[[File:In_the_Court_of_Abu_Saʿid,_folio_from_a_manuscript_of_Nigaristan,_Iran,_probably_Shiraz,_dated_1573-74.jpg|right|thumb|263x263px|[[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan]]'s palace. Literatures in Azerbaijani Turkish were improved in his period (1316–1335).{{Sfn|Togan|1981|p=272}}]]'''Azerbaijani–Mongolian cultural relations''' ({{Lang-azb|آزربایجان–مونقول مدنی الاقلری}}, {{Lang-mn|ᠠᠽᠧᠪᠠᠢᠵᠢᠶᠠᠩ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠰᠣᠶᠣᠯ ᠤᠨ ᠬᠠᠷᠢᠴᠠᠭ᠎ᠠ}}) started in 13th century with the Mongolian invasion of the areas currently populated by Azerbaijanis. Turkic and Mongolian migration to the area during the [[Ilkhanate]] era played major role in [[Origin of the Azerbaijanis|forming Azerbaijani people]]. During the time, mongols migrated to the area converted to [[Islam]] and [[Turkification|turkified]]. In this period [[Azerbaijani]] was called "Turkic of our state" by Ibn Muhanna's dictionary. [[Azerbaijani literature|Literatures]] were written in this language.

During the period of Ilkhanates [[Shamanism|Shamanist]] traditions became stronger and lived in [[Azerbaijani folklore|folklore]], [[Custom and traditions in Azerbaijan|culture]], and [[Azerbaijani mythology|mythology]]. In this era, process of [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|convertion to Shia Islam]] in Iran and Azerbaijan has started. Later on, this became the base for the formation of turcoman-shia states like [[Qara Qoyunlu]] and [[Safavids]].

Orders of [[Ghazan]] and [[Öljaitü]] khans' and [[Genghis Khan]]'s laws ([[Yassa]]) were used together with [[Sharia|Islamic Sharia]]. During the period of [[Qara Qoyunlu]] and [[Aq Qoyunlu]], Azerbaijani Turks considered those Yassas as their national law and remained loyal to it. Ilkhanates applied the Uighur variant of the twelve-animal calendar, which was used until the fall of [[Qajar dynasty|Qajars]]. There are toponyms from the Mongol period in the territory of modern [[Azerbaijan]]. The "[[Karabakh]]" toponym, which is used to name the south of the historical territory of Arran, appeared in this period. In addition to the dialects of the Azerbaijani language, words borrowed from the [[Mongolian language]] are also observed in the areas of [[Eastern Anatolia Region|Eastern Anatolia]] belonging to the Azerbaijani dialect environment.

== Historical and cultural environment ==

{{Main|Turco-Mongol tradition}}{{See also|Mongol invasions of Azerbaijan}}[[File:Gaykhatu_Farman.jpg|right|thumb|352x352px|Order of the Ilkhanate ruler [[Gaykhatu]] written in Persian and Turkic. Document contains buddist name of the ruler and Chinese stamp.

]]

As a result of Mongolian invasion modern Azerbaijani ([[Arran (Caucasus)|Arran]] and [[Shirvan]]) cities – [[Beylagan (city)|Beylagan]], [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]], [[Barda, Azerbaijan|Barda]], [[Shamkir (city)|Shamkir]], [[Şabran|Shabran]], as well as [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|South Azerbaijani]] cities – [[Zanjan, Iran|Zanjan]], [[Qazvin]], [[Maragheh]], [[Ardabil]] were destroyed. In 1236, South Caucasus were already part of the [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]] khan's state.<ref>Lane, (1999–09–01), George (1999). "Arghun Aqa: Mongol bureaucrat". Iranian Studies. 32 (4): 459–482.</ref> From 1256 to 1335 Ilkhanates, and from 1335 to 1337 [[Chobanids]] from sulduz tribe were in the region.<ref>Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "CHOBANIDS". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2021–06–22.</ref> Later on Jalalirds (untill 1388) and Timurids came to the power.<ref>Seniores, HTML & WordPress by. "About the key political events in Azerbaijan in history". In Azerbaijan. Retrieved 2021–05–13.</ref> Mongolian and Turkic noblemen owned the role of political administration in Ilkhanates state. Part of the local Iranian nobility was destroyed. Their lands either seized by the state or Mongolian noblemen. Ilkhanates kept being nomads.<ref>История Ирана с древнейших времен до конца XVIII века. — Л.: Изд-во ЛГУ, 1958. — 390 с. p 190</ref>

The reason of the unity between Turkic and Mongolian elements in states emerged after the fall of [[Mongol Empire]] was nomadic heritage and thousand year long symbiosis in central Asia. At some point Turkic population and military strength were stronger than Mongols. Ilkhanates used Eastern Turkic despite Western Turkic (Oghuz) was spoken in the areas they controlled. Since [[Seljuks]] used [[Arabic]] and [[Persian]] in official documents, the first use of the Turkic language in official documents in Iran was due to the Mongols. After accepting Islam, most of the Mongols assimilated not to the Persians, but to the Turks, to whom they were culturally closer. Turcomans, who were more numerous than the Mongols and were Muslims, quickly lost the Mongols in their midst due to their shared nomadic lifestyle. In fact, the [[Islamization]] of Mongols was one of the aspects of [[Turkification]].<ref>István Vásáry. The role and function of Mongolian and Turkic in Ilkhanid Iran // Turcologia.</ref>

[[Hulagu Khan]]'s vizier [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] was completely familiar with the Turkic and [[Mongolian language]] and [[Mongolian script|script]] as well as Mongolian and Easter Turkic customs, culture, and traditions. His son also became completely Turkic. The spoken language of vizier [[Rashid al-Din Hamadani]] and his sons, who was originally a [[Jews|Jew]], was Turkic. He also knew the Mongolian language perfectly. Although his works reached the modern era in Arabic and Persian, he knew how to write in Turkic and Mongolian languages and adopted Turkic customs and traditions. The daughters of Rashid al-Din and his son [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad (vizier)|Ghiyath al-Din]] were nicknamed "khatun" in Turkic, and one of Rashid al-Din's grandsons was named Artug.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=282}}

The short-term presence of [[Buddhism]] in Azerbaijan and Iran under the Mongol rule, the introduction and spread of the [[Uyghur Arabic alphabet|Uyghur alphabet]] at the state level for nearly two centuries, and the diffusion of the [[Chinese painting]] traditions into the artistic and applied creativity of the region's [[Muslims]] and [[Christians]] contributed to the formation of a more pluralistic culture in Azerbaijan and the [[South Caucasus]] as a whole.{{Snf|Mustafayev|2018|p=166}}

== Formation of Azerbaijanis ==

{{Main|Origin of the Azerbaijanis}}Mongol invasions affected the ethnic composition of Azerbaijan and the South Caucasus. According to the Persian geographical work "Ajaib ad-dunya" and Nasavi's chronicle, Turks were the main ethnic elements in the plains of Arran and Mughan on the eve of the Mongol invasion. In the areas of Shirvan and [[Derbent]], there was a mixed ethnic composition in which Iranian speakers and Caucasian speakers played a major role. The Christian population was predominant in the mountainous part of Karabakh, especially in the [[principality of Khachen]].{{Snf|Mustafayev|2018|pp=153-155}}

The main two factors in the change of the ethnic composition are the extermination or displacement of the local population, and then the settlement of the victorious Mongols and Turks in the region. For example, Prince [[Yoshmut]], the first Ilkhanate ruler of Arran and Shirvan, settled here with his subjects.{{Snf|Mustafayev|2018|pp=153-155}} Turkic national identity and culture flourished during the period of the Ilkhanate and the states that replaced the Ilkhanate and kept their traditions alive.{{Snf|Mustafayev|2018|p=156}}

At the same time as the Turkification of Azerbaijan during the Mongol period, the process of Turkification of the Mongols living there took place, the second process had a positive effect on the first process.{{Snf|Sümer|1957|p=439}} The Mongols who accepted Turkism and Islam were a group that spoke Turkic, but had Mongolian historical memory and continued their nomadic life in Iran, Azerbaijan and Eastern Anatolia. Turko-Mongolian nomads did not lose the military characteristics that are an important function of nomadic life.{{Snf|Durand-Guédy|2010|pp=376-377}}

=== The settlement policy of the Turko-Mongolian tribes ===

[[File:GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG|left|thumb|During Ghazan Khan's (in the center) time, Turkic and Mongolian tribes were moved to the Mughan plain.{{Snf|Köprülü|2000|p=24}}|268x268px]]

The conquest of the region by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century and the influx of Turkic peoples in the following centuries, including the Mongol invasions in the 13th century, led to Turkification in the area where Azerbaijanis currently live. Most of the tribes that formed the Mongol armies, as well as those who were forced to migrate as a result of the Mongol invasions, were Turks.<ref>Suny, Ronald Grigor , Silaev, Evgeny Dmitrievich , Howe, G. Melvyn and Allworth, Edward. "Azerbaijan". Encyclopedia Britannica, 1 Jun. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/place/Azerbaijan {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702084323/https://www.britannica.com/place/Azerbaijan|date=2019-07-02}}. Accessed 10 June 2023.</ref> Turkologist [[Zeki Velidi Togan]] estimates the number of Turkic-Mongolian tribes that came to Azerbaijan as 2 million people according to primary sources.<ref>Azerbaycan // MEB Islam Ansiklopedisi. — 1979. — Т. 2, вып. 5. — С. 103–105.</ref> Nevertheless, it is thought that the physiology of Azerbaijanis is not related to the Mongolian race.<ref>И. И. Пантюхов. Антропологические типы Кавказа//ВЕЛЕСОВА СЛОБОДА</ref>

