Maltese
Malti
Native to	Malta  Australia  Canada  Gibraltar  Italy  UK  USA [1]
Native speakers	371,900 (1975)[2]
Language family	Afro-Asiatic Semitic West Semitic Central Semitic South Central Semitic Arabic Maltese
Official status
Official language in	European Union Malta
Regulated by	National Council for the Maltese Language
Language codes
ISO 639-1	mt
ISO 639-2	mlt
ISO 639-3	mlt

Maltese (Maltese: Malti) is the national language of Malta, and a co-official language of the country alongside English,^[3] while also serving as an official language of the European Union, the only Semitic language so distinguished. Maltese is descended from Siculo-Arabic (the Arabic dialect that developed in Sicily and the rest of Southern Italy),^[4] but with a large percentage of borrowed vocabulary from Italian (particularly Sicilian) and English. It is the only Semitic language written in the Latin alphabet in its standard form.

History

Maltese became an official language of Malta in 1934, alongside English, when Italian was dropped from official use.^[5] The oldest reference to Maltese comes from the Benedictine Monks of Catania, who were unable to open a monastery in Malta, in 1364, because they could not understand the native language. In 1436, in the will of a certain Pawlu Peregrino, Maltese is first identified as lingua maltensi. The oldest known document in Maltese is "Il Cantilena" (Maltese:Xidew il-Qada) a poem from the 15th century, written by Pietro Caxaro^[6] and the first known Maltese dictionary was written by the French Knight Francois de Vion Thezan Court in 1640. It includes notes about Maltese grammar and a concluding section detailing, in Italian and Maltese, phrases to be used when giving orders to soldiers. Facsimilies of the work are currently published.

In his book Dell’Istoria della Sacra Religione et Illustrissima Militia di San Giovanni Gierosolimitano (English: The History of the Sacred Religion and Illustrious Militia of St John of Jerusalem), written between 1594 and 1602, Giacomo Bosio endorses the hypothesis that Maltese descended from Carthaginian. Bosio writes that when the cornerstone of Valletta was placed, a group of Maltese elders said "Iegi zimen en fel wardia col sceber raba iesue uquie" (Which in modern Maltese reads, "Jiġi żmien li fil-Wardija [l-Għolja Sciberras] kull xiber raba’ jiswa uqija," and in English, "There will come a time when every piece of land on Sciberras Hill will be worth its weight in gold"). This is the oldest example of printed Maltese.

Pasquale Vassallo, a Dominican friar, wrote a collection of songs in Italian and Maltese in 1584. They were burned at the order of the Inquisition in 1585 for allegedly 'obscene' content.^[7]

Demographics

In 1975, there were an estimated 371,000 Maltese speakers, of whom 300,000 resided in Malta.^[8] Thousands of Maltese emigrants in Australia, Canada, Gibraltar, Italy, the UK, and the US still speak the language,^[1] and in 2007 it was reported that Maltese is still spoken by descendants of Maltese immigrants in Tunisia.^[9]

Classification

Maltese is a Semitic language descended from Siculo-Arabic,^[10] that in the course of its history has absorbed large numbers of loan words from Sicilian, Standard Italian,^[11] to a lesser extent French, and more recently from English. Due to these Sicilian borrowings layed over the Siculo-Arabic,^[12] Maltese is occasionally described as "mixed", "creoloid",^[13] or a language with "massive borrowing".^[14] Maltese has added loan words to its Siculo-Arabic base, but without the grammatical changes that creoles undergo or the wholesale replacement of core vocabulary seen in mixed languages. The percentage of borrowed vocabulary, 57%, excludes basic vocabulary and does not meet the typical connotation of "massive",^[13] and is substantially less than the 75% found in English.^[14]

Another discredited hypothesis is that it was not Siculo-Arabic, but instead the ancient Punic language that was the ancestor of Maltese.^[15][16][17] This hypothesis was first put forward in 1565 by Gian Battista Tebaldi, a visitor to the island who described the Maltese language as Phoenician. This view was also shared by the Italian poet and historian Tommaso Porcacchi, in is his book L’isole più famose del mondo (English: The Most Famous Islands in the World), and Hieronymus Megiser, a German traveller.^[18]

