[engineering]], [[fiction]], and [[thought experiment]]s, '''Unobtanium''' (see Titanium for similar pronunciation) is any fictional, extremely rare, costly, or impossible material, or (less commonly) device needed to fulfill a given design for a given application. The properties of any particular unobtanium depend on the intended use. For example, a pulley made of unobtanium might be massless and frictionless; however, if used in a [[nuclear propulsion|nuclear rocket]], unobtanium would be light, strong at high temperatures, and resistant to radiation damage. The concept of unobtanium is often applied flippantly or humorously. |
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The word ''[[wikt: |
The word ''[[wikt:unobtanium|unobtanium]]'' is derived from ''[[wikt:unobtainable|unobtainable]]'' + ''[[wikt:-ium|-ium]]'' (the suffix for a number of [[Chemical element|elements]]). It pre-dates the similar-sounding IUPAC [[systematic element name]]s, such as [[Ununoctium]]. |
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== Engineering origin == |
== Engineering origin == |
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Since the late 1950s,<ref>" |
Since the late 1950s,<ref>"unobtanium, n. A substance having the exact high test properties required for a piece of hardware or other item of use, but not obtainable either because it theoretically cannot exist or because technology is insufficiently advanced to produce it. Humorous or ironical." Listed in "Interim Glossary, Aero-Space Terms," as compiled by Woodford Heflin and published in February 1958 by the Air University of the US Air Force.</ref><ref name="Langley">Since at least the 1950s: [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4305/sp4305.htm Hansen, James R. (1987) "Engineer in Charge: A History of the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 1917–1958." The NASA History Series, sp-4305.] Chapter 12, recounting an October 1957 meeting, mentions the problems caused by "the lack of a superior high-temperature material (which the Langley structures people dubbed 'unobtanium')" This paragraph in turn cites Becker, John V. "The Development of Winged Reentry Vehicles, 1952–1963," unpublished, dated 23 May 1983.</ref> aerospace engineers have used the term ''"unobtanium"'' when referring to unusual or costly materials, or when theoretically considering a material perfect for their needs in all respects, except that it does not exist. By the 1990s, the term was in wide use, even in formal engineering papers such as "Towards unobtanium <nowiki>[</nowiki>new composite materials for space applications<nowiki>]</nowiki>."<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=200114009286MT&recid=A9116974AH&q=towards+unobtanium&uid=788302480&setcookie=yes |title=Towards unobtanium <nowiki>[</nowiki>new composite materials for space applications<nowiki>]</nowiki> |last=Misra |first=Mohan <!-- see www.itnes.com/misra.html-->|journal=Aerospace Composites and Materials |volume=2 |pages=29–32 |month=Nov–Dec |year=1990 }}</ref> |
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The word '' |
The word ''unobtanium'' may well have been coined in the aerospace industry to refer to materials capable of withstanding the extreme temperatures expected in [[atmospheric reentry|reentry]].<ref name="Langley" /> [[Aerospace engineering|Aerospace engineers]] are frequently tempted to design aircraft which require parts with strength or resilience beyond that of currently available materials. |
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Later, '' |
Later, ''unobtanium'' became an engineering term for practical materials that really exist, but are difficult to get.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metalsuppliersonline.com/research/Charts/periodic/113unobtanium.asp |title=unobtanium |publisher=Metal Suppliers Online |accessdate=2010-06-04 |quote=We can loosely define it as any metal that is specified by Engineering and unavailable to Purchasing }}</ref> For example, during the development of the [[SR-71 Blackbird]] spy plane, [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]] engineers at the "[[Skunk Works]]" under Clarence "Kelly" Johnson used ''unobtanium'' as a [[dysphemism]] for ''[[titanium]].'' Titanium allowed a higher strength-to-weight ratio at the high temperatures the Blackbird would reach, but the [[Soviet Union]] controlled its supply and was trying to deprive the US armed forces of this valuable [[Resource (economics)|resource]].<ref group="nb">Relatively large amounts of titanium are used in aircraft such as the F-15, F-18, and F-22 fighters and the B-1 bomber.</ref> |
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In the 1970s, bicycle magazines, such as ''[[Bike World]],'' sometimes referred to exotic lightweight bicycle parts as being made of unobtanium, although while expensive they were commercially obtainable. In the same period, driver & engineer [[Mark Donohue]] claimed |