[[Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary]] mentions the Turko-Mongol army of Ilkhanate ruler Hulagu Khan among the ancestors of Azerbaijani Turks.<ref>{{ВТ-ЭСБЕ|Россия/Население/Россия в этнографическом отношении}}</ref> Turks made up a large part of the army of the Ilkhanates, the fifth Mongol nation.<ref>Yarshater, E (18 August 2011). "The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 25 January 2012.</ref> Hulagu and his son [[Abaqa Khan]] strategically relocated scattered Turkic and Mongolian people to designated areas in Azerbaijan, northern Iraq, and Anatolia during their rule. This intentional resettlement and portraying local Muslim Oghuz nomads as khans and rulers paved the way for consolidation Azerbaijani Turkic identity.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=225-227}} In the gradual Turkification of Iranian Azerbaijan, the policy of the Ilkhanates to give land shares ([[iqta']], soyurgal) to the leading military leaders played a role. The presence of the khans themselves and their entourage, and then the [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] followers starting with the [[Jalayirid Sultanate|Jalayirids]], as well as the nomads who came from Central Asia with Emir [[Timur]], in these mountainous pasture areas was another factor.<ref>C. E. Bosworth. Azerbaijan — Islamic history to 1941. Iranica.</ref>

The discrimination of the Mongols against the [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tat]]-[[Tajiks|Tajik]] groups during the Ilkhanate era, and opening of canals from the [[Euphrates]] river caused the Tats to migrate from Azerbaijan and [[Iraq-i Ajam]] (Sultanabad) to [[Iraq]]. The rest became Turkic together with the Mongols, and the [[Azerbaijani language]] became dominant in Iranian Azerbaijan. The main reason for the settlement of Turks in Azerbaijan is that there are many pastures, gardens, suitable and favorable conditions for raising cattle in this country.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heyet |first=Cevat |date=2004 |title=Azerbaycan'ın Türkleşmesi ve Azerbaycan Türkçesinin Teşekkülü |journal=Modern Türklük Araştırmaları Dergisi |language=tr}}</ref> As a result, the territory of Azerbaijan and Iraq-i-Ajam became a ''[[yaylak]]'' and ''[[kishlak]]'' for 2 million nomads.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=256}}

During the Mongol period, Turkification was clearly observed in South and North Azerbaijan. [[Hamdallah Mustawfi|Hamdallah Qazvini]] mentions the Turkic settlements here, and [[Ibn Battuta]] speaks about the importance of [[Tabriz]] Turks. A number of Turkic and Mongolian tribes were moved to the Mughan Plain during the Ghazan Khan's period. The rest of those tribes were met by [[Adam Olearius]] in 17th century. Nizari mentions in his work that the Arran region was overflowing with the army of the Turks (Ilkhanate warriors).{{Snf|Mustafayev|2018|pp=153-155}}{{Snf|Köprülü|2000|p=24}} After the Ilhanates, during the Jalayirids, Timurids, Qara Qoyunlus and Ak Qoyunlus, the Mongols became Turkic, and the Turkic population increased in Iraq, North and South Azerbaijan.{{Snf|Köprülü|2000|p=23}}

Although Zakariyya Ghazvini writes that the Turks who lived in the area before the Mongols were removed from the region, in the opinion of Sheikh Safiaddin Ardabili, it is believed that the Turkomans and [[Kurds]] in the country remained in their previous places. In any case, the Turks who lived here from the beginning (Seljuk Turks) gave the good territories to the Mongols and Eastern Turks and moved to other parts of the country.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=255}}

=== Settlement regions of tribes ===

[[File:Мирза Мамедхасан бек Хаджи.jpg|thumb|Mirza Mahammadhasan bey Haji. Member of [[Baharlu (ethnic group)|Baharlı]] group of [[Yıva]] tribe|301x301px]]

When the Mongols marched into the region, they called on the [[Kipchaks]] not to fight and not to help [[Alans]]. The reason is that Kipchaks are not ethnically close to Alans, and their religions are not similar. However, later Mongols also captured the lands of the Kipchaks. Kipchaks were forced to go to Shirvan and Arran, as well as [[Qabala]].{{Snf|Latifova|2023|pp=219-220}}

As in the past (Seljuq period), during the Ilkhanate dynasty, Northern Azerbaijan was in the first place in the settlement of Turks and Mongols. In Iranian Azerbaijan, especially around [[Maragheh|Maragha]], [[Khoy]], and [[Lake Urmia|Urmia lake]] had also settlement process as well as Ajam-i-Iraq, the city of [[Soltaniyeh|Sultaniyya]], built between [[Qazvin]]-[[Zanjan, Iran|Zanjan]], and its surroundings, and partially Ray region.{{Snf|Sümer|1957|p=439}}

During the Mongol period, [[Qajar (tribe)|Qajars]] lived in Khalkhal, Turgais (from the Ilkhanate) in Maragha, [[Kipchaks]] and [[Oirats]] in [[Ardabil]], Yıvas in Khoy, and Imirs (Amarlu) in the [[Ghezel Ozan]] ''(Gizil Uzan)'' between Ardabil and [[Gilan province|Gilan]]. Even after the invasion of Timurids, part of Ilkhanates continued to live in Maragha. Around [[Hamadan]] and in the city, the Qara Qoyunlu people, especially Baharlı branch, formed an important Turkic population.{{Snf|Köprülü|2000|p=24}} The main parts of Javanshirs, Ak Qoyunlus and Qara Qoyunlus came from [[Turkestan]] to [[Anatolia]] and [[Azerbaijan]] during the Ilkhanate dynasty.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=253}} Among the Turkoman living in Mughan and Arran, the tribe with the most livestock was Chobanli, which was known to have lived during the Jalayirid period.{{Snf|Sümer|1957|p=441}}

According to researchers, 20 large Mongol tribes settled in the territory of Azerbaijan in the 13th-14th centuries. Amongst them, Sulduzs and [[Jalairs]] occupy an important place.{{Snf|Mustafayev|2018|pp=153-155}} [[Oirats]], a Turko-Mongol tribe, were settled in [[Shaki, Azerbaijan|Sheki]] and [[Shamakhi]] region, which was the most powerful and numerous tribe in the [[Kura (river)|Kura]] basin in its time.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=254}} The reason Oirat, Garagali, Kharkhatan, Gegir, Orand and Laladulan tribes settled in [[Lankaran]], [[Neftchala District|Neftchala]] and [[Lerik, Azerbaijan|Lerik]] regions may be due to the similarity of these regions to Mongolia.{{Snf|Hüseynov|2023|pp=72-74}}

It is belived that the reason for placing Kunjut, Junud, Baydarli, and Tangit tribes in Sheki and [[Qakh (city)|Qakh]] areas, which were the borders of Ilkhanate and [[Golden Horde]], was that these tribes had to protect the border against the Golden Horde with their good fighting skills.{{Snf|Hüseynov|2023|pp=72-74}} In general, the north-western part of Azerbaijan was important for the Turkic states that existed in the [[Middle Ages]] because it is at the intersection of the Christian and Muslim worlds.{{Snf|Latifova|2023|p=218}} Mirabbas Mirbaghirzadeh, who conducted research in [[Zakatal okrug|Zakatala ''okrug'']], stated that taking into account that Turkic villages called "Mughal", it is impossible to determine the real number of Mongols. He called only the villages of [[Cəlayir, Qakh|Jalair]] and [[Tanqıt]] as real, ancient Mongols.{{Snf|Latifova|2023|p=227}}

[[Bayat (tribe)|Bayats]] came to Azerbaijan in 13th century with the Mongol invaders.<ref>[http://kasimh.earth.prohosting.com/azerb1.html Заселение Азербайджана тюрками. Сборник "Этническая ономастика". Академия наук СССР. Институт этнографии имени Н.Миклухо-Маклая. Издательство "Наука", М., 1984 г.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090923192335/http://kasimh.earth.prohosting.com/azerb1.html|date=2009-09-23}}</ref><ref>R. Khanam. Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia: J-O, том 2. Стр. 126–127</ref> [[Padar tribe|Padar]] tribe was settled in Azerbaijan during the Ilkhanate period. According to one of the claims about the origin of their name, the name "padar" is a phonetic distortion of the name of [[Chagatai Khan]]'s son [[Baidar]].<ref>Məhəmmədhəsən bəy Vəlili-Baharlı ― ""Azərbaycan" (Fiziki-coğrafi, etnoqrafik və iqtisadi oçerk)" Bakı. 1993. Padarlar.</ref>