Athanasius Kircher spent two years in Malta (1637-38) and developed theories running counter to those accepted by his contemporaries. In his Mundus Subterraneus he says of the Maltese, "they speak the purest form of Arabic, corrupted by neither Italian nor any other language". Other theories include those in Johann Friedrich Breithaupt's Christliche Helden Insel Malta (English: Malta, Home of Christian Heroes), published in 1632, where he calls Maltese a mixed 'barbaric' language and John Dryden's description of the language as 'Berber' on his visit to the islands (the memoires of those journeys appeared in 1776).^[18] During the rise of Fascist Italy, Benito Mussolini claimed that Maltese was simply a dialect of Italian.^[19]

Phonology

Consonants

Consonants of Maltese^[20]

		Bilabial	Labio- dental	Dental	Post- alveolar	Velar	Pharyn- geal	Glottal
Nasal		m		n
Plosive	voiceless	p		t		k		ʔ
	voiced	b		d		g
Fricative	voiceless		f	s	ʃ		ħ
	voiced		v	z
Affricate	voiceless			t͡s	t͡ʃ
	voiced			d͡z	d͡ʒ
Trill				r
Approximant				l

Vowels

Maltese has five short vowels, /ɐ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ/, written a e i o u; six long vowels, /ɐː ɛː ɪː iː ɔː ʊː/, written a, e, ie, i, o, u, and seven diphthongs, /ɐɪ ɐʊ ɛɪ ɛʊ ɪʊ ɔɪ ɔʊ/, written aj or għi, aw or għu, ej or għi, ew, iw, oj, and ow or għu.^[21]

Orthography

Alphabet

Below is the Maltese alphabet, with IPA symbols and approximate English pronunciation:

Letter	Name	Maltese example	IPA	Approximate English pronunciation
A a	a	anġlu (angel)	ɐ	similar to 'u' in nut in RP
B b	be	ballun (ball)	b	bar, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to [p].
Ċ ċ	ċe	ċavetta (key)	tʃ	church (note: undotted 'c' has been replaced by 'k', so when 'c' does appear, it is to be spoken the same way as 'ċ')
D d	de	dar (home)	d	day, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to [t].
E e	e	envelopp (envelope)	ɛ	end
F f	effe	fjura (flower)	f	far
Ġ ġ	ġe	ġelat (ice-cream)	dʒ	gem, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to [tʃ].
G g	ge	gallettina (biscuit)	ɡ	game, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to [k].
GĦ għ	ajn	għasfur (bird)	ˤː, ħː	has the effect of lengthening and pharyngealizing associated vowels (għi and għu are [aˤj] and [oˤw]). When found at the end of a word or immediately before 'h' it has the sound of a double 'ħ' (see below).
H h	akka	hu (he)		not pronounced unless it is at the end of a word, in which case it has the sound of 'ħ'.
Ħ ħ	ħe	ħanut (shop)	ħ	no English equivalent; sounds similar to /h/ but is articulated with a lowered larynx.
I i	i	ikel (food)	ɪ	bit
IE ie	ie	ieqaf (stop)	iɛ, iː	no English equivalent; sounds similar to /i/, as in yield, but opened up slightly towards towards /ɛ/
J j	je	jum (day)	j	yard
K k	ke	kelb (dog)	k	kettle
L l	elle	libsa (dress)	l	line
M m	emme	mara (woman)	m	march
N n	enne	nanna (granny)	n	next
O o	o	ors (bear)	o	like 'aw' in law, but shorter.
P p	pe	paġna (page, sheet)	p	part
Q q	qe	qattus (cat)	ʔ	glottal stop, found in the Cockney English pronunciation of "bottle" or the phrase "uh-oh".
R r	erre	re (king)	r	road
S s	esse	salib (cross)	s	sand
T t	te	tieqa (window)	t	tired
U u	u	uviera (egg-cup)	ʊ	but
V v	ve	vjola (violet)	v	vast, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to [f].
W w	we	widna (ear)	w	west
X x	exxe	xadina (monkey)	ʃ / ʒ	shade, sometimes as measure; when doubled the sound is elongated, as in "Cash shin" vs. "Cash in."
Z z	ze	zalza (sauce)	ts / dz	pizza; when doubled may change to lots
Ż ż	że	żraben (shoes)	z	maze, but at the end of a word it is devoiced to [s].

Final vowels with grave accents (à, è, ì, ò, ù) are also found in some Maltese words of Italian origin, such as libertà ("freedom"), sigurtà (old Italian: sicurtà, "security"), or soċjetà (Italian: "società; "society").

