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{{Short description|Period of history}} |
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{{redirect|Modern age}} |
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:''Modern Age redirects here. For other uses, see [[Modern Age (disambiguation)]]'' |
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{{about|period that encompasses the early and late modern periods|the period after the early modern period|Late modern period}} |
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{{Multiple issues| |
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{{More citations needed|date=October 2022|discuss=Talk:Modern era#Globalization}} |
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{{Globalize|date=September 2023}} |
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{{Human history}} |
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The term '''modern period''' or '''modern era''' (sometimes also '''modern times''') is the period of history that followed the [[Middle Ages]] (which ended approximately 1500 AD) This terminology is a historical [[periodization]] that is applied primarily to [[history of Europe|European]] and [[Western history]]. |
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The '''modern era''' or the '''modern period''', also known as '''modern history''' or '''modern times''', is the period of [[human history]] that succeeds the [[post-classical era]] (also known, particularly with reference to Europe, as the [[Middle Ages]]), which ended around [[1500]] AD, up to the present. This terminology is a historical [[periodization]] that is applied primarily to [[history of Europe|European]] and [[Western history]]. |
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The modern era |
The modern era can be further divided as follows: |
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* The [[early modern period]] lasted from c. AD 1500 to 1800 and resulted in wide-ranging intellectual, political and economic change. It brought with it the [[Age of Discovery]], the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the [[Industrial Revolution]] and an [[Age of Revolutions]], beginning with the [[American War of Independence]] and the [[French Revolution]] and later spreading in other countries, partly as a result of upheavals of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. |
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* An early period, sometimes called the [[early modern period]], which lasted from c. 1500–1800. This period ended in a time of change and upheaval... |
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* The [[late modern period]] began around 1800 with the end of the political revolutions in the late 18th century and involved the transition from a [[Age of Imperialism|world dominated by imperial and colonial powers]] into one of nations and nationhood following the two great world wars, [[World War I]] and [[World War II]]. |
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* The 18th century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], then followed by the [[Industrial Revolution]] in Britain, and an [[Age of Revolutions]], beginning with those in [[American War of Independence|America]] and [[French Revolution|France]], and then pushed forward in other countries partly as a result of upheavals of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. |
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* [[Contemporary history]] refers to the period following the end of World War II in 1945 and continuing to the [[Portal:Current events|present]]. It is alternatively considered either a sub-period of the late modern period or a separate period beginning after the late modern period. It includes the currently-ongoing [[21st century]]. |
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* Our present or contemporary era begins with the end of these revolutions in the 19th century, and includes [[World War I]], [[World War II]], and the [[Cold War]]. |
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The modern period has been a period of significant development in the fields of [[science]], [[politics]], [[warfare]], and [[technology]]. It has also been an [[ |
The modern period has been a period of significant development in the fields of [[science]], [[politics]], [[warfare]], and [[technology]]. It has also been an [[Age of Discovery]] and [[globalization]]. During this time, the [[European powers]] and later their colonies, began a political, economic, and cultural [[colonization]] of the rest of the world. |
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By the late 19th and early 20th century, [[modernist]] [[art]], [[politics]], [[science]] and [[culture]] has come to dominate not only [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]], but almost every civilized area on the globe, including movements thought of as opposed to the |
By the late [[Modern era#19th century|19th]] and early [[Modern era#20th century|20th century]], [[modernist]] [[art]], [[politics]], [[science]], and [[culture]] has come to dominate not only [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]], but almost every civilized area on the globe, including [[Anti-Western sentiment|movements thought of as opposed to]] the [[western world]] and [[globalization]]. The modern era is closely associated with the development of [[individualism]], [[capitalism]], [[urbanization]], and a belief in the positive possibilities of technological and political [[progress]]. |
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The brutal wars and other |
The [[Modern era#World War I|brutal]] [[Modern era#World War II|wars]] and [[Cold War|other conflicts of this era]], many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and the connected [[Detraditionalization|loss of strength of traditional religious]] and ethical norms, have led to many [[Modernism#Criticism of late modernity|reactions against modern development]]. [[Optimism]] and the [[Whig history|belief in constant progress]] have been most recently criticized by [[postmodernism]], while the [[Eurocentrism|dominance]] of Western Europe and North America over the rest of the world has been criticized by [[postcolonialism|postcolonial theory]]. |