It is believed that Qajars, came to Iran in the 13th century, and then to the South Caucasus,{{Snf|Petrushevsky|1949|p=48}} was one of the Turkic tribes in Hulagu Khan's army.<ref>Я.В.Рагозина. Из истории возвышения династии Каджаров // Вестник Санкт-Петербургского Университета. — Санкт-Петербург, 2008. — Т. 9, вып. 2, № 2. — С. 287–294.</ref> There is a legend that the name of the Qajar comes from the Mongol leader Qajar Noyan.<ref>J. J. Reid, "The Qajar Uymaq in the Safavid Period, 1500–1722", p. 123–124</ref> According to Mirza Hasan Zonuzi Khoyi, the origin of the Qajar is Turkestan Mongols.<ref>N. Kondo, "How to Found a New Dynasty: The Early Qajars' Quest for Legitimacy", p. 278–279</ref> However, other sources think that the Qajars did not come from the Mongols, but from the [[Khazars]].<ref>Д.Е.Еремеев. К семантике тюркской этнонимии. Сборник "Этнонимы". Москва: Мысль (1970).</ref><ref>L. M. Helfgott, "The Rise of the Qajar Dynasty", p. 130–131</ref>

=== Mughal ethnonym ===

After the Mongol invasion, the ethnonym Mughal ({{Lang-az|Muğal}}) appeared for the Turkic population in the northwest of Azerbaijan.{{Snf|Latifova|2023|p=226}} Translated from the Persian language, the name Moghol (moghul, moghal, mughal, maghol) literally means Mongol.<ref>Collins Compact Dictionary. — Glasgow: HarperCollins, 2002. — {{ISBN|0-00-710984-9}}</ref> Russian authors of the 19th century, who studied the ethnography and culture of the [[Elisu Sultanate|Ilisu Sultanate]] and the [[Jar-Balakan]] community, also called the Turkic population of these areas Mughals. Historical sources of the 19th-early 20th century consider the Mughals foreigners to their territory. A. Poserbski thinks that Mughals stayed in the region to protect the power of Genghis Khan and later Emir Timur, and notes that they moved in 13th-15th centuries. D. Bakradze wrote that they are a Turkic tribe that came to the region (Zagatala okrug) with Dagestan ''daghlis'' in 18th century. Bakradze thinks that the name Mongol came from the Mongols, who formed the foundation of the Tatar (Azerbaijani) population.{{Snf|Latifova|2023|p=226}} Russian researcher K. Gan in his work "Travel to Kakheti and Dagestan (summer, 1989)" notes:{{Snf|Latifova|2023|p=227}}

{{Quote|text=After the Avars, the main contingent of the population is the Tatars (Azerbaijani) who are also called "Mughals"... They came here at different times with conquerors who infiltrated from the east. They speak beautiful Adarbayjan (Azerbaijani) dialect.|source=}}Representatives of the administration of [[Russian Empire|Tsarist Russia]] and Russian historiography called Azerbaijanis "Tatars" ("Tatars of Aderbaijan"). The reason for this was to mark them with Tatar identity, and to associate the emergence of Azerbaijanis in the region only with the Mongol invasions.{{Snf|Latifova|2023|p=226}}

Apart from the Turks and [[Lezgins]], there was also a community called "mughanli" ({{Lang-az|muğanlı}}) who were descendants of Mongols in the [[Quba Khanate]].<ref>[https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XIX/1800-1820/Dubrovin_N_F/Ist_vojny_kavkaz_1_II/text61.htm История войны и владычества русских на Кавказе. Том I. Книга 2. СПб. 1871] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120060459/https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XIX/1800-1820/Dubrovin_N_F/Ist_vojny_kavkaz_1_II/text61.htm|date=2023-01-20}}. Дата обращения: 7 марта 2021.</ref>

=== Toponyms ===

{{Main article|Place names in Azerbaijan}}

{{Quote box

| quote = All court ladies (khavatin), princes, generals (umara), pillars of power and courtiers gathered in [[Karabakh]] of [[Arran]] and without any pretext or hypocrisy agreed the authority of the Islamic ruler (Gazan Khan').

| source = [[Rashid al-Din Hamadani]]{{sfn|Mustafayev|2018|pp=151-152}}

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Since the 13th century, place names of Mongolian origin began to appear in Azerbaijan.{{Snf|Hüseynov|2023|p=71}} Such toponyms show traces of Mongolian tribes in Azerbaijan and their influence on the formation of Azerbaijanis. It is thought that the name of the city of [[Sumgait]] comes from the Mongolian tribe ''Sugaut'', and the names of the settlements of [[Corat]] and [[Ələt]] come from the tribes of the same name. The use of the [[Absheron Peninsula|Absheron peninsula]] as a ''kishlak'' by Mongolian tribes has led this place to have names of Mongolian origin.{{Snf|Mustafayev|2018|pp=153-155}} Other areas bearing the traces of Mongol era tribes are Xançobanlı, Cəlayir, Kurqan, Küngüt ([[Aşağı Küngüt|Aşağı]] və [[Baş Küngüt]]), [[Cunut|Cunud]], [[Tanqıt]], Elciqan, Uriyad, Onqutlu, Tatar, Tatarlı, [[Xarxatan]], Aratkənd, [[Çeşməli, Tovuz|Çirkin]], Damğalı, [[Dolanlar]], Alar.<ref>Hüseynov, Gurban. Gelecek Dergisi. (2022). Demographic Structure of Azerbaijan During The Ilkhanid Period. 6. 34–44.</ref> 7 Bucaq village in Azerbaijan are associated with the Mongol era, the bucaqs are considered to be part of the [[Nogais|Nogai]] tribe mixed with the Turks. After the fall of the Golden Horde, Nogai people spread over a large area.{{sfn|Latifova|2023|p=223}}

During the Mongol period, the old toponyms were replaced or used together with Mongolian variants. For example, when Rashid al-Din Hamadani described the battle between Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde on the banks of {{Interlanguage link|Ağsuçay|lt=Aghsu river|az|Ağsuçay}} ({{Lang-az|Ağsu|lit=white water}}), he used Mongolian name of the river – "Chagan Muran". It means "white water" or "white river".{{Snf|Mustafayev|2018|pp=153-155}} The city of [[Salyan, Azerbaijan|Salyan]] was called "Dalan-Navur" in Mongolian.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=254}}

Some of the toponyms seen in historical works, starting with Hulagu Khan and especially Abaqa Khan, are in Turkic, and some are in Mongolian. [[Lake Sevan]] in Armenia, which Azerbaijanis call Goycha ({{Lang-az|Göyçə}}), was called "Kokcha sea" during the rule of Abaga Khan.{{Snf|Sümer|1957|pp=435-436}} Some Mongolian place names had Turkic and Persian words used together at first, but later on Persian words were gradually forgotten.{{Snf|Sümer|1957|p=439}}

According to the legend mentioned by 19th century author I. Linevich, the city of Qakh was called ''Toraghay'' ({{Lang-az|Torağay}}) until 16th century. This word was mentioned in [[Mahmud Kashgari]]'s dictionary called "[[Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk]]". According to the dictionary, it means "shelter between the mountains" in the [[Kipchak language]]. Considering the city of Qakh is located in a lowland area between the mountains, it can be said that the Kipchaks who came through the [[North Caucasus]] settled in Qakh and called the area as "Toraghay". One of the districts of the regional center of Qakh is still called ''Qakh-mughal''. This can be explained as the influence of Mongol period.{{Snf|Latifova|2023|p=227}}

From 15th century (Mongol period), the southern part of Arran began to be called "Garabagh" ({{Lang-az|Qarabağ|lit=Black garden}}). The word "[[wiktionary:qara|qara]]" is of Turkic origin, and "[[wiktionary:bağ|bağ]]" is of Persian origin.<ref>Академик В.В.Бартольд. Сочинения / Ответственный редактор тома А.М.Беленицкий. — М.: Наука, 1965. — Т. III. — С. 335. — 712 с.</ref><ref>Босуорт К. Э. THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM. — 1997. — Т. IV. — С. 573.</ref> Ilkhanates used Karabakh region of Arran as ''kışlak''. The oath ceremonies of the supreme khans were held here with Turkic-Mongolian traditions. For example, Ghazan Khan came to the throne in Karabakh in 1295.{{Snf|Mustafayev|2018|pp=151-152}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:0 1em 0 0; font-size:95%;"

!Place

!Tribe

!Origin

!Belongs to

|-

|[[Khalkhal, Iran|Khalkhal]]

|Qajars

|turkic

|

|-

|Maragha

|Turgays

|

|

|-

|Ardabil

|Kipchaks and Oirats

|turkic and mongolian

|

|-

|Khoyda

|Yıvas

|turkic

|

|-

|Gizil Ozan

|Imirli

|

|

|-

|Hamadan

|Qara Qoyunlu (Baharlu)

|turkic

|

|-

|Anatolia and Azerbaijan

|Javanshirs, Aq qoyunlus and Qara Qoyunlus

|turkic

|

|-

|Sheki and Shamakhi

|Oirat

|mongolian

|Jalayirs

|-

|Qakh

|Baydarly, Tangyt

|mongolian

|

|-

|Aşağı və Baş Küngüt, Künkütçay

|Kingli

|mongolian

|

|-

|Cunud

|Sunnit

|mongolian

|

|-

|Lankaran, Neftçala and Lerik

|Oirat, Qaraqaşlı, Xarxatan, Orand

|

|

|-

|Köhnə Gəgir və Gəgiran

|Kikir

|

|

|-

|Sumgaıt, Corat və Ələt

|Suqaut, Corat və Ələt

|mongolian

|

|-

|Aşağı Bucaq

|Bucaq

|mongolian

|[[Nogais|Nogai]]

|-

|Çeşməli (Tovuz)