The official rules governing the structure of the Maltese language are found in the official guidebook issued by the Akkademja tal-Malti, the Academy of the Maltese language, which is named Tagħrif fuq il-Kitba Maltija, that is, Knowledge on Writing in Maltese. The first edition of this book was printed in 1924 by the Maltese government's printing press. The rules were further expanded in the 1984 book, iż-Żieda mat-Tagħrif, which focused mainly on the increasing influence of Romance and English words. In 1992 the Academy issued the Aġġornament tat-Tagħrif fuq il-Kitba Maltija, which updated the previous works.^[22] All these works were included in a revised and expanded guidebook published in 1996.^{[citation needed]}

Nowadays, the National Council for the Maltese Language (KNM) is the main regulator of the Maltese language (see Maltese Language Act, below) and not the Akkademja tal-Malti. However, these orthography rules are still valid and official.^[5]

Written Maltese

Since Maltese evolved after the Normans ended the Arab rule of the islands, a standard, written form of the language was not developed for a long time after the Arabs' expulsion in the eleventh century. Throughout the centuries the use of the Maltese language was discouraged with varying degrees of success. Under the rule of the Order of the Knights of Malta both French and Italian were used for official documents and correspondence. During the British colonial period the use of English was encouraged through education, with Italian regarded as the next most important language.

It was not until 1934 that Maltese was recognised as an official language. Uniquely, no other European country lacked a standardised written form of its language until the nineteenth century, when philologists and academics such as Mikiel Anton Vassalli made a concerted effort to transcribe spoken Maltese in a comprehensive written form. Many examples of written Maltese exist from before this period, always in the Latin alphabet.

Sample

From the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe:

English

Maltese

The Union is founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail.

L-Unjoni hija mibnija fuq il-valuri ta' rispett għad-dinjità tal-bniedem, ta' libertà, ta' demokrazija, ta' ugwaljanza, ta' l-istat tad-dritt u tar-rispett għad-drittijiet tal-bniedem, inklużi d-drittijiet ta' persuni li jagħmlu parti minn minoranzi. Dawn il-valuri huma komuni għall-Istati Membri f'soċjetà karatterizzata mill-pluraliżmu, in-non-diskriminazzjoni, it-tolleranza, il-ġustizzja, is-solidarjetà u l-ugwaljanza bejn in-nisa u l-irġiel.

Vocabulary

Although the original vocabulary of the language was Sicilian Arabic, it has incorporated a large number of borrowings from Romance sources of influence (Sicilian, Italian, and French), and more recently Germanic ones (from English).^[23]

The historical source of modern Maltese vocabulary is 52% Italian/Sicilian, 32% Siculo-Arabic, and 6% English, with some of the remainder being French.^[4][24] In this respect it is similar to English (a Germanic language heavily influenced by Norman French). The result of this highly uneven distribution of loanwords throughout the language is that a speaker of the loanword-source language (in this case Romance or English language speakers) can find a number of familiar words in, for instance, the main page of the Maltese Wikipedia or comprehend the subject of a newspaper article, but cannot understand even such basic Maltese sentences such as Ir-raġel qiegħed fid-dar (The man is in the house). This situation resembles that of a monolingual English speaker, who will often be able to guess the content of something in French if it is formal academic writing, but not understand much simpler sentences.

Romance

An analysis of the etymology of the 41,000 words in Aquilina's Maltese-English Dictionary shows that words of Romance origin make up 52% of the Maltese vocabulary,^[4] although other sources claim from as low as 40% to as high as 55%.^[25][26] These vocabulary tend to deal with more complicated concepts. They are mostly derived from Sicilian and thus exhibit Sicilian phonetic characteristics, such as /u/ in place of /o/ and /i/ in place of /e/ (e.g. tiatru not teatro and fidi not fede). Also, as with Old Sicilian, /ʃ/ (English 'sh') is written 'x' and this produces spellings such as: ambaxxata /ambaʃːaːta/ ('embassy'), xena /ʃeːna/ ('scene' cf. Italian ambasciata, scena).

Maltese	Sicilian	Italian	English
skola	scola	scuola	school
gvern	cuvernu	governo	government
repubblika	ripùbblica	repubblica	republic
re	re	re	king
natura	natura	natura	nature
pulizija	pulizzìa	polizia	police
ċentru	centru	centro	centre
teatru	tiatru	teatro	theatre

Siculo-Arabic

Siculo-Arabic developed into the Maltese language^[27] and their lexicons are very similar.