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==Terminology== |
==Terminology== |
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Eras can not easily be defined. 1500 is an approximate starting period for the modern era because many major events caused the Western world to change around that time: from the [[Fall of Constantinople]] (1453), [[Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg]]'s moveable type [[printing press]] (1450s), completion of the [[Reconquista]] (1492) and [[Christopher Columbus]]'s voyage to the [[Americas]] (also 1492), to the [[Protestant Reformation]] begun with [[Martin Luther]]'s [[Ninety-five Theses]] (1517).{{explain|date=April 2024}} |
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The term "modern" was coined shortly before 1585 to describe the beginning of a new era.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=modern|encyclopedia=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=2000|url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/28/M0362800.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622132303/http://www.bartleby.com/61/28/M0362800.html|archive-date=June 22, 2008|edition=4th|access-date=December 19, 2022|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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Eras can not easily be defined more exactly than by centuries. 1500 is an approximate starting period for the modern era because many major events caused the Western world to change around that time: from the [[Fall of Constantinople]] (1453), the fall of [[Muslim Spain]], and [[Christopher Columbus]]'s voyage to the [[Americas]] (both 1492), to the [[Protestant Reformation]] begun with [[Martin Luther]]'s [[Ninety-Five Theses]] (1517). |
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The term "Early Modern" was introduced in the English language in the 1930s<ref>New Dictionary of the History of ideas, Volume 5, Detroit 2005. Modernism and Modern</ref> to distinguish the time between what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800) (when the meaning of the term Modern Ages was developing its contemporary form). |
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The term "modern" was coined shortly before 1585 to describe the beginning of a new era.<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/61/28/M0362800.html modern. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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Sometimes distinct from the modern periods themselves, the terms "[[modernity]]" and "[[modernism]]" refer to a new way of thinking, distinct, from previous ways of thinking such as medieval thinking. |
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The term "Early Modern" was introduced in the English language in the 1930s.<ref>New Dictionary of the History of ideas, Volume 5, Detroit 2005. Modernism and Modern</ref> to distinguish the time between what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800) (when the meaning of the term Modern Ages was developing its contemporary form). |
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Sometimes distinct from the modern periods themselves, the terms "[[modernity]]" and "[[modernism]]" refer to a new way of thinking, distinct from medieval thinking. |
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The [[Europe]]an [[Renaissance]] (about 1420–1630) is an important transition period beginning between the [[Late Middle Ages]] and Early Modern Times, which started in Italy. |
The [[Europe]]an [[Renaissance]] (about 1420–1630) is an important transition period beginning between the [[Late Middle Ages]] and Early Modern Times, which started in Italy. |
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"[[Postmodernism]]", coined 1949,<!--m-w.com, see below, don't {{fact|date=March 2008}}this--> on the other hand, would describe rather a movement in [[art]] than a period of history, and is usually applied to arts, but not to any events of the very recent history.<ref> |
"[[Postmodernism]]", coined 1949,<!--m-w.com, see below, don't {{fact|date=March 2008}}this--> on the other hand, would describe rather a movement in [[art]] than a period of history, and is usually applied to arts, but not to any events of the very recent history.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/postmodern|title=Definition of POSTMODERN|website=www.merriam-webster.com|date=2 June 2023|access-date=9 October 2022|archive-date=1 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101091725/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/postmodern|url-status=live}}</ref> This changed, when [[postmodernity]] was coined to describe the major changes in the 1950s and 1960s in economy, society, culture, and philosophy. |
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These terms stem from European History; in worldwide usage, such as in China, India, and Islam, the terms are applied in a very different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the [[Age of Discoveries]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_14.html|title=Islamic Culture and the Medical Arts: Late Medieval and Early Modern Medicine|website=www.nlm.nih.gov|access-date=2022-10-09|archive-date=2018-04-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423084551/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_14.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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==Characteristics== |
==Characteristics== |
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The concept of the modern world as distinct from an ancient or medieval world rests on a sense that the modern world is not just another [[era]] in [[history]], but rather the result of a new type of change. This is usually conceived of as progress driven by deliberate human efforts to better their situation. |