|Çirkinlilər

|mongolian

|

|-

|Darğalı (Qəmərli)

|Damğalı

|mongolian

|

|-

|Dolanlar, Lələdulan, Əvçədulan

|Dolanlar

|mongolian

|

|-

|Günnüt

|Günnüt

|mongolian

|

|-

|Üngütlü

|[[Ongud|Ongut]]

|mongolian

|

|-

|Oncallı (Qax)

|Onja (Əncə)

|turkic

|Kipchaq

|}

{{Small|Sources:}} {{Snf|Hüseynov|2023|pp=72-74}}{{Snf|Latifova|2023|p=224}}

== Language ==

According to [[Zeki Velidi Togan]], the main norms of the Azerbaijani language during the Mongolian dynasty – Ilkhanate period were formed as a result of the mutual influence of the [[Turkic languages]] – [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz]]-[[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], Kipchak and [[East Turkestan]]. The author notes that in the first half of the 14th century, when Ibn Muhanna was compiling the dictionary of Turkic and Mongolian languages spoken during the Ilkhanate period, he mentioned "Turkic language of our country" (Turki arzina) in addition to "Turkmen" and "Turkistan language". The examples attributed to "the Turkic language of our country" in the dictionary can be considered the first examples of the Azerbaijani language.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=272}} According to experts such as P. M. Melioranski, [[Bekir Çoban-zade|Bekir Chobanzade]], and Ahmad Jafaroghlu, the Azerbaijani language is meant here.{{Snf|Mustafayev|2023|p=335}}

According to [[Mehmet Fuat Köprülü|Fuat Köprülü]], new Turko-Oghuz tribes, who came from the East to West (Azerbaijan and Eastern Anatolia) as a result of Mongol invasions, added new elements to language of Oghuz people (Turkmans/Turkmen) who settled here earlier during the Seljuk period.{{Snf|Mustafayev|2013|p=344}}

In all forms of the Azerbaijani language there are words borrowed from Mongolian language: [[wiktionary:Yekə|yekə]] ''(big)'', [[wiktionary:qadağan|qadağan]] ''(prohibited)'', [[wiktionary:qayçı|qayçı]] ''(scissors)'', [[wiktionary:nöqtə|nöqtə]] ''(dot)'', [[wiktionary:hündür|hündür]] ''(tall)'', [[wiktionary:keşik|keşik]] ''(guard)''. These loanwords represent a common Ilkhanate heritage (1256–1335). Unlike Azerbaijani Turkish, Anatolian Turkish does not have such loanwords taken from the Mongolian.<ref>Elisabetta Ragagnin. 28 Dec 2021, Azeri from: The Turkic Languages Routledge. Accessed on: 04 Nov 2023 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781003243809-17 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104093342/https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781003243809-17|date=2023-11-04}}</ref> In addition, words borrowed from the Mongolian language can be found in the dialects of the Azerbaijani language belonging to the Shirvan region. It is extralinguistic in nature and closely related to historical events.<ref>Ilaha Mahammad gizi Gurbanova. Azərbaycan dili dialekt və şivələrinin etnolinqvistik təhlili. Baku, "Bilik", 2014, p. 240. ''(in Azerbaijani)''</ref>

== Literature ==

{{Main article|Azerbaijani literature}}

=== Folklore & mythology ===

{{Main articles|Azerbaijani folklore|Azerbaijani mythology}}

[[File:Nasreddin (18th-century work).jpg|left|thumb|[[Nasreddin|Molla Nasraddin]] riding a donkey reversed|233x233px]][[File:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi at observatory.jpg|thumb|[[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|Nasraddin Tusi]] in [[Maragheh observatory|Maragha observatory]]|left|282x282px]]Mongol invasion and the Ilkhanate rule over both Iranian Azerbaijan and modern Azerbaijan in the subsequent periods led to strengthening of the [[Shamanism|Shamanistic customs]] spread there. The customs of Shamanism have undergone changes under the influence of Islam. Some of them have been preserved. The rules of ancient traditions have continued to live in cultural environment of Azerbaijan – in children's folklore and games, ceremonies and beliefs of people. For example, the ''[[Pilaf|aş]]'' eaten by Azerbaijanis on Thursdays in honor of the spirits of the dead is an ancient form of Shamanism.{{Snf|Caferoğlu|1954|pp=66-67}}

It is believed that {{Interlanguage link|Saya khan|lt=saya|az|Saya xan|tr|Saya Han}} is a Shamanic god and that [[Saya (folklore)|Sayanism]] originated in Azerbaijan. The connection between saya and the words ''Yaya'', ''Dz'aya'' and ''Dzayagg'' mean god in Mongolian shows that saya comes from Shamanism. The belief about saya came to the [[Altai Mountains|Altai]], and from there to Anatolia and Azerbaijan under the influence of the old shaman Turko-Mongolian cultural environment.{{Snf|Beydili|2003|p=488}}

In Maragha, the first capital of the Ilkhanate state, there is a stone-hewn tomb dating back to the Mongol period. The building is deeply connected with Mongolian burial customs. The name of the village where the tomb is located is Varoy in local Azerbaijani literature. This name is linguistically similar to the village of Varay (Viyar) located in [[Soltaniyeh|Sultaniyya]], which was the Elkhani capital in last years of the state. The name of both villages is close to the word Vara given in ''[[Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk]]'' by [[Mahmud Kashgari]]. According to dictionary the word is connected with the myth of the separation of earth and sky. The roots of this expression may go back to religious beliefs about death. The words Varoy and Varay may be words that have been preserved in the Turkic language throughout history and have survived to the present day.<ref>Moradi, A. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41826-022-00049-x#citeas A rock-cut tomb of the Mongol period in the Ilkhanid capital of Maraghe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101093655/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41826-022-00049-x#citeas|date=2023-11-01}}. asian archaeol 6, 15–35 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41826-022-00049-x</ref>

Azerbaijani researchers {{Interlanguage link|Mammadhuseyn Tahmasib|lt=Mammadhuseyn Tahmasib|az|Məmmədhüseyn Təhmasib}} and {{Interlanguage link|Mammadaga Sultanov|lt=Məmmədağa Sultanov|az|Məmmədhüseyn Təhmasib}} claimed that the folklore hero Molla Nasraddin was the minister of the Ilkhanate period, Nasreddin Tusi. The reasons for this are that they lived in the same period, Tusi included anecdotes in one of his works, ridiculed astrologers as a scientist, Molla Nasraddin went to Emir Timur as a representative of the country, the parallel between Nasraddin Tusi being sent to Hulagu Khan by the ruler of [[Alamut]], and both of them having the same name – Hasan. However, Mammadhuseyn Tahmasib stated that this information is not a substantial evidence, but just an allegation.{{Snf|Boratav|2014|p=77}}{{Snf|Boratav|2014|p=39}}

Tapdig Goy oglu, the hero of an Azerbaijani fairy tale and son of {{Interlanguage link|Tufan Div|lt=Tufan Div|az|Məmmədhüseyn Təhmasib}}, was expelled from heaven to earth. He is part of a legendary group of heroes, akin to God's children in [[Turkic mythology|Turkic]] and Mongolian legends, sent to cleanse the earth of demonic forces.{{Snf|Beydili|2003|p=486}}{{Snf|Beydili|2003|p=537}} In another Azerbaijani tale, princes throw apples to girls to choose their betrothed, a custom that existed among the Mongols living in Azerbaijan in the 17th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Челеби Э.|chapter=Описание крепости Шеки/О жизни племени ит-тиль|chapter-url=|format=|url=https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus10/Celebi4/frametext7.htm|title=Книга путешествия. (Извлечения из сочинения турецкого путешественника ХVII века). Вып. 3. Земли Закавказья и сопредельных областей Малой Азии и Ирана|agency=|edition=|location=Москва|date=1983|publisher=Наука|volume=|page=159|series=|isbn=|access-date=2023-06-17|archive-date=2023-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418203500/https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus10/Celebi4/frametext7.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Челеби Э.|chapter=Описание крепости Шеки/О жизни племени ит-тиль|chapter-url=|format=|url=https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus10/Celebi4/frametext7.htm|title=Книга путешествия. (Извлечения из сочинения турецкого путешественника ХVII века). Вып. 3. Земли Закавказья и сопредельных областей Малой Азии и Ирана|agency=|edition=|location=Москва|date=1983|publisher=Наука|volume=|page=159|series=|isbn=|access-date=2023-06-17|archive-date=2023-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418203500/https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus10/Celebi4/frametext7.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Written literature ===

[[File:Ahmad Jalayir, "Eylemez" ghazal.jpg|thumb|"Eylamaz" ghazal written in Azerbaijani by the ruler of [[Jalayirid Sultanate]] – [[Ahmad Jalayir]] (1382 – 1410)

]]