Maltese	Siculo-Arabic	English
bebbuxu	babbaluciu	snail
kapunata	caponata	caponata
qassata	cassata	[Sicilian cake]
ġiebja	gebbia	cistern
ġunġlier	giuggiulena	sesame seed
saqqajja	saia	canal
kenur	tanura	oven
żaffran	zaffarana	saffron
zahar	zagara	blossom
żbib	zibbibbu	raisins
zokk	zuccu	tree trunk
tebut	tabbutu	coffin

Żammit (2000) harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFŻammit2000 (help) found that 40% of a sample of 1,820 Quranic Arabic roots were found in Maltese, a lower percentage than found in Moroccan (58%) and Lebanese Arabic (72%).^[28] An analysis of the etymology of the 41,000 words in Aquilina's Maltese-English Dictionary shows that 32% of the Maltese vocabulary is of Arabic origin^[4], although another source claims 40%.^[25] Usually, words expressing basic concepts and ideas, such as raġel (man), mara (woman), tifel (boy), dar (house), xemx (sun), sajf (summer), are of Arabic origin.

The Maltese language has merged many of the original Arabic consonants together, in particular the emphatic consonants, with others that are common in European languages. Thus, original Arabic /d/, /ð/, and /dˤ/ all merged into Maltese /d/. The vowels, however, separated from the three in Arabic (/a i u/) to five as is more typical of other European languages (/a ɛ i o u/). Some unstressed short vowels have been elided. The common Arabic greeting as salāmu 'alaykum is cognate with sliem għalikhom in Maltese.

English

It is estimated that English loanwords, which are becoming more commonplace, make up 20% of the Maltese vocabulary ^[25], although other sources claim amounts as low as 6%.^[4] This percentage discrepancy is due to the fact that a number of new English loanwords are sometimes not officially considered part of the Maltese vocabulary, hence they are not included in certain dictionaries.^[4] English loanwords are generally transliterated, although standard English pronunciation is virtually always retained. Below are a few examples:

Maltese	English
futbol	football
baskitbol	basketball
mowbajl	mobile [phone]
lift	lift/elevator
friġġ	fridge

Grammar

Maltese grammar is fundamentally derived from Siculo-Arabic, although Romance and English noun pluralization patterns are also used on borrowed words.

Adjectives & Adverbs

As in Italian and other Romance languages, adjectives follow nouns. There are no separately formed native adverbs, and word order is fairly flexible. Both nouns and adjectives of Semitic origin take the definite article (for example It-tifel il-kbir, lit. "The boy the elder"="The elder boy"). This rule does not apply to adjectives of Romance origin.

Nouns

Nouns are pluralized and also have a dual marker. Semitic plurals are complex; if they are regular, they are marked by -iet/-ijiet, e.g., art, artijiet "lands (territorial possessions or property)" (cf. Arabic -at and Hebrew -ot) or -in (cf. Arabic -īn and Hebrew -im). If irregular, they fall in the pluralis fractus category, in which a word is pluralized by internal vowel changes: ktieb, kotba "books", raġel, irġiel "man", "men".

Words of Romance origin are usually pluralized in two manners: addition of -i or -jiet. For example lingwa, lingwi "languages", from Sicilian lingua, lingui.

Words of English origin are pluralized by adding either an "-s" or "-jiet", for example friġġ, friġis from the word fridge. Some words can be pluralized with either of the suffixes to denote the plural. A few words borrowed from English can amalgamate both suffixes together, like brikksa from the English brick, which can adopt either collective form brikks or the plural form brikksiet.

Article

The proclitic il- is the definite article, equivalent to "the" in English.

The Maltese article becomes l- before or after a vowel.

• l-omm (the mother)
• rajna l-Papa (we saw the Pope)
• il-missier (the father)

The Maltese article assimilates to a following coronal consonant (called konsonanti xemxin "sun consonants"), namely:

• Ċ iċ-ċikkulata (the chocolate)
• D id-dar (the house)
• N in-nar (the fire)
• R ir-razzett (the farm)
• S is-serrieq (the saw)
• T it-tifel (the boy)
• X ix-xemx (the sun)
• Ż iż-żarbun (the shoe)
• Z iz-zalzetta (the sausage)

Maltese il- is coincidentally identical in pronunciation to the one of the Italian masculine articles, il, which is also l’ before, but not after, a vowel. Because of this many nouns borrowed from Standard Italian did not change their original article when used in Maltese. Romance vocabulary taken from Sicilian did change where the Sicilian articles u and a, before a consonant, are used.