The concept of the modern world as distinct from an ancient or medieval world rests on a sense that the modern world is not just another [[era]] in [[history]], but rather the result of a new type of change. This is usually conceived of as progress driven by deliberate human efforts to better their situation. |
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Advances in all areas of human activity—[[politics]], [[industry]], [[society]], [[economics]], [[commerce]], [[transport]], [[communication]], |
Advances in all areas of human activity—[[politics]], [[Industry (economics)|industry]], [[society]], [[economics]], [[commerce]], [[transport]], [[communication]], [[mechanization]], [[automation]], [[science]], [[medicine]], [[technology]], and [[culture]]—appear to have transformed an ''Old World'' into the ''Modern'' or ''New World''. In each case, the identification of the old Revolutionary change can be used to demarcate the old and old-fashioned from the modern. |
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Starting in western countries the modern world has seen a systematic re-evaluation of [[value system]]s, [[monarchy|monarchical]] regimes, and [[feudalism|feudal]] economic systems. These have often been replaced by [[Democracy|democratic]] and [[Liberalism|liberal]] ideas in the areas of [[politics]], [[science]], [[psychology]], [[sociology]], and [[economics]]. |
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Some events of modern history, though born out of context not entirely new, show a new way of perceiving the world. The concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments. Historians analyse the events taking place in Modern Times, since the so-called "[[Middle Ages]]" (between Modern and [[Ancient Times]]). |
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==Modern history== |
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Some events, though born out of context not entirely new, show a new way of perceiving the world. The concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments. Historians analyse the events taking place in Modern Times, since the so-called "[[Middle Ages]]" (between Modern and [[Ancient Times]]). |
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==Early modern period-== |
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===Late 15th to early 18th century=== |
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{{main|Early modern period|Early |
{{main|Early modern period|Early modern Europe}} |
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{{see|16th century|17th century}} |
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This period is also called the [[early modern period]]. |
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===Late 15th to 17th century=== |
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;[[Renaissance]]+[[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] (ca. 1450–1600) |
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{{further|16th century|17th century}} |
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*[[Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg]]'s moveable type [[printing press]] (1450s): information age and [[newspaper]]s. |
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*Discovery of [[Americas|America]] (1492): [[Age of Discovery]]. |
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*[[Machiavelli]]'s ''Il Principe'' (The Prince) started to circulate. |
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*[[Copernicus]] |
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*[[Martin Luther]] challenges the Church on [[31 October]] [[1517]] with [[the 95 Theses]]: [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. |
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*[[Age of Exploration]] |
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*Fall of the [[Spanish Armada]] [[8 August]] [[1588]] enabled the Rise of the [[British Empire]] |
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====[[Renaissance]] and early [[Reformation]] ({{circa|1450}}–1600)==== |
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;[[Baroque]] (ca. 1600–1720) |
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* [[Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg]]'s moveable type [[printing press]] (1450s): information age and [[newspaper]]s. |
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*[[Thirty Years' War]] 1618–1648 in [[Central Europe]] decimated the population by up to 20%. |
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* Discovery of [[Americas|America]] (1492): [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus]]. |
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*The treaties of the [[Peace of Westphalia]] are signed in 1648, which ended several wars in Europe and established the beginning of sovereign states. |
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* [[Machiavelli]]'s [[The Prince|''Il Principe'' (''The Prince'')]] started to circulate. |
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*The [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 establishes modern [[parliamentary democracy]] in England. |
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* [[Copernicus]] and the beginning of the [[Scientific Revolution]] |
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*[[Louis XIV]] r. 1643–1715, "roi soleil". |
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* [[Martin Luther]] challenges the Church on [[31 October]] [[1517]] with [[the 95 Theses]]: [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. |
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*[[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701–1714) |
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* [[Age of Discovery]] |
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*The 1713 [[Treaty of Utrecht]] marked the change from [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] naval supremacy. |
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* [[Mercantilism|Mercantilist]] economic theory and policy |
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* Fall of the [[Spanish Armada]] [[8 August]] [[1588]] enabled the Rise of the [[British Empire]] |