The beginning of written classic Azerbaijani Turkic literature coincides with the period after the Mongol invasion.<ref name="languageiranica">{{cite news|title=AZERBAIJAN viii. Azeri Turkish|author=G. Doerfer|newspaper=Iranica|date=December 15, 1988|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-viii|access-date=2017-07-20|archive-date=2019-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023224019/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-viii|url-status=live}} </ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite news|title=AZERBAIJAN x. Azeri Turkish Literature|author=H. Javadi and K. Burrill|newspaper=iranicaonline.org|date=December 15, 1988|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-x|access-date=2017-01-10|archive-date=2013-02-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201033259/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-x|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%A1%D0%91%D0%95/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%83,_%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4 Баку, губернский город] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325063025/https://ru.wikisource.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%A1%D0%91%D0%95/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%83,_%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4|date=2022-03-25}} // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). — СПб., 1890–1907.</ref> The rapid development and spread of literature in the Azerbaijani language is entirely a result of Mongol period.{{sfn|Mustafayev|2018|p=156}} The development of a special style of Azerbaijani poetry between 13th and 14th centuries was partly related to the Eastern Turkic traditions brought to the region from [[Khorasan province|Khorasan]] during the Mongol period.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> One of the reasons why Azerbaijanis created their own literature and played a role in its independent evolution was the fact that there were more Turkic and Mongolian elements in Azerbaijan than in Anatolia.{{sfn|Köprülü|2000|p=27}}

At the beginning of the 14th century, the historian Vassaf wrote verses in Azerbaijani Turkic and mixed them with Eastern Turkic spelling. While the words in the Turkic in the works of Nasiraddin Tusi correspond to Eastern Turkic, the words in the works of [[Hamdallah Mustawfi|Hamdullah Qazvini]] are in the Azerbaijani dialect. There are prayers, sermons and religious verses written in a Turkic language, which is a mixture of Eastern Turkish and Azerbaijani Turkic, dating back to the first half of the 14th century. In the second half of the 14th century, in Azerbaijan, on the one hand, the works of [[Khwarazm]] and [[Transoxiana|Transoxian]] Turkic poets, including Khujandi, were read, and on the other hand, works were written in Azerbaijani Turkish based on these themes. Among them, [[Imadaddin Nasimi]], [[Kadi Burhan al-Din|Gazi Burhanaddin]] and {{Interlanguage link|Mustafa Zarir|lt=Mustafa Zarir|az|Mustafa Zərir}} from [[Salur (tribe)|Salur Turks]] can be mentioned.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=272}}

Nasir Bakuvi, who lived in 14th century, wrote the 55-[[couplet]]-long [[mukhammas]] in Azerbaijani. The mukhammas was written between 1306 and 1310 and is dedicated to Ilkhanate ruler [[Öljaitü|Muhammad Oljaytu]]. The work describes Olcaytu's arrival in [[Baku]] and the administrative measures he took here.<ref>Sanan Ibrahimov. Köbnü məkanə sığmayan Nəsimi. Baku, Ləman, 2019. Page 37</ref>

Works in Azerbaijani Turkish developed during the period of [[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan]] (1316-1335). The fact that the Azerbaijani language takes a leading place together with Uyghur is evident from the information in the historical works and from the fact that Ajam poets used words from these two languages in their works.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=272}}

The literary trend that developed during the Mongol period included the Jalayirid ruler [[Ahmad Jalayir|Sultan Ahmad]]. The fact that Sultan Ahmad wrote poems in Turkic is confirmed in the work of Abul Mahasin Yusif Bey Tanribirdi "Al-Nujum al-Zuhirra". The ghazal he wrote shows that Azerbaijani Turkish was used as a literary language in the Jalairid palaces.{{Snf|Köprülü|2000|pp=34-35}} Sultan Ahmad's ghazal ensured the continuity of Turks and the Turkic language, which prevailed in Jalayirid-Turkic identity fusion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Atıcı |first=Ayşe |title=Sultan Ahmed Celâyir, Türkçe'ye Verdiği Önem ve Kimlik Üzerine |url=https://www.academia.edu/83670871/Sultan_Ahmed_Cel%C3%A2yir_T%C3%BCrk%C3%A7e_ye_Verdi%C4%9Fi_%C3%96nem_ve_Kimlik_%C3%9Czerine |journal=Disiplinler Arası Dil ve Edebiyat Çalışmaları |publisher=Aybil yayınları |publication-date=2021 |volume=2 |pages=2-9}}</ref>

== Music ==

{{Main article|Music of Azerbaijan}}Azerbaijan's art music is intricately linked to the [[mugham]] tradition, which combines elements from Iranian, Arabic, and Turkic artistic styles. [[Uzeyir Hajibeyov]] asserted that the tradition disintegrated around the end of the fourteenth century during the Mongol rule. Afterward, each ethnic group reconstructed its own system from the remnants.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foundation |first=Encyclopaedia Iranica |date=2011-08-18 |title=Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/ |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=iranicaonline.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

Sultan Ahmad highly appreciated the musicologist Abdulgadir Maraghayi. Maraghayi had two small couplets in Azerbaijani language. These are called ''tuyugh'' and ''koshuk''. It is said that the song was composed for Emir Timur and was sung in front of him. These verses written by Maragayi in Azerbaijani demonstrate the role of the Turkic language in musical gatherings.{{Snf|Köprülü|2000|pp=34-35}} Abdulgadir Maragayi notes in his work that Turks like to compose in ''Ushshag'', ''Nava'' and ''Busalik'' mughams, but other mughams are also used.<ref>Ашурбейли С. Б. История города Баку. Период средневековья. — Б.: Азернешр, 1992. — С. 193–194. — 408 с. — {{Isbn|5-552-00479-5}}</ref>

== Social life ==

=== Religion ===

{{See also|Sufism}}{{Quote box

| quote = We are of the same lineage (origin). These [[alans]] are not related by lineage to you so that you should not help them. And their religion is not similar to yours. If you do not stand between them and us, we promise not to touch you. And we will give you as much money and clothes as you want.

| source = Deal between Mongols and Kipchaks in "[[The Complete History]]" by [[Ibn al-Athir]]{{sfn|Latifova|2023|pp=219-220}}

| align = right

| width = 29em

}}

The Mongols used the fact that the religions of Kipchaks and Alans were not similar while persuading the Kipchaks to be neutral in the struggle with the Alans.{{Snf|Latifova|2023|pp=219-220}} Shamanic rites were performed in the palace of Hulagu Khan and his son Abaga Khan during the Ilkhanate period. The performed rites influenced Turkic Sufis in Anatolia and Azerbaijan.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=260}}

Azerbaijan served as a showcase for [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] methods and material culture.{{Snf|Prazniak|2014|p=676}} The Ilkhanates used their wealth to create gold and silver forms of [[The Buddha|Buddha]] in Azerbaijan and Khorasan.{{Snf|Prazniak|2014|p=659}} Hulagu Khan built a prominent Buddhist temple in Khoy. The territory of Khoy was called "Turkic country"<ref group="n">Khoy area is called "Iranian Turkestan" because Turks live here. These Turks most likely settled in the region before the Mongols. See: Yakupoğlu, 2018. pp. 188–189</ref>{{Snf|Yakupoğlu|2018|pp=188-189}} because of the khitay ([[Chinese people|Chinese]]) population who came from Uyguristan. This suggests the presence of an immigrant Buddhist population that settled in the area by choice or/and on purpose. They were associated with early Buddhist temple construction in the region and provided masters and students for the project.{{Snf|Prazniak|2014|p=664}} In addition, it is believed that Buddhist temples were built in Arran, where the Ilkhanates spent winter.{{Snf|Mustafayev|2018|p=162}}

[[Tekuder|Ahmdd Tekuder Khan]], the son of Abaga Khan, was extremely interested in Turkic [[Sheikh|sheikhs]]. While wintering in Arran, he engaged in [[Sama (Sufism)|sama]] (musical zikr) in house of a Turkic sheikh named Ishan Mengli. The entry of [[Rumi|Jalal ad-Din Rumi]] into the path of spiritual dance and attraction occurred through a [[dervish]] from Tabriz, after witnessing the influence of Turkic Sufi masters. Turkic Sufis of Azerbaijan also managed to win the hearts of the [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuks]] in [[Konya]]. In addition, as [[Ibn Battuta|Ibn Batuta]] noted, it is assumed that Azerbaijani, Anatolian and Khorasan Turkic veterans who built camps around [[Crimea]] and lived on war products participated in the campaigns of [[Nogai Khan]], the army general of the [[Golden Horde]].{{Snf|Togan|1981|pp=267-268}}

The Rifiyyah (Ahmadiyya) sect, spread in Iraq, Azerbaijan, Anatolia and even in Golden Horde, benefited from Mongolian shamanism. Mongols used their Sufi role to gain influence in the Islamic environment.<ref>Köprülü, F. (2004). İSLÂM SÛFÎ TARÎKATLERİNE TÜRK-MOĞOL ŞAMANLIĞININ TE'SİRİ . Marife Dini Araştırmalar Dergisi , 4 (1) , 267–275 . Retrieved from http://marife.org/tr/pub/issue/37809/436582 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617070922/http://marife.org/tr/pub/issue/37809/436582|date=2023-06-17}}</ref> The Mongol army fought against supersticious sects (e.g. Javvaliqi) and protected Turkic Sufis such as [[Bektashi Order|Bektashi]] and Baraghi. Superstitious sects wanted to slander the rites of Turkic dervishes by calling them "the work of the devil". Azerbaijan is also among the territories where Javaliqis are dispersed in a distraught and miserable manner.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=284}}