In the 1970s, bicycle magazines, such as ''[[Bike World]],'' sometimes referred to exotic lightweight bicycle parts as being made of unobtanium, although while expensive they were commercially obtainable. In the same period, driver & engineer [[Mark Donohue]] claimed unobtanium was used in the construction of [[Penske]] race cars. |
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== Contemporary popularization == |
== Contemporary popularization == |
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As of 2010, the term has diffused beyond engineering, and appears in the headlines of mainstream newspapers, especially to describe the commercially useful [[rare-earth metals|rare earth elements]] (particularly [[terbium]], [[erbium]], [[dysprosium]], [[yttrium]], and [[neodymium]]). These are essential to the performance of [[consumer electronics]] and [[green technology]], but the projected [[Demand (economics)|demand]] for them so outstrips their current supply that they are called " |
As of 2010, the term has diffused beyond engineering, and appears in the headlines of mainstream newspapers, especially to describe the commercially useful [[rare-earth metals|rare earth elements]] (particularly [[terbium]], [[erbium]], [[dysprosium]], [[yttrium]], and [[neodymium]]). These are essential to the performance of [[consumer electronics]] and [[green technology]], but the projected [[Demand (economics)|demand]] for them so outstrips their current supply that they are called "unobtaniums" within the [[Extractive metallurgy|ore industry]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1241872/EXCLUSIVE-Inside-Chinas-secret-toxic-unobtanium-mine.html |
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|title=EXCLUSIVE: Inside China's secret toxic |
|title=EXCLUSIVE: Inside China's secret toxic unobtanium mine |publisher= [[Mail Online]] |date= 2010-01-10 |last=Jones |first=Richard |accessdate=2010-06-04 |quote= The rare-earths blasted out of rocks here [ [[Bayan Obo|Baiyun Obo]] ] feed more than 77 per cent of global demand... 'Dysprosium, for instance, allows systems to work under extreme conditions,' he explained. 'The US military doesn't want to buy it on the open market. They need a guaranteed supply and it's becoming a problem. }} |
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</ref> and by commentators on the [[US Congress]]ional hearings into [[Plug-in electric vehicle#Rare earth metals availability and supply security|the "supply security" of rare-earths]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2010/03/congress-holds-hearings-on- |
</ref> and by commentators on the [[US Congress]]ional hearings into [[Plug-in electric vehicle#Rare earth metals availability and supply security|the "supply security" of rare-earths]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2010/03/congress-holds-hearings-on-unobtanium/ |title=Congress Holds Hearings on unobtanium |publisher=[[wired (magazine)|wired.com]] |accessdate=2010-06-04 |last=Hodge |first=Nathan |quote=[[House Committee on Science and Technology|The House Committee on Science and Technology]]’s investigations and oversight panel is holding a hearing today on rare-earth metal supplies, focusing on [[China]]’s near-monopoly on the stuff. |date=2010-03-16 }}</ref><ref name="Kosich2010">{{cite web |url=http://www.proactiveinvestors.com/companies/news/3617/the-rare-earth-revolution-has-investors-stampeding-3617.html |title=The Rare Earth Revolution has investors stampeding |date= 2010-01-13 |quote=Metals analyst Christopher Ecclestone suggests the hunt for unobtanium storyline reminds him 'of some of the talk surrounding Rare Earths (REE) these days' |publisher=Mineweb |accessdate=2010-06-04 |last=Kosich |first=Dorothy }}</ref> |
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''" |
''"unobtanium"'' has come to be used as a synonym for "unobtainable" among people who are neither science fiction fans nor engineers to denote an object that actually exists, but which is very hard to obtain either because of high price (sometimes referred to as "unaffordium") or limited availability. It usually refers to a very [[high-end]] and desirable product; for instance, in the [[mountain biking]] [[community]], "These [[titanium]] hubs are unobtanium, man!" Old-car enthusiasts use "unobtanium" to describe parts that are vanishingly rare or no longer available.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unobtaniumsupply.com/ |title=unobtanium Supply Co. - When it's NLA, who do you call? |publisher=www.unobtaniumsupply.com |accessdate=2010-06-04 |quote=If you've been desperately searching for a part for your classic or [[Vintage car|vintage]] Ferrari, and have been hearing "IT'S NO LONGER AVAILABLE", or "IT CAN'T BE FIXED" }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.califspeed.com/index.cfm/fa/categories.main/parentcat/15775 |title=Parts "unobtanium" for sale - Rare auto and motorcycle parts |publisher=www.califspeed.com |accessdate=2010-06-04 }}</ref> |
