Part of a series on |
Buddhism |
---|
Although the Buddha argued that no permanent, unchanging "self" can be found, some Buddhist schools, sutras and tantras present the notion of an atman (/ˈɑːtmən/) or permanent "Self", although mostly referring to an Absolute and not to a personal self.
Contents
Etymology[edit]
Cognates (Sanskrit: आत्मन्) ātman, (Pāli) atta, Old English æthm, German Atem, and Greek atmo-[1] derive from the Indo-European root *ēt-men (breath).
Ātman and atta refer to a person's "true self", a person's permanent inner nature.[2] Occasionally the terms "soul" or "ego" are also used.
Early Buddhism[edit]
"Atman" in early Buddhism may simply refer to the sense of "I am",[3][4] similar to the pre-Buddhist Upanishads of Hinduism, which link the feeling "I am" to a permanent "Self".[5] Contrary to this the Buddha argued that no permanent, unchanging "self" can be found.[6][7] All conditioned phenomena are subject to change, and therefore can't be taken to be an unchanging "self".[7] Instead, the Buddha explains the perceived continuity of the human personality by describing it as composed of five skandhas, without a permanent entity.[8][9] This analysis makes it possible to avoid attachment, and is supportive for attaining liberation.[10][11]
Pudgalavada[edit]
Of the early Indian Buddhist schools, only the Pudgalavada-school diverged from this basic teaching. The Pudgalavādins asserted that, while there is no ātman, there is a pudgala or "person", which is neither the same as nor different from the skandhas.[9]
Buddha-nature[edit]
Buddha-nature is a central notion of east-Asian (Chinese) Mahayana thought.[12] It refers to several related terms,[note 1] most notably Tathāgatagarbha and Buddha-dhātu.[note 2] Tathāgatagarbha means "the womb of the thus-gone" (c.q. enlightened one), while Buddha-dhātu literally means "Buddha-realm" or "Buddha-substrate".[note 3] Several key texts refer to the tathāgatagarbha or Buddha-dhātu as "atman", self or essence, though those texts also contain warnings against a literal interpretation. Several scholars have noted similarities between tathāgatagarbha texts and the substantial monism found in the atman/Brahman tradition.[15]
Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra[edit]
In contrast to the madhyamika-tradition, the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra uses "positive language" to denote "absolute reality". According to Paul Williams, the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra teaches an underlying essence, "Self", or "atman".[16] This "true Self" is the Buddha-nature, which is present in all sentient beings, and realized by the awakened ones.
According to Sallie B. King, the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra does not represent a major innovation.[17] Its most important innovation is the linking of the term buddhadhatu with tathagatagarbha.[17] According to King, the sutra is rather unsystematic,[17] which made it "a fruitful one for later students and commentators, who were obliged to create their own order and bring it to the text".[17] The sutra speaks about Buddha-nature in so many different ways, that Chinese scholars created a list of types of Buddha-nature that could be found in the text.[17] One of those statements is:
Even though he has said that all phenomena [dharmas] are devoid of the Self, it is not that they are completely/ truly devoid of the Self. What is this Self ? Any phenomenon [dharma] that is true [satya], real [tattva], eternal [nitya], sovereign/ autonomous/ self-governing [aisvarya], and whose ground/ foundation is unchanging [asraya-aviparinama], is termed ’the Self ’ [atman].[18]
In the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra the Buddha also speaks of the "affirmative attributes" of nirvana, "the Eternal, Bliss, the Self and the Pure."[19] The Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra explains:
The Self ’ signifies the Buddha; ’the Eternal’ signifies the Dharmakaya; ’Bliss’ signifies Nirvana, and ’the Pure’ signifies Dharma.[20]
Edward Conze connotatively links the term tathagata itself (the designation which the Buddha applied to himself) with the notion of a real, true self:
Just as tathata designates true reality in general, so the word which developed into Tathagata designated the true self, the true reality within man.[21]
Cautions[edit]
According to Paul Wiliams, the Mahaparinirvana Sutra uses the term "Self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics. He quotes from the sutra:[22]
The Buddha-nature is in fact not the self. For the sake of [guiding] sentient beings, I describe it as the self.[23]
In equating the Buddha-nature with practice, King argues that the author of the Buddha-Nature Treatise
... undercuts any possibility of conceiving Buddha nature as an entity of any kind, as a Hindu–like Ātman or even as a purely mental process."[24]
In the later Lankāvatāra Sūtra it is said that the tathāgatagarbha might be mistaken for a self, which it is not.[25]
Rang stong and shentong[edit]
The dominant Tibetan school, Gelugpa, favours Prasangika (rang stong) Madhyamaka philosophy over Yogacara and Buddha-nature thought.[26] Rang stong, "self-empty" refers to sunyata, empty of a self or essence.[26]
Other Tibetan schools have tended to accept the shentong (gzhan tong), "other-empty", point of view, which discerns an "inherently existing Absolute".[27] This Absolute "is empty of adventious defilements which are intrinsically other than it, but is not empty of its own inherent existence".[28] This understanding and interpretation of the tathagatagarbha-teachings has been a matter of intensive debates in Tibet.[29]
The Rimé movement is a eucumenical movement in Tibet which started as an attempt to reconcile the various Tibetan schools in the 19th century. The Rimé movement also supports shen tong.[27]
Thai Dhammakaya movement[edit]
The Dhammakaya Movement in Thailand teaches that it is erroneous to subsume nirvana under the rubric of anatta (non-self); instead, nirvana is claimed to be the "true self" or dhammakaya. According to Paul Williams, this teaching echoes the tathāgatagarbha sutras.[30]
See also[edit]
- Anatta
- Angulimaliya Sutra
- Anguttara Nikaya
- Atman (Hinduism)
- Brahman
- Brahma-viharas
- Buddha-nature
- Digha Nikaya
- God in Buddhism
- Khuddaka Nikaya
- Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra
- Luminous mind
- Mahaparinirvana Sutra
- Samyutta Nikaya
- Self (spirituality)
- Shunyata
- Srimala Sutra
- Tathagatagarbha Sutra
- Three marks of existence
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ atman: definition, usage and pronunciation - YourDictionary.com
- ^ Harvey 1995, p. 51.