During the Ilkhanates period, the convertion to Shiism, which would continue for a long time, began in Iran and Azerbaijan. During this period, the base of Turkoman-Shiite states such as Qara Qoyunlu and Safavids was formed. The theological works written by Shia scholars, including Nasraddin Tusi, [[Al-Allama al-Hilli|Allama al-Hilli]], [[Sayyed Ibn Tawus|Ibn Tawus]], etc., which came out of Shia [[Madrasa|madrasas]], are one of the factors that promote the spread of Shiism in the region. By the time the last Ilkhanate ruler, [[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan]], died, the Shiite population had begun to reach 20 percent of the empire's population.<ref>Haykıran, K. R. "İlhanlı Hâkimiyeti ve İmâmiye Şiîlerî". Milel ve Nihal 17 (2020): 87–109</ref>

=== Law ===

{{Main article|Yassa}}Although the Ilkhanates accepted Islam, they did not stop the execution of the laws (Yassa) of [[Genghis Khan]] due to the decisions of the period of Öljaitü and [[Özbeg Khan]]. Ghazan Khan also took into account the decision to follow Islamic Sharia and Genghis Khan's Yassa together. Azerbaijani and Eastern Anatolian Turks considered the laws of Yassa as their national law during the period of Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu and remained loyal to it.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=278}}

Rashid al-Din Hamadani's sons [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad (vizier)|Giyasaddin]] and Jalaluddin were praised and loved by the Turks for their virtues and morals, and for their knowledge of Ilkhanate laws and regulations.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=282}} Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan was loved by the people of Azerbaijan and Anatolia and was remembered as one of the 4 fair sultans in Azerbaijan.<ref>{{cite news|title=EBÛ SAİD BAHADIR HAN|author=ABDÜLKADİR YUVALI|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ebu-said-bahadir-han|publisher=İslam Ansiklopedisi|date=1994|access-date=2023-05-26|language=tr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329193542/https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ebu-said-bahadir-han|archive-date=2023-03-29|url-status=live}}</ref>

Later, Anatolian Turks considered themselves citizens of Ilkhanate and obeyed its laws. The Azerbaijani poet of the Timurid period, [[Kadi Burhan al-Din|Gazi Burhanaddin]], wrote that the force that could force him to do something, just as his lover could do, was the yassa and the khan's friendship, the identity card he knew was the khan's stamp, the state system he knew was khagan, ulu khan, sultan, bey, tutgavul (a security system to protect caravans and roads).{{Snf|Togan|1981|pp=279-280}}

In Iraq-i-Ajam and Azerbaijan, Mongols and Eastern Turks were not engaged in agriculture, so they employed farmers in their territories. In addition, the princes of Juji and Chagatai receive taxes from their hereditary (''inçü'') lands in Azerbaijan, and this did not change even though the war with the Ilkhanates continued.{{Snf|Togan|1981|pp=285-286}}

=== Calendar ===

During the Ilkhanate dynasty, all Turkoman Oghuz clans of Azerbaijan and Eastern Anatolia used Turkic year and month names.{{Snf|Togan|1981|p=279}} The use of the [[Zodiac|12 animal calendar]] was due to the influence of Eastern Turkic, and the Mongols adopted the Uighur version of the calendar. Although Mongolian translations were used, Turkish names have retained their importance. In Rashid al-Din Hamadani's historical work, year names are used 26 times in Turkic and 34 times in Mongolian. The names of the months were only in Turkic. In Iran, the Turko-Mongolian animal calendar was used together with the [[Islamic calendar|Hijri calendar]] from the end of the Mongol rule until the fall of [[Qajar dynasty|Qajars]].<ref>István Vásáry. [https://www.academia.edu/22037055/I_V%C3%A1s%C3%A1ry_The_role_and_function_of_Mongolian_and_Turkic_in_Ilkhanid_Iran_In_%C3%89va_%C3%81_Csat%C3%B3_Lars_Johanson_Andr%C3%A1s_R%C3%B3na_Tas_Bo_Utas_eds_Turks_and_Iranians_Interactions_in_Language_and_History_Turcologica_105_Harrassowitz_Wiesbaden_2016_pp_141_153 The role and function of Mongolian and Turkic in Ilkhanid Iran] // Turcologia.</ref>

=== Nobility ===

[[Ilya Pavlovich Petrushevsky|I. P. Petrushevsky]]'s research shows that Buddhists and [[Nestorianism|Nestorians]] were often allied at Ilkhanate palace, while the Muslim elite, supported by factions of the Turkic military aristocracy and Iranian bureaucrats, opposed them. Sometimes the Jews sided with Buddhists.{{Snf|Prazniak|2014|p=660}}

In the 13th-15th centuries, the lands of the old feudal lords in present-day Azerbaijan and Armenia gradually passed into the hands of the hereditary heads of the nomadic tribes.{{Snf|Petrushevsky|1949|p=36}} The Orlat dynasty, which ruled the Sheki rulership that arose at the end of the 14th century, was an Azerbaijanized Turkic-speaking Mongol dynasty. Two members of this dynasty are known – {{Interlanguage link|Seyyid Ali Orlat|az|Seyid Əli Orlat}} (ca. 1393 – 1399) and {{Interlanguage link|Seyyid Ahmad Orlat|az|Seyid Əhməd Orlat}} (1399 – 1423/1424).<ref name="БСЭ1">Шеки (историч. область в Азербайджане) — статья из Большой советской энциклопедии. {{Quote|text='Как независимое государственное образование упоминалось с конца 14 в. Владетелем Ш. был Сиди Ахмед Орлат (из тюркизированного монгольского племени орлатов)'}}</ref><ref name="СИЭ2">Советская историческая энциклопедия, статья: Под ред. Е. М. Жукова. Шеки // Советская историческая энциклопедия. — М.: Советская энциклопедия. — 1973–1982 {{Quote|text=''В послемонг. время Ш. как независимое государственное образование упоминается с кон. 14 в. Владетелем Ш. был Сиди Ахмед Орлат (из тюркизированного монг. племени орлатов).''}}</ref>{{Snf|Petrushevsky|1949|p=184}} [[Darğalar]] village is located in the [[Barda, Azerbaijan|Barda]] region of Azerbaijan. It is believed that the village was founded by Mongol tax officials, descendants of the Dargas, and took its name from them.{{Snf|Hüseynov|2023|pp=72-74}}<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://lib.az/users/1/upload/files/Azerbaycan_toponimlerinin_ensiklopedik_lugeti.pdf |title=Azərbaycan toponimlərinin ensiklopedik lüğəti |publisher=East-West |year=2007 |isbn=978-9952-34-155-3 |volume=1 |location=Baku |pages=210-211 |language=az}}</ref>

[[wiktionary:nökər|''Nökər'']] is a title historically used for members of the noble class in Mongol states.<ref name=":0">Ahmet Caferoğlu. Türk Tarihinde Nöker ve Nöker-zadeler Müessesesi, IV. Türk Tarih Kongresi Ankara 10–14 Kasım 1948, Kongreye Sunulan Tebliğler, TDK Yay., Ankara 1952: 251.</ref> It is one of the warrior classes that existed in Turko-Mongol societies in [[Middle Ages]]. Translated from the Mongolian language, it means "companion", "warrior", "servant", "helper" and "slave". Amongst Turks, this expression is used in the sense of a groom or groom's son's companion.<ref>[[Sergei Starostin|Starostin, Sergei]]; [[Anna Vladimirovna Dybo|Dybo, Anna]]; [[:ru:Мудрак,_Олег_Алексеевич|Mudrak, Oleg]] (2003), "[http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&basename=%2fdata%2falt%2fmonget&text_number=1535&root=config *nökör-]", in ''Etymological dictionary of the Altaic languages'' (Handbuch der Orientalistik; VIII.8), Leiden, New York, Köln: E.J. Brill</ref><ref name=":1">''Günal Zerrin: İslam Ansiklipedisi – [https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/noker Nöker]'' İstanbul 2007</ref> The title of servant also existed in Azerbaijan.<ref name=":0" /> This title can be found in the Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu states as well.<ref name=":1" /> [[Evliya Çelebi]] notes that the khanates of [[Baku Khanate|Baku]], [[Ganja Khanate|Ganja]] and [[Erivan Khanate|Iravan]] had a certain number of servants.<ref name=":0" /> In the military unit of the {{Interlanguage link|Kangarly Cavalry|az|Kəngərli Süvariləri|ru|Конница Кенгерли}} during the Russian Tsarist period, soldiers and nokars came after gentlemen, viceroys and lawyers. The servants of the Kangarli cavalry had a special mark on their collars.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Нагдалиев |first=Фархад |url=http://elibrary.bsu.edu.az/files/books_rax/N_6.pdf |title=Ханы Нахичеванские в Российской Империи |publisher=Новый Аргумен |year=2006 |isbn=5-903224-01-6 |location=Moscow |page=432 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705191204/http://elibrary.bsu.edu.az/files/books_rax/N_6.pdf |archive-date=2022-07-05 |url-status=live}}</ref> The word "''nökər''" is a name given to a male servant in the modern Azerbaijani language.<ref name=":0" />