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In maintaining old equipment, '' |
In maintaining old equipment, ''unobtanium'' refers to replacement parts that are no longer made, such as parts for reel-to-reel audio-tape recorders, or rare vacuum tubes that cost more than the equipment they are fitted to (especially true of certain vacuum tubes, such as the [[1L6]], used almost exclusively in [[United States|American]] battery-powered [[shortwave]] radios or the [[WD-11]] used in certain early 1920s radios). |
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There have been repeated attempts to attribute the name to a real material. Because of the long-standing usage of the term " |
There have been repeated attempts to attribute the name to a real material. Because of the long-standing usage of the term "unobtanium" within the [[space elevator]] research community to describe a material with the necessary characteristics,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Arnold |first1= James R. |last2= Thompson |first2= William B. |year=1992 |title=Advanced propulsion for LEO-Moon transport: II. Tether configurations in the LEO-Moon system: The Role of "unobtanium" |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute |page=57 |bibcode=1992lbsa.conf...55A }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/elevator_update_020819.html |title='''Wanted: unobtanium''' Going Up? Private Group Begins Work on Space Elevator |accessdate=2010-05-19 }}</ref> [[LiftPort Group]] President Michael Laine has advocated assigning the term as the generic name for cables woven of [[carbon nanotube]] fibers, which seem to satisfy the requirements for this application. Since he claimed that sufficiently long nanotube cables will be prohibitively expensive to develop without inexpensive access to [[Microgravity environment|microgravity]], these cables would still be close enough to unobtainable to meet the definition. However, this usage does not seem to have become widespread. The eyewear and fashion wear company [[Oakley, Inc.]] also frequently denotes the material used for many of their eyeglass nosepieces and earpieces, which has the unusual property of increasing tackiness and thus grip when wet, as unobtanium. |
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Frequent Sunday night/Monday morning host of ''[[Coast to Coast AM]]'' [[George Knapp (journalist)|George Knapp]] usually opens his show mentioning |
Frequent Sunday night/Monday morning host of ''[[Coast to Coast AM]]'' [[George Knapp (journalist)|George Knapp]] usually opens his show mentioning unobtanium. As a play on the word, ''[[Obtainium]]'' is an album by [[Skeleton Key (band)|Skeleton Key]], released in 2002 by [[Ipecac Recordings]]. |
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== Cryptocurrency == |
== Cryptocurrency == |
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== Science fiction == |
== Science fiction == |
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'' |
''unobtanium'' can refer to any substance needed to build some device critical to the plot of a [[science fiction]] story, but which does not exist in the universe as we know it. A hull material that gets stronger with pressure in the film ''[[The Core]]'' was nicknamed ''unobtanium'', but the concept under different names can be seen in the anti-gravity material [[cavorite]] and the super-strong material [[scrith]] from [[Larry Niven]]'s novel ''[[Ringworld]]'', which requires a tensile strength on the order of the forces binding an [[atomic nucleus]] together. More recently, it was the ore mined on the moon [[Fictional universe of Avatar|Pandora]] in the movie [[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]], where the compound was described as key to human space exploration and survival,<ref name="Kosich2010" /><ref>'Unobtanium ore is excavated from three open-cast pits, each located over major lodes of unobtanium detected in preliminary surveys of Pandora by specialized probe devices.' http://www.pandorapedia.com/unobtanium_mine_and_refinery</ref> though it was spelled "unobtanium" in that setting.<ref>'The spelling was later changed to "unobtanium" to conform to the chemical element naming, even though unobtanium is a compound, not an element.' http://james-camerons-avatar.wikia.com/wiki/Unobtanium</ref> |
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'' |
''unobtanium'' can also refer to any rare but desirable material used to motivate a conflict over its possession, making it a [[MacGuffin]] (it appears in the story as something to obtain, not something that is significantly used). |
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'' |