Verbs

Verbs show a triliteral Semitic pattern, in which a verb is conjugated with prefixes, suffixes, and infixes (for example ktibna, Arabic katabna, Hebrew katavnu "we wrote"). There are two tenses: present and perfect. The Maltese verb system incorporates Romance verbs and adds Maltese suffixes and prefixes to them (for example iddeċidejna "we decided" < (i)ddeċieda 'Romance verb' + -ejna, a Maltese first person plural perfect marker). Arabic only rarely does this, although several Arabic dialects do.

Media

With Malta being a multilingual country, the usage of Maltese in the mass media is shared with other European languages, namely English and Italian. The majority of television stations broadcast from Malta are in English or Maltese, although broadcasts from Italy in Italian are also received on the islands. Similarly, there are more Maltese language radio programs than English ones broadcast from Malta, but again, as with television, Italian broadcasts are also picked up. Maltese generally receives equal usage in newspaper periodicals to English.^[5].

The use of the Maltese language on the internet is not altogether common and the number of websites written in Maltese are few. Out of a survey conducted on 13 Maltese websites, 12 of them were English only, and the remainder was bilingual with neither language being Maltese.^[29]

Trends

Declining usage

Amongst the population, a language shift towards English has begun,^[5] and some argue that Maltese is even comparable to a language like Irish, which has been largely displaced by English in its native country.^[30]

Increasing input from English and Italian

A tendency in modern Maltese is to adopt further influences from English and Italian.^[5] Maltese people tend to prefer to bring their children up in English^{[citation needed]}, while the number of people speaking Italian has also been noted to be increasing due to media outlets.

English words adopted into Maltese are often given Italianate or Sicilianate forms^[31], even if the resulting words do not appear in either of those languages. For instance the words "evaluation", "industrial action" and "chemical armaments" adopted into Maltese, become "evalwazzjoni", "azzjoni industrjali", and "armamenti kemikali" in Maltese, even though the respective Italian terms are valutazione, vertenza sindicale and armi chimiche.

See also

• Languages of Malta

External links

Dictionaries

• Malta Online Dictionary
• English-Maltese-English dictionary
• English-Maltese dictionary
• Collection of Maltese dictionaries
• English-Maltese-English online translator

Literature and linguistics

• The Technical Committee for Literature within the National Council for the Maltese Language
• Maltese Language in Broadcasting
• Template:PDFlink

Laws

• Template:PDFlink
• Template:PDFlink
• Template:PDFlink
• Template:PDFlink
• Template:PDFlink

Technology

• Download the Maltese keyboard driver (Id-driver tat-Tastiera Maltija)
• Template:PDFlink
• Template:PDFlink
• Template:PDFlink
• Unicode for Maltese
• Maltese Spellchecker
• YahooGroup Kelmet - The Maltese language online forum

Organisations

• Il-Kunsill Nazzjonali ta' l-Ilsien Malti
• L-Akkademja tal-Malti
• Għaqda tal-Malti - Università
• Għaqda Poeti Maltin

Glossaries and resources

• Rimarju Malti
• Kappelli Maltin
• Ġonna Maltin
• L-ewro
• Il-Lingwa tas-Sinjali Maltija
• Ikteb l-inviti tat-tieġ bil-Malti

Translation services

• Technical Documentation for Europe: Malta
• Maltese Style Guide (interinstitutional)

Notes

References

• Azzopardi, C. (2007). Gwida għall-Ortografija. Malta: Klabb Kotba Maltin..
• Borg, A. J; Azzopardi-Alexander, M (1997), Maltese, Routledge, ISBN 0415022436
• Brincat, Joseph M. (2005), Maltese-an unusual formula, MED Magazine, retrieved 2008-02-22
• Friggieri, Oliver (1994), "Main Trends in the History of Maltese Literature", Neohelicon, 21 (2): 59–69
• Hume, Elizabeth (1996), "Coronal Consonant, Front Vowel Parallels in Maltese", Natural Language & Linguistic Theory, 14 (1): 163–203
• Mifsud, M. (1997). Fuq l-għatba tal-Malti. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help).
• Zammit, Martin (2000), "Arabic and Maltese Cognate Roots", in Mifsud, Manwel (ed.), Proceedings of the Third International Conference of Aida, pp. 241–245, ISBN 99932-0-044-1
• Vassalli, Michelantonio (1827). Grammatica della lingua Maltese.

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