Pantyhose (also called tights in the United Kingdom) are sheer, close-fitting legwear, covering the body from the waist to the feet. Traditionally considered a woman's garment, pantyhose appeared in the 1960s and provided a convenient alternative to stockings. Like stockings, knee and ankle-highs, pantyhose are usually made of nylon. Pantyhose are designed to:

• be fashionable
• ease chafing between the foot and footwear, or between thighs
• keep the legs and feet warm
• hide physical imperfections such as blemishes, bruises, scars, hair, or varicose veins

Besides being worn as fashion, in Western society pantyhose is sometimes worn by women when formal dress is required. For example, the dress code of some companies and schools require pantyhose or fashion tights to be worn when skirts or shorts are worn or as part of a uniform.

Terminology

The term 'pantyhose' originated in the United States to refer to the combination of 'panties' (an American term for women's underpants) with sheer nylon hosiery. In the United Kingdom, they are called tights, a term that refers to all such garments regardless of whether they are sheer lingerie or sturdy outerwear. In the U.S., the term tights may refer to pantyhose made from thicker, often opaque, material or alternately to non-sheer garments typically made of a stretchy material like spandex which do not necessarily cover the feet and may be worn by either gender during athletic activity or as utility clothing. In the United Kingdom, they are called leggings.

History

In the 1920s, the fashionable hemline for women rose enough to show the legs, and sheer hosiery that covered the legs was only available as stockings. They were first made of silk or rayon (then known as "artificial silk"), and after 1940 with nylon. In the 1940s and 1950s, film and theater productions were having stockings sewn to the briefs of actresses and dancers. This has been stated by actress-dancer Ann Miller^[1] and seen in popular films such as Daddy Long Legs.

In 1953, Allen Gant Sr. of Glen Raven Knitting Mills developed a commercial equivalent named "Panti-Legs", but didn't bring it to market until 1959.^[2] During this time another North Carolinian, Ernest G. Rice, invented his own design (similar to what is used today) and in 1956 submitted a patent titled "Combination Stockings and Panty".^[3] The superior design was adopted by others, causing dispute in U.S. courts for many years before being upheld after Rice's own death.^[4]

Up till this time there was little reason for women to wear "panty hose". However, during the 1960s, improved manufacturing made them cheaper, spandex (or elastane) made them more comfortable, and the miniskirt made them a fashion necessity. In 1970, U.S. sales of pantyhose exceeded stockings for the first time, and has remained this way ever since.^[5]

The popularity of pantyhose grew into a wardrobe staple throughout the 1970s and '80s. It wasn't until 1995 that a steady decline began, leveling off in 2006 with U.S. sales less than half of what they had been. This decline has been attributed to bare-legged fashion and changes in workplace dress code.^[6] Besides going bare-legged, there has also been a shift towards trousers and leggings or footless tights, the advantage of which is that they do not run like traditional stockings.^[6] The slide in sales is expected to continue into the future.^[7][8]

While sales of traditional pantyhose styles remain low, alternative styles have seen growth. Fishnets, patterns and colors, opaque tights, low-rise, footless shapewear, and pantyhose for men have all seen increased popularity during this time.^[9][10] Companies such as Spanx have emerged as an example of success in this new era for pantyhose.

Composition

Pantyhose generally has a standard construction: the top of the waist is a strong elastic; the part covering the hips (panty area) is composed of a thicker material than the legs; the gusset or crotch is also a stronger material, sometimes made of cotton; while the legs of the pantyhose are made of the thinnest material which has a consistent construction down to the toes, which may be reinforced to guard against wear.

Most pantyhose are composed of nylon and a mixture of spandex, which provides the elasticity and form fitting that is characteristic of modern pantyhose. The nylon fabric is somewhat prone to tearing and it is common for very sheer hose to 'run' soon after snagging on something rough or sharp.

Variations in pantyhose construction exist, such as with fishnet pantyhose. They may also be composed of other materials such as silk, cotton or wool.

Styles

Pantyhose are available in a wide range of popular styles. The sheerness of the garment, expressed as a numerical 'denier'/'dtex', ranges from 3 (extremely rare, very thin, barely visible) to 15 (standard sheer) up to 30 (semi opaque) until 100 (opaque). Examples of opaque tights showing mostly 40 denier opaque tights upwards. Control-top pantyhose, intended to create a slimmer form, has a reinforced panty. There may be visible panty lines when wearing high-cut skirts or shorts.

Sheer-to-waist pantyhose is sheer throughout, with the panty portion being the same thickness and color as the leg portion, and are designed for use with high-slit gowns, miniskirts, hot pants, or lingerie. Often sheer-to-waist pantyhose will be reinforced along and on either side of the seam in the middle of the panty.