- ^ Wayman 1997, p. 531.
- ^ Harvey 1995-b, p. 17.
- ^ Harvey 1995-b, p. 34.
- ^ Kalupahana 1994, p. 68.
- ^ a b Harvey 1995, p. 52.
- ^ Kalupahana 1994, p. 69-72.
- ^ a b Fischer-Schreiber, Ehrhard & Diener 2008, p. 27.
- ^ Harvey 1995.
- ^ Kalupahana 1994.
- ^ Lusthaus 1998, p. 83.
- ^ Lusthaus 1998, p. 84.
- ^ Kevin Trainor, Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 207
- ^ Jamie Hubbard, Absolute Delusion, Perfect Buddhahood,University of Hawai’i Press, Honolulu, 2001, pp. 99-100
- ^ Williams 1994, p. 98-99.
- ^ a b c d e King 1991, p. 14.
- ^ Yamamoto & Page 2007 (1973), p. 32.
- ^ Dr. Kosho Yamamoto, Mahayanism: A Critical Exposition of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, Karinbunko, Ube City, Japan, 1975, pp. 141, 142
- ^ Yamamoto & Page 2007 (1973), p. 29.
- ^ Edward Conze, The Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi, 1994, p. xix
- ^ Paul Williams, Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations.Taylor & Francis, 1989, page 100. "... it refers to the Buddha using the term "Self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics."
- ^ Youru Wang, Linguistic Strategies in Daoist Zhuangzi and Chan Buddhism: The Other Way of Speaking. Routledge, 2003, page 58.
- ^ King 1991:168, quoted from Henshall, Ron (2007),The Unborn and Emancipation from the Born[1], a master's thesis by a student of Peter Harvey.
- ^ Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, page 98.
- ^ a b Williams 1994, p. 107-108.
- ^ a b Williams 1994, p. 107.
- ^ Williams 1994, p. 108.
- ^ Williams 1994, p. 105-109.
- ^ Paul Williams (2009), Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2nd edition. Routledge, London. p. 126
Sources[edit]
- Fischer-Schreiber, Ingrid; Ehrhard, Franz-Karl; Diener, Michael S. (2008), Lexicon Boeddhisme. Wijsbegeerte, religie, psychologie, mystiek, cultuur an literatuur, Asoka
- Harvey, Peter (1995), An introduction to Buddhism. Teachings, history and practices, Cambridge University Press
- Harvey, Peter (1995-b), The Selfless Mind, Curzon Press Check date values in:
|date=
(help) - Kalupahana, David J. (1994), A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
- King, Sallie B. (1991), Buddha Nature, SUNY Press
- Lusthaus, Dan (1998), Buddhist Philosophy, Chinese. In: Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Index, Taylor & Francis
- Wayman, Alex (1997), The 'No-self' of Buddhism. In: Alex Wayman, "Untying the Knots in Buddhism: Selected Essays", Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
- Yamamoto; Page, Tony (2007) [1973], The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra (PDF)[dead link]
Further reading[edit]
- Hodge, Stephen (2009 & 2012). "The Textual Transmission of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana-sutra", lecture at the University of Hamburg
- Wynn, Alexander (2010). "The atman and its negation". Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 33 (1-2): 103–171.
- Yamamoto, Kosho (tr.), Page, Tony (ed) (1999–2000).The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra in 12 volumes. London: Nirvana Publications.
External links[edit]
- "Nirvana Sutra": full text of "Nirvana Sutra", plus appreciation of its teachings.
- "Tathagatagarbha Buddhism": key sutras of the Tathagatagarbha Buddhist tradition[dead link]