''unobtanium'' can be used in a disparaging context (e.g., "That idea is silly; you'd need unobtanium wires to hold the planet up!") or a hypothetical one ("If one were to build an unobtanium shell around a [[black hole]]'s event horizon, what would happen to the material piling up on it?"). |
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== Similar terms == |
== Similar terms == |
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The term '''Eludium''' (also spelled with variants such as '''Illudium''') has been used to describe a material which has ''eluded'' attempts to develop it. |
The term '''Eludium''' (also spelled with variants such as '''Illudium''') has been used to describe a material which has ''eluded'' attempts to develop it. |
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Another largely synonymous term is '''wishalloy''',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/ch8.htm |title= NASA SP-4221: The Space Shuttle Decision – NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle |first=Thomas A. |last=Heppenheimer |date=1999 }} Chapter 8</ref> although the sense is often subtly different in that a wishalloy usually does not exist at all, whereas |
Another largely synonymous term is '''wishalloy''',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/ch8.htm |title= NASA SP-4221: The Space Shuttle Decision – NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle |first=Thomas A. |last=Heppenheimer |date=1999 }} Chapter 8</ref> although the sense is often subtly different in that a wishalloy usually does not exist at all, whereas unobtanium may merely be unavailable. |
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A similar conceptual material in alchemy is the [[Philosopher's Stone]], a mythical substance with the ability to turn lead into gold or bestow immortality and youth. While the search to find such a substance was not successful, it did lead to discovery of a new substance - [[Phosphorus]]. |
A similar conceptual material in alchemy is the [[Philosopher's Stone]], a mythical substance with the ability to turn lead into gold or bestow immortality and youth. While the search to find such a substance was not successful, it did lead to discovery of a new substance - [[Phosphorus]]. |
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[[Category:Placeholder names]] |
[[Category:Placeholder names]] |
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[[hu: |
[[hu:unobtanium#Unobtanium az Avatarban]] |
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Revision as of 20:31, 18 January 2014
In engineering, fiction, and thought experiments, Unobtanium (see Titanium for similar pronunciation) is any fictional, extremely rare, costly, or impossible material, or (less commonly) device needed to fulfill a given design for a given application. The properties of any particular unobtanium depend on the intended use. For example, a pulley made of unobtanium might be massless and frictionless; however, if used in a nuclear rocket, unobtanium would be light, strong at high temperatures, and resistant to radiation damage. The concept of unobtanium is often applied flippantly or humorously.
The word unobtanium is derived from unobtainable + -ium (the suffix for a number of elements). It pre-dates the similar-sounding IUPAC systematic element names, such as Ununoctium.
Engineering origin
Since the late 1950s,[1][2] aerospace engineers have used the term "unobtanium" when referring to unusual or costly materials, or when theoretically considering a material perfect for their needs in all respects, except that it does not exist. By the 1990s, the term was in wide use, even in formal engineering papers such as "Towards unobtanium [new composite materials for space applications]."[3] The word unobtanium may well have been coined in the aerospace industry to refer to materials capable of withstanding the extreme temperatures expected in reentry.[2] Aerospace engineers are frequently tempted to design aircraft which require parts with strength or resilience beyond that of currently available materials.
Later, unobtanium became an engineering term for practical materials that really exist, but are difficult to get.[4] For example, during the development of the SR-71 Blackbird spy plane, Lockheed engineers at the "Skunk Works" under Clarence "Kelly" Johnson used unobtanium as a dysphemism for titanium. Titanium allowed a higher strength-to-weight ratio at the high temperatures the Blackbird would reach, but the Soviet Union controlled its supply and was trying to deprive the US armed forces of this valuable resource.[nb 1]
In the 1970s, bicycle magazines, such as Bike World, sometimes referred to exotic lightweight bicycle parts as being made of unobtanium, although while expensive they were commercially obtainable. In the same period, driver & engineer Mark Donohue claimed unobtanium was used in the construction of Penske race cars.
