History

In the early Middle Ages the consolidation of Baltic lands under Lithuanian supremacy led to the gradual Lithuanization and subsequent assimilation of neighbouring Baltic tribes or their parts, including the Selonians, Jotvingians, Nadruvians and Curonians.

On the other hand, the Lithuanian conquest and rule of Ruthenian lands in the 13th-15th century was not accompanied by Lithuanization. On the contrary, a large part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania remained Ruthenian, since due to a religious, linguistic and cultural dissimilarity there was little assimilation between the ruling nobility of the pagan Lithuanians and the conquered Orthodox Eastern Slavs. Moreover, following the military and diplomatic expansion of the Grand Duchy into the Ruthenian and Russian lands local leaders retained a significant autonomy that limited the amalgamation of cultures^[1]. Even when some localities received the appointed Gediminid leaders, the Lithuanian higher nobility in the Ruthenian lands largely embraced the Slavic customs and Orthodox Christianity and became indistinguishable from a larger Ruthenian nobility resulting in the two cultures merging to the extent that much of the upper class of the Grand Duchy called themselves Lithuanians, yet spoke the Ruthenian language^[2][3][4] In the effect of the processes, Lithuanian higher nobility became largely Ruthenian,^[5] while the lesser nobility in the ethnic Lithuania and Samogitia continued to use native spoken Lithuanian language. The adapted Old Church Slavonic, and later its derivative Ruthenian language, acquired a status of a main chancery language in the local matters and relations with other Orthodox principalities as lingua franca, and Latin was used in relations with the Western Europe.^[6] This notion however had been gradually reversed by the Polonization of Lithuania occurring since 15th century^[5] and then the Russification of the lands of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 19th century and early 20th century.^[7]

A notable example of Lithuanization was the 19th century replacement of Jews (many of them Lithuanian Jews, but also Polish Jews), until then the largest ethnic group among the burghers in the major towns of Lithuania, with ethnic Lithuanians migrating there from the countryside. As such, the process of Lithuanization was mostly demographic and not institutionalized.^[8] It was not until Lithuania became an independent state in the effect of the World War I that the government of Lithuania turned it into a more institutionalized process.^[9][10]

It was also around that time that the re-established Lithuanian state started aiming at cultural and linguistic assimilation of other large groups of non-Lithuanian citizens, mainly the Poles and Germans.^[11] At first Lithuanian government was democratic and protected cultural traditions of different ethnic groups. Already in 1917, the resolution adopted by Vilnius Conference promised the national minorities freedom for their cultural needs.^[12] After World War I ended, the Council of Lithuania, the legislative branch of the government, was expanded to include Jewish and Belarusian representatives.^[13] The first governments of Lithuania included Ministries for Jewish and Belarusian affairs;^[14] however after Vilnius region was detached from Lithuania in a staged rebellion commanded by Lucjan Żeligowski (see Republic of Central Lithuania) largest communities of Belarusians, Jews, and Poles appeared to be outside Lithuania. Therefore the special ministries were closed.^[15] In 1920 the Jewish community was granted national and cultural autonomy with the right to legislate binding ordinances; however partly due to internal fights between Hebrew and Yiddish groups, the project was terminated in 1924.^[16]

As Lithuania firmly established its independence and nationalistic attitudes strengthened, the state sought to increase the use of Lithuanian language in the public life.^{[18][dubious – discuss]} Among the measures taken by the Lithuanian government was a forced Lithuanization of non-Lithuanian names.^[19] However, minority schools played more^{[citation needed]} important role. The largest minority school network was operated by Jewish community. In 1919 there were 49, in 1923 – 107, in 1928 – 144 Jewish grammar schools.^[15] In 1931, in part due to consolidations, the number of schools decreased to 115 and remained stable until 1940.^[15]

At the beginning of 1920 Lithuania had 20 Polish language schools for Polish minority in Lithuania. The number increased to 30 in 1923, but then fell down to 24 in 1926.^[15] The major reason for the decrease was policy of Lithuanian Christian Democrats to transfer students whose parents had "Lithuania" as their nationality in the passport to Lithuanian schools.^[15] After the party lost control, the number of schools jumped to 91. Soon after the coup d'état in 1926, to power came nationalists led by Antanas Smetona it was decided to forbade Lithuanians attend Polish schools. Children from mixed families should also attend Lithuanian schools. Many Poles in Lithuania in passports were signed as Lithuanians, therefore they also were forced to attend Lithuanian schools, since then the number of schools gradually decreased to 9 in 1940.^[15] In 1936 a new law was passed that allowed a student to attend Polish school only if both parents were Poles.^[18] The situation prompted to open unsanctioned schools that numbered more than 40 in 1935 and were largely sponsored by "Pochodnia."^[18][15] Similar situation was with German schools in the Klaipėda region.

The Lithuanian attitudes towards ethnic Poles were in large part an effect of the notion to treat them as native Lithuanians, who got Polonized over the course of the last centuries and should have been brought to their true identity.^{[20][21][22][23]} Another major factor was tense relationship between Lithuania and Poland over the Vilnius region and cultural or educational restrictions on Lithuanians there; for example, in 1927, chairman of "Rytas," Lithuanian minority in Poland counterpart to "Pochodnia," and 15 teachers were temporary arrested and 47 schools closed.^[24]

While the constitution of the Republic of Lithuania guaranteed equal rights to all confesions, Orthodoxes were discriminated - Lithuanian state decided confiscate Orthodox churches that were converted from Catholic churchesm, but into Catholic churches were converted 17 Orthodox churches that never belonged to Catholics prior, even former Eastern Catholic Churches were confiscated from Orthodoxes, like in Kruonis Orthodox church which became Orthodox prior 1775. 13 Orthodox churches were demolished. All these changes were followed with anger against Orthodoxes in press and meetings. Attempts to establish religious union were made. ^[25] Another target group for discrimination became Poles. Anti-polish attitudes appeared since Lithuanian National Revival. While in many spheres movement was possitive, but became aggressive, intolerate against Poles and chauvinistic against everything was Polish ^[26]. Such attitudes even became a mania ^[26]. Nationalistic Lithuanian catholic priests, so-called Litwomans, were pushing Lithuanian language everywhere, instead of Polish which in many places was used for centuries in church service ^[26]. Anti-polish propaganda was sponsored by the Lithuanian state. During interbellum lots of caricatures, proclamations were published scoring Poles and showing them as criminals or vagabonds.

Modern Lithuania

In modern Lithuania, independent since the fall of the Soviet Union, Lithuanization is not an official state policy, but is advocated by some fringe extremist groups like Vilnija, whose activities cause an occasional tension in Polish-Lithuanian relations.^{[20][27][28][29]}

The state imposes Lithuanian form of people's names and recently demands removal of Polish street signs.

Notes and references

See also

• Ethnographic Lithuania