Open-crotch pantyhose, sometimes known as crotchless pantyhose, does not have a gusset. Instead, an opening is in place for hygiene or pantyhose fetishism activities.

Some pantyhose have single- or double-panel gussets incorporated into them. In single there are two seams instead of the usual one, with a single one on the opposite side; with double panel gussets, there are two seams on either side.

Health benefits and risks

Pantyhose present a number of health risks and some health benefits.

• Because pantyhose are tight (thereby causing pressure on the opening of the urethra), and non-absorbant, they have been implicated as a contributing factor in urinary tract infections. Because of the risk of complications from UTIs, women who are prone to infections of the urinary tract, or who are pregnant, are often advised not to wear pantyhose.^[11]

• Like nylon underwear and other synthetic materials, pantyhose trap bacteria and increase temperature in the genital area, and so can be the proximate cause or a contributing factor in the development of yeast infections (candidiasis) in wearers. Women who have experienced a yeast infection are counseled to wear undergarments of cotton or other natural fibers, and to avoid wearing synthetic undergarments.^[12]

• The occurrence of bacterial vaginosis has also been linked to the wearing of pantyhose, among other causes.^[13] Bacterial vaginosis can result in complications for pregnant women and has been associated with an increase in the development of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) following surgical procedures such as a hysterectomy.^[14]

• It is not unusual for people dressed in layers of synthetic clothing to suffer from heat exhaustion in warm environments or while exercising or working.^[15] Because pantyhose raise the temperature of the body, the elderly, menopausal women, and other wearers who have difficulties regulating body temperature (because of underlying issues such as thyroid malfunctions) may find the garment unbearably warm.

• The warm, moist environment created by nylon pantyhose is also a predictive factor in the development of fungal infections of the skin of susceptible wearers, particularly in the feet, abdomen and genital areas.^[16] Preexisting fungal and allergic conditions, including eczema, athlete's foot, hives and rashes are exacerbated by the wearing of pantyhose.^[16]

There are also some health benefits associated with pantyhose. In cold weather, pantyhose can help keep the legs and feet warm. In low humidity conditions, they can help prevent the legs from becoming too dry. Support hosiery can help those who work on their feet by preventing/helping varicose veins and resolving pain in the back and legs by regulating blood circulation. Pantyhose often also help prevent chafing between the wearer's feet and their shoes, or between the thighs when walking, thus helping the wearer avoid painful skin irritation such as blisters and heat rashes.

Criticisms of pantyhose

• Unlike cotton, nylon is not an absorbent material. As a result, perspiration is more likely to remain in contact with the feet, legs and genital area, thereby encouraging bacterial growth and associated odour. Some hosiery products contain silver to help to prevent odour and sweating of the feet, thus making the wearing of hosiery a more pleasant experience. Wearing natural fibre silk stockings and tights is another means of reducing perspiration.

• For people who are either very large or very thin, pantyhose can be extremely uncomfortable and unflattering. The feel of pantyhose on large-sized women has been compared to the feeling of wearing a sausage casing, and pantyhose have been criticized for having a tendency to sag at the ankles, be too short to reach the waist, or roll down from the waist after a few hours of wear.^[17]

• Some people refuse to wear pantyhose for ethical or economic reasons. Though they cost anywhere from US$5^[18] to US$250^[19] per pair, pantyhose can rarely survive more than three wearings without tearing or laddering.^[20] They cannot be recycled, and are not biodegradable. Disposing of the item contributes to landfill; burning them releases toxins into the environment.

• Pantyhose are criticized for being flimsy. The nylon fabric of pantyhose is extremely prone to 'runs' (laddering in the UK). The wearer can cause a run in the hose by even such simple movements as catching the toenail of her big toe in the fabric when the hose is put on, by catching it on a rough desk, car, and by numerous other risks. Some women use clear nail polish to prevent runs from growing.

• Pantyhose are also increasingly unfashionable. Since 1995 pantyhose sales have declined by about 70 percent,^[21] though there are more women in the workplace than at any time in history,^[22], and despite the fact that an increasing number of men are purchasing and wearing pantyhose.^[23]

Men and pantyhose

While traditionally considered a woman's garment, pantyhose are occasionally worn by men for thermal protection and therapeutic relief. Race horse jockeys also wear pantyhose under their silks so that their jockey silks glide freely over the legs and waist when the jockey's body moves at a rapid pace ^{[citation needed]}. Some fishermen who surf fish from tropical beaches may also wear pantyhose to protect from jellyfish, whose stingers cannot penetrate the mesh^[24][25]. In the late 1990s several small manufacturers introduced pantyhose styles designed for men to cater to this niche market.^[26]

See also

• Pantyhose fetishism

References

External links

• How pantyhose are manufactured
• Video How Pantyhose are Manufactured

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