The dynasties that replaced the Ilkhanates ([[Jalairs]], [[Chobanids]], [[Timurids]], Aq Qoyunlus, [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]], [[Afshar people|Afshars]], Qajars) implemented the system of administration of Iran by Turko-Mongolian nomadic political and military elite. Azerbaijani-speaking<ref>Reviewed Work(s): Nadir Shah by L. Lockhart, Review by: V. Minorsky, Source: Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, Vol. 9, No. 4, p 1122. {{Quote|text=Nadir's native language could not be " Turki or Eastern Turkish ". As an Afshar he surely spoke a southern Turcoman dialect, similar to that of all the Afshars scattered throughout Persia, i.e. in usual parlance, "the Turkish of Azarbayjan." The Afshars were certainly an Oghuz, and not a Mongol tribe.}}</ref><ref>Н.К. Корганян, А.П. Папазян. Абраам Кретаци, Краткое повествование. — С. 290.</ref><ref>Tom Sinclair The Chronicle of Abraham of Crete (Patmut'iwn of Kat'oghikos Abraham Kretats'i). Annotated translation from the Critical Text with Introduction and Commentary by George A. Bournoutian. (Armenian Studies Series, 1.) 190 pp. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda,1999. // Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 64, No. 3 (2001), pp. 413–414. — Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies. — С. 414.</ref> [[Nader Shah|Nadir Shah]], the first ruler of the Afshar dynasty, held a congress in Mughan according to the Turko-Mongol tradition and thus became the ruler. He ordered his poets to write poems about him repeating the conquests of Genghis Khan. The Azerbaijani-speaking<ref>Law, Henry D. G. (1984) "Modern Persian Prose (1920s-1940s)" Ricks, Thomas M. Critical perspectives on modern Persian literature Washington, D. C.: Three Continents Press s. 132 {{Isbn|0-914478-95-8}}, 9780914478959 "cited in Babak, Vladimir; Vaisman, Demian; Wasserman, Aryeh. "Political Organization in Central Asia and Azerbaijan": </ref><ref name="qajarrule">Ch. E. Davies, "Qajar rule in Fars prior to 1849" "On the next day it became known at Shiraz that Muhammad Shāh's army consisted of Āzarbaijanī Turks who did not know Persian and had a European general."</ref><ref>Denis Wright. The English Amongst the Persians: Imperial Lives in Nineteenth-Century Iran</ref><ref>Б. П. Балаян, "К вопросу об общности этногенеза шахсевен и кашкайцев"</ref> Qajars claim that the beginning of their dynasty came from Qajar Noyon, the son of a Mongol commander, and hung paintings of Genghis Khan in [[Qajar art|Qajar-style]] clothes in their palaces.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bayarlxaqva |first=Munxnaran |date=2023-11-24 |title=Yaşasın Monqol Böyük İranı – İranzəmin - Baku Research Institute |url=https://bakuresearchinstitute.org/yasasin-monqol-boyuk-irani-iranzamin/,%20https://bakuresearchinstitute.org/yasasin-monqol-boyuk-irani-iranzamin/,%20https://bakuresearchinstitute.org/yasasin-monqol-boyuk-irani-iranzamin/ |access-date=2023-12-12 |website=bakuresearchinstitute.org |language=az}}</ref>

== Culinary ==

{{Main article|Azerbaijani cuisine}}

[[File:Piti 24.11.2013-01.jpg|thumb|Piti dish]]

The "''[[Yinshan zhengyao]]''", a court recipe book of the Mongol [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan Dynasty]] (1330s), was inspired by Inner and Western Asia. Azerbaijani cuisine includes elements similar to the foods found in this cookbook. An example of such dishes is [[Piti (food)|piti]]. The piti dish of Azerbaijan is similar to the harissa dish of Iraq, and thus to a number of recipes in the Mongolian book. [[Quince]] is also added to Azerbaijan's [[bozbash]] dish, as is often done in "''Yinshan zhengyao''". [[Fruit preserves|Jams]] and [[Sharbat (beverage)|sherbets]] of Azerbaijani cuisine are reminiscent of Turkic and Eastern cuisines and "''Yinshan zhenqiao''" recipes.<ref name="Crossroads of Cuisine">{{cite book|last1=Buell|first1=Paul|last2=Anderson|first2=E.N.|last3=de Pablo Moya|first3=Montserrat|last4=Oskenbay|first4=Moldir|title=Crossroads of Cuisine: The Eurasian Heartland, the Silk Roads and Food|date=2020 |publisher=Brill|hdl=20.500.12657/51058|hdl-access=free|doi=10.1163/9789004432109|doi-access=free|isbn=978-90-04-43210-9}} page 250–251.</ref> The roots of the [[kebab]] dish prepared in Azerbaijani, Iranian and Russian cuisine go back to the time when the territory of these countries lived as a part of the old Mongolian civilization.<ref name="cuisd">Serdar Oktay and Saide Sadıkoğlu, Gastronomic Cultural Impacts of Russian, Azerbaijani and Iranian Cuisines, International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2018.03.003 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629144538/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1878450X17301452?via%3Dihub|date=2023-06-29}}</ref>

== Cultural heritage in modern era ==

[[File:13th century Khudaferin bridge.jpg|left|thumb|Damaged 13th century, 11-span [[Khudafarin Bridges|Khudaferin bridge]]|200x200px]]

[[File:Kəngərli_rayonu_Qarabağlılar_kompleksi.jpg|left|thumb|200x200px|[[Garabaghlar Mausoleum|Garabaghlar mausoleum]] before restoration]]In the 13th century, 11 arched bridges, one of Khudaferin bridges, were built over Araz or its old ruins were restored. One of the reasons for this was the need to move a large army due to the wars between the Ilkhanates and the Golden Horde. Also, the discovery of the remains of the Aladag tent-city built for the nobles in the north shows that a bridge was needed to move people, horses, chickens, etc. across the [[Aras (river)|Aras river]] for a short period of time (2-3 days).<ref>Мамед-заде К. М. Строительное искусство Азербайджана (с древнейших времён до XIX века) / Научный редактор aкадемик АН Азерб. ССР А. В. Саламзаде. — Б.: Элм, 1983.</ref>

The Garabaghlar tomb complex, located in the [[Kangarli District|Kangarli district]] of Nakhchivan, belonging to the Ilkhanate era, includes a [[tomb]], a double [[minaret]], and the remains of a religious building located between these two monuments. It is written in the inscription: "The construction of this building was ordered by Jahan Qudi Khatun". Qudi Khatun is believed to be [[Qutui Khatun|Qutui Khatu]], the wife of Ilkhanate ruler Abaqa.<ref>Yurttaş, H. & Gökler, B. M. (2022). NAHÇIVAN KARABAĞLAR TÜRBESİ VE ANADOLU'YA YANSIMASI . Sanat ve İkonografi Dergisi , 0 (2) , 28–34 . Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/sidd/issue/69990/1120722 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204095631/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/sidd/issue/69990/1120722|date=2023-02-04}}</ref>

Traces of archaic traditions created by artists working in the workshops of Ilkhanate vizier [[Rashid al-Din]] at the beginning of the 14th century can also be seen in the miniatures of the 15th century Baku artist {{Interlanguage link|Abdul Bagi Bakuvi|az|Əbdul Baqi Bakuvi|ru|Абдуль-Баги Бакуви|uk|Абдул-Багі Бакуві}}. Bakuvi's "Horse and its Master" is an Islamic version of a warrior image that was very popular in [[China]] during the late [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] and early [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] dynasties.<ref name="Художественная энциклопедия">{{Cite web|title="Популярная художественная энциклопедия." Под ред. Полевого В. М.; М.: Издательство "Советская энциклопедия", 1986.|url=http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc_pictures/52/%D0%90%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F|access-date=2016-01-03|archive-date=2010-12-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101208180120/http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc_pictures/52/%D0%90%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi İslam Minyatürleri{{Quote|text=78. At ve sahibi

H. 2160 nolu albümden, y. 366, 21,5 x 24,5&nbsp;cm. Resim 30

Atının kuyruğunu düğünlemeğe hazırlanan bir savaşçı tasviridir. Peyzaj, yapraklı bir ağacın dalları ve çiçek kümeleriyle belirlenmiştir. Bu resmin desen halindeki kopyası «Abdal – Bakî al – Bâkûî » imzalıdır (Aslanapa, «Turkische Miniaturmalerei, Abb* 13») Eser, geç Yüan ve erken Ming devrinden Çin de çok popüler olan bir konunun İslam i kopyasıdır,

XV. Yüzyıl.|source=Aslanapa, pl. 6, Abb. 12; Loehr, p, 87; İpşiroğlu, MM, fig. 47; Ipşiroğlu, 70.}}</ref>

Poet [[Jafar Jabbarly]] describes the [[Flag of Azerbaijan|colors of the flag]] in his poem "Azerbaijani flag" published in [[Azerbaijan (newspaper)|Azerbaijan newspaper]]:

{{Quote box

| quote = <poem>This blue color must be the sign left from Blue Moghol,

— Must be the son of Turk!

Green color, unshaken faith of Islam,

— Must be filled in hearths!