Contemporary popularization
As of 2010, the term has diffused beyond engineering, and appears in the headlines of mainstream newspapers, especially to describe the commercially useful rare earth elements (particularly terbium, erbium, dysprosium, yttrium, and neodymium). These are essential to the performance of consumer electronics and green technology, but the projected demand for them so outstrips their current supply that they are called "unobtaniums" within the ore industry,[5] and by commentators on the US Congressional hearings into the "supply security" of rare-earths.[6][7]
"unobtanium" has come to be used as a synonym for "unobtainable" among people who are neither science fiction fans nor engineers to denote an object that actually exists, but which is very hard to obtain either because of high price (sometimes referred to as "unaffordium") or limited availability. It usually refers to a very high-end and desirable product; for instance, in the mountain biking community, "These titanium hubs are unobtanium, man!" Old-car enthusiasts use "unobtanium" to describe parts that are vanishingly rare or no longer available.[8][9]
In maintaining old equipment, unobtanium refers to replacement parts that are no longer made, such as parts for reel-to-reel audio-tape recorders, or rare vacuum tubes that cost more than the equipment they are fitted to (especially true of certain vacuum tubes, such as the 1L6, used almost exclusively in American battery-powered shortwave radios or the WD-11 used in certain early 1920s radios).
There have been repeated attempts to attribute the name to a real material. Because of the long-standing usage of the term "unobtanium" within the space elevator research community to describe a material with the necessary characteristics,[10][11] LiftPort Group President Michael Laine has advocated assigning the term as the generic name for cables woven of carbon nanotube fibers, which seem to satisfy the requirements for this application. Since he claimed that sufficiently long nanotube cables will be prohibitively expensive to develop without inexpensive access to microgravity, these cables would still be close enough to unobtainable to meet the definition. However, this usage does not seem to have become widespread. The eyewear and fashion wear company Oakley, Inc. also frequently denotes the material used for many of their eyeglass nosepieces and earpieces, which has the unusual property of increasing tackiness and thus grip when wet, as unobtanium.
Frequent Sunday night/Monday morning host of Coast to Coast AM George Knapp usually opens his show mentioning unobtanium. As a play on the word, Obtainium is an album by Skeleton Key, released in 2002 by Ipecac Recordings.
Cryptocurrency
The Cryptocurrency Unobtanium is a pure SHA256-based (the same as Bitcoin) coin. Ultra rarity is a special characteristic as only 1 UNO per block can be obtained. Halving every 102,000 blocks, only 196,875 Proof of Work UNO will be minted before .0001 minimum block subsidies take effect at block 612,000.
Science fiction
unobtanium can refer to any substance needed to build some device critical to the plot of a science fiction story, but which does not exist in the universe as we know it. A hull material that gets stronger with pressure in the film The Core was nicknamed unobtanium, but the concept under different names can be seen in the anti-gravity material cavorite and the super-strong material scrith from Larry Niven's novel Ringworld, which requires a tensile strength on the order of the forces binding an atomic nucleus together. More recently, it was the ore mined on the moon Pandora in the movie Avatar, where the compound was described as key to human space exploration and survival,[7][12] though it was spelled "unobtanium" in that setting.[13]
unobtanium can also refer to any rare but desirable material used to motivate a conflict over its possession, making it a MacGuffin (it appears in the story as something to obtain, not something that is significantly used).
unobtanium can be used in a disparaging context (e.g., "That idea is silly; you'd need unobtanium wires to hold the planet up!") or a hypothetical one ("If one were to build an unobtanium shell around a black hole's event horizon, what would happen to the material piling up on it?").
Similar terms
The term handwavium (suggesting handwaving) is another term for this hypothetical material, as are buzzwordium, impossibrium, hardtofindium, flangium, and, less commonly, phlebotinum.
The term Eludium (also spelled with variants such as Illudium) has been used to describe a material which has eluded attempts to develop it.
Another largely synonymous term is wishalloy,[14] although the sense is often subtly different in that a wishalloy usually does not exist at all, whereas unobtanium may merely be unavailable.
A similar conceptual material in alchemy is the Philosopher's Stone, a mythical substance with the ability to turn lead into gold or bestow immortality and youth. While the search to find such a substance was not successful, it did lead to discovery of a new substance - Phosphorus.
See also
- List of fictional elements, materials, isotopes and atomic particles
- Materials science in science fiction
References
- ^ "unobtanium, n. A substance having the exact high test properties required for a piece of hardware or other item of use, but not obtainable either because it theoretically cannot exist or because technology is insufficiently advanced to produce it. Humorous or ironical." Listed in "Interim Glossary, Aero-Space Terms," as compiled by Woodford Heflin and published in February 1958 by the Air University of the US Air Force.
- ^ a b Since at least the 1950s: Hansen, James R. (1987) "Engineer in Charge: A History of the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 1917–1958." The NASA History Series, sp-4305. Chapter 12, recounting an October 1957 meeting, mentions the problems caused by "the lack of a superior high-temperature material (which the Langley structures people dubbed 'unobtanium')" This paragraph in turn cites Becker, John V. "The Development of Winged Reentry Vehicles, 1952–1963," unpublished, dated 23 May 1983.
- ^ Misra, Mohan (1990). "Towards unobtanium [new composite materials for space applications]". Aerospace Composites and Materials. 2: 29–32.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ "unobtanium". Metal Suppliers Online. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
We can loosely define it as any metal that is specified by Engineering and unavailable to Purchasing
- ^ Jones, Richard (2010-01-10). "EXCLUSIVE: Inside China's secret toxic unobtanium mine". Mail Online. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
The rare-earths blasted out of rocks here [ Baiyun Obo ] feed more than 77 per cent of global demand... 'Dysprosium, for instance, allows systems to work under extreme conditions,' he explained. 'The US military doesn't want to buy it on the open market. They need a guaranteed supply and it's becoming a problem.
- ^ Hodge, Nathan (2010-03-16). "Congress Holds Hearings on unobtanium". wired.com. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
The House Committee on Science and Technology's investigations and oversight panel is holding a hearing today on rare-earth metal supplies, focusing on China's near-monopoly on the stuff.
- ^ a b Kosich, Dorothy (2010-01-13). "The Rare Earth Revolution has investors stampeding". Mineweb. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
Metals analyst Christopher Ecclestone suggests the hunt for unobtanium storyline reminds him 'of some of the talk surrounding Rare Earths (REE) these days'
- ^ "unobtanium Supply Co. - When it's NLA, who do you call?". www.unobtaniumsupply.com. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
If you've been desperately searching for a part for your classic or vintage Ferrari, and have been hearing "IT'S NO LONGER AVAILABLE", or "IT CAN'T BE FIXED"
- ^ "Parts "unobtanium" for sale - Rare auto and motorcycle parts". www.califspeed.com. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
- ^ Arnold, James R.; Thompson, William B. (1992). "Advanced propulsion for LEO-Moon transport: II. Tether configurations in the LEO-Moon system: The Role of "unobtanium"". Lunar and Planetary Institute: 57. Bibcode:1992lbsa.conf...55A.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "Wanted: unobtanium Going Up? Private Group Begins Work on Space Elevator". Retrieved 2010-05-19.
- ^ 'Unobtanium ore is excavated from three open-cast pits, each located over major lodes of unobtanium detected in preliminary surveys of Pandora by specialized probe devices.' http://www.pandorapedia.com/unobtanium_mine_and_refinery
- ^ 'The spelling was later changed to "unobtanium" to conform to the chemical element naming, even though unobtanium is a compound, not an element.' http://james-camerons-avatar.wikia.com/wiki/Unobtanium
- ^ Heppenheimer, Thomas A. (1999). "NASA SP-4221: The Space Shuttle Decision – NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle". Chapter 8
Footnotes
- ^ Relatively large amounts of titanium are used in aircraft such as the F-15, F-18, and F-22 fighters and the B-1 bomber.