This red color freedom, order of reincarnation,

— Must find civilization!</poem>

| source = <small>"Azərbaycan bayrağına", Jafar Jabbarly, c. 1919<ref name=Jafar>{{cite web

| title = "Azərbaycan bayrağına" (Jafar Jabbarly)

| url = http://www.azadliq.org/content/article/26681669.html

| website = www.azadliq.org

| access-date = 10 November 2014

| language = Azerbaijani

| archive-date = 10 November 2014

| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141110103610/http://www.azadliq.org/content/article/26681669.html

| url-status = live

}}</ref></small>

| align = center

| fontsize = 100%

| qalign = center

}}

== Historical chronology ==

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:0 1em 0 0; font-size:95%;"

!Era

!Person

!Events of the era

|-

| colspan="3" |<center>''[[Mongol Empire]] (until 1256)''</center>

|-

|1229–1241

|[[Ögedei Khan]]

|Conquering South Caucasus until 1236

|-

| colspan="3" |<center>''[[Ilkhanate]] (1256–1335)''</center>

|-

|1256–1265

|[[Hulagu Khan]]

|Making the army to be consist of Turkic-Mongolian tribes and executing shamanist rituals in palace

|-

|1282–1284

|[[Tekuder]]

|Being interested in Turkic sheikhs, and performing Sufi ceremony – [[Sama (Sufism)|sama]] while spending winter in Arran

|-

|from 14th century

|

|"[[Karabakh|Garabahg]]" toponym started being used

|-

|1295–1304

|[[Ghazan|Ghazan Khan]]

|Locating Turkic tribes on [[Mughan plain]]. Executing Gengis Khan's rules with Islamic sharia

|-

|beginning of the 14th century

|Vassaf

|Writing couplets in Azerbaijani Turkish

|-

|1st half of the 14th century

|Ibn Muhanna

|Noting Azerbaijani as "Turkish of our state" in Turkic and Mongolian dictionary

|-

|1306–1310

|Nasir Bakuvi

|Ilkhanates ruler – [[Öljaitü]] wrote 55-couplet long [[mukhammas]] in Azerbaijani

|-

|1316–1335

|[[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan]]

|Developing of literatures in Azerbaijani Turkish

|-

|1st half of 14th century

|

|Writing of prays, [[Khutbah|khutbahs]], and manzumahs in mix of Eastern Turkish and Azerbaijani Turkish

|-

| colspan="3" |<center>''Tabriz rule of [[Jalayirid Sultanate|Jalayirid sultanate]] (1358–1388)''</center>

|-

|2nd half of 14th century

|

|[[Khwarazm]] and [[Transoxiana]] poets including Hujandin wrote their poems in Azerbaijani Turkish

|-

|1382–1388

|[[Ahmad Jalayir]]

|Using Azerbaijani Turkish in Jalayir's palace

|-

| colspan="3" |<center>''Tabriz rule of [[Timurid Empire|Timurid empire]] (1388–1408)''</center>

|-

|

|[[Abd al-Qadir Maraghi]]

|Composing song in Turkic for Emir Timur

|-

| colspan="3" |<center>''Safavid state''</center>

|-

|17th century

|

|[[Adam Olearius]] noted Turkic and Mongolian tribes placed by Ghazan Khan

|}

== Gallery ==

<gallery mode="packed" heights="120">

Beyləqandan aşkarlanmış Elxanilər dövrünə aid saxsı boşqab.JPG|A pottery plate from the Ilkhanate period discovered in Beylagan

Elxanilər dövrünə aid ipək parça qalığı (XIII əsr).JPG|Remains of silk fabric from the Ilkhanate era (13th century)

</gallery>

== See also ==

* [[Culture of Azerbaijan]]

== Notes ==

{{Reflist|group=n}}

== References ==

{{Reflist|3}}

== Sources ==

* {{cite book |last1=Togan |first1=Zeki Velidi |title=Ümumi türk tarihine giriş (cilt I) |publisher=Enderun Kitabevi |year=1981}}

* {{Cite book |last=Mustafayev |first=Shahin |url=https://jhss-khazar.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Outlines-of-the-Mongolian-supremacy-in-Azerbaijan-and-the-South-Caucasus.pdf |title=Outlines of the Mongolian supremacy in Azerbaijan and the South Caucasus |publisher=Khazar Press |year=2018}}

* {{Cite book |last=Sümer |first=Faruk |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/ttkbelleten/issue/76333/1270294 |title=Azerbaycan'ın Türkleşmesi Tarihine Umumi Bir Bakı |publisher=BELLETEN |year=1957 |language=tr |issn=0041-4255 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231026065059/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/ttkbelleten/issue/76333/1270294 |archive-date=2023-10-26}}

* {{Cite book |last=Durand-Guédy |first=David |title=Mongols, Turks and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World by Reuven Amitai, Michal Biran |publisher=Iranian Studies |year=2010 |isbn=9-0041-4096-4 |language=en}}

* {{Cite book |last=Köprülü |first=Mehmet Fuat |url=https://turuz.com/index/view/e34df5a7f56029f2d0188c86f70c4a3298971e5b |title=Azeri |publisher=Elm |year=2000 |location=Baku}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Latifova |first=Elvira |date=2023 |title=СЕВЕРО-ЗАПАДНЫЕ РЕГИОНЫ АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНА В КОНТЕКСТЕ ТЮРКО-МОНГОЛЬСКОЙ ИСТОРИИ |journal=Avrasya Uluslararası Araştırmalar Dergisi |volume=11 |issue=36 |doi=10.33692/avrasyad.1276291}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Hüseynov |first=Gurban |date=2023 |title=Moğolların Azerbaycan Saldırıları ve İlhanlılar Dönemi Azerbaycan'da Moğol Yerleşim Yerleri |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/tubar/issue/78126/1271683 |journal=Turkology Research |issue=53 |issn=0041-4255}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Caferoğlu |first=Ahmet |date=1954 |title=Azerbaycan ve Anadolu Ağızlarındaki Moğolca Unsurlar |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/belleten/issue/34055/376842 |journal=Türk Dili Araştırmalar Yıllığı |publisher=Belleten |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630054854/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/belleten/issue/34055/376842 |archive-date=2023-06-30}}

* {{Cite book |last=Beydili |first=Celal |url=http://www.genelturktarihi.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Turk-Mitolojisi-Ansiklopedik-Sozluk.pdf |title=Türk Mitolojisi Ansiklopedik Sözlük |publisher=Yurt Yayınevi |year=2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129123735/http://www.genelturktarihi.net/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Turk-Mitolojisi-Ansiklopedik-Sozluk.pdf |archive-date=2023-11-29}}

* {{Cite book |last=Boratav |first=Pertev Naili |title=Nasreddin Hoca |publisher=Islık Yayınları |year=2014 |isbn=978-605-64699-0-9 |location=Istanbul}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Prazniak |first=Roxann |date=2014 |title=Ilkhanid Buddhism: Traces of a Passage in Eurasian History |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=650-680 |doi=10.1017/S0010417514000280}}

* {{cite journal |last1=Yakupoğlu |first1=Cevdet |date=2018-03-18 |title=Azerbaycan´ın Hôy Yöresinde Türk Egemenliği (XI- XVI. Yüzyıllar) |journal=History Studies International Journal of History |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=175–193 |doi=10.9737/hist.2018.590}}

* {{Cite book |last=Petrushevsky |first=Ilya Pavlovich |url=https://archive.org/details/20211226_20211226_0609 |title=Очерки по истории феодальных отношений в Азербайджане и Армении в XVI — начале XIX вв. |year=1949 |language=ru}}

== Further reading ==

{{refbegin|2}}

* Abdullayev, E. Z. (1987). AZERBAYCAN-MOĞOL DİL İLİŞKİLERİ . Türk Dili Araştırmaları Yıllığı — Belleten , 35 (1987) , 1–9 . Retrieved from [https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/belleten/issue/43883/538082 AZERBAYCAN-MOĞOL DİL İLİŞKİLERİ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617071017/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/belleten/issue/43883/538082|date=2023-06-17}}

* "Azeri şivesinde nohur ve lap kelimeleri", Rocznik Orientalistyczny , XVII, Krakow, 1953, (s. 180–183)

* Caferoğlu, Ahmet: "Azerî Lehçesinde Bazı Mogol unsurları", Azerbaycan Yurt Bilgisi, sayı 6–7, İstanbul, 1932 (I, s. 215–226); sayı 25, İstanbul, 1934, (II, s. 3–8) (13 kelime)

* Lindsay, R. (2010). Mutual Intelligibility Among Turkic Languages. Retrieved December 18, 2015, from Academia: [https://www.academia.edu/4068771/Mutual_Intelligibility_Among_the_Turkic_Languages Mutual Intelligibility Among the Turkic Languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101181241/https://www.academia.edu/4068771/Mutual_Intelligibility_Among_the_Turkic_Languages|date=2023-11-01}}

* Ghorbannejad, Parisa. (2008). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353120465_Influence_and_Expansion_Ibn_Arabi's_School_among_Sufis_of_Azerbaijan_Mongol_Era Influence and Expansion Ibn Arabi's School among Sufis of Azerbaijan Mongol Era] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101142010/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353120465_Influence_and_Expansion_Ibn_Arabi%27s_School_among_Sufis_of_Azerbaijan_Mongol_Era|date=2023-11-01}}. 4. 71–97.

* Ghorbannejad, Parisa. (2009). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353124850_Sufism_in_Azerbaijan_during_the_Mongol_period_tswf_dr_adhrbayjan_hd_mghwl Sufism in Azerbaijan during the Mongol period] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101085704/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353124850_Sufism_in_Azerbaijan_during_the_Mongol_period_tswf_dr_adhrbayjan_hd_mghwl|date=2023-11-01}} تصوف در آذربایجان عهد مغول.

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[[Category:Period of Mongol rule in Azerbaijan]]