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====Late [[Reformation]] and early [[Baroque]] ({{circa|1600}}–1700)==== |
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The "[[Baroque]]" is a term usually applied to the history of art, architecture and music during this period. |
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* [[Thirty Years' War]] 1618–1648 in [[Central Europe]] decimated the population by up to 20%. |
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* The treaties of the [[Peace of Westphalia]] are signed in 1648, which ended several wars in Europe and established the beginning of sovereign states. |
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* The [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 establishes modern [[parliamentary democracy]] in England. |
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* Continuation of the [[Scientific Revolution]] |
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* The beginning of the reign of [[Louis XIV]] r. 1643–1715, an example of the [[Absolutism (European history)|Age of Absolutism]]. |
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===18th century=== |
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{{main|18th century}} |
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====[[Age of Enlightenment]] and early [[Age of Revolution]] (ca. 1700–1800)==== |
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* [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701–1714) |
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* The 1713 [[Peace of Utrecht]] marked the change from [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] naval supremacy. |
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* [[War of the Austrian Succession]] (1740–1748) |
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* [[Seven Years' War]] (1754–1763) |
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* [[American Revolution]] (1765–1783) |
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* [[French Revolution]] (1789–1799) |
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* The beginning of the [[Industrial Revolution]] around 1760. |
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==Late modern period== |
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{{main|Late modern period}} |
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===Industrial Revolution=== |
===Industrial Revolution=== |
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{{main|Industrial Revolution}} |
{{main|Industrial Revolution}} |
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[[Image:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|211px|A Watt steam engine in [[Madrid]]. The development of the [[steam engine]] started the industrial revolution in England. The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened beyond [[groundwater]] levels.]] |
[[Image:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|211px|A Watt steam engine in [[Madrid]]. The development of the [[steam engine]] started the industrial revolution in England. The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened beyond [[groundwater]] levels.]] |
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The |
The Industrial Revolution was the major [[Technology|technological]], [[Socioeconomics|socioeconomic]], and [[Culture|cultural]] change in late 18th and early 19th century that began in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] and spread throughout the world. During that time, an [[Economic system|economy]] based on [[manual labour]] was replaced by one dominated by industry and the [[Manufacturing|manufacture]] of [[machine]]ry. It began with the mechanisation of the [[textile]] industries and the development of [[iron]]-making techniques, and trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of [[canal]]s, improved [[road]]s, and then [[Rail transport|railways]]. The introduction of [[Steam engine|steam power]] (fuelled primarily by [[coal]]) and powered machinery (mainly in [[textile manufacturing]]) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Meier|first1=Gerald M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CX9kBaVx4JkC&pg=PA98|title=Leading Issues in Economic Development|last2=Rauch|first2=James E.|date=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-511589-5|page=98|access-date=2023-02-08|archive-date=2023-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331130624/https://books.google.com/books?id=CX9kBaVx4JkC&pg=PA98|url-status=live}}</ref> The development of all-metal [[machine tool]]s in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. |
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The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact. |
The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact. [[Eric Hobsbawm]] held that it "broke out" in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,<ref>Eric Hobsbawm, ''The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848'', Weidenfeld and Nicolson Ltd. {{ISBN|0-349-10484-0}}</ref> while [[T. S. Ashton]] held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of [[George III]], The [[Regency era|Regency]], and [[George IV]]).<ref>{{ cite book | author= Joseph E Inikori| title= Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development | page= 102 | publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 0-521-01079-9}}</ref> |
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The effects spread throughout [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]] during the 19th century, eventually affecting the majority of the world. |
The effects spread throughout [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]] during the 19th century, eventually affecting the majority of the world. The impact of this change on [[society]] was enormous and is often compared to the [[Neolithic Revolution]], when mankind developed [[agriculture]] and gave up its [[nomad]]ic lifestyle.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Lester Russell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5aCyfUsHM6kC&pg=PA93|title=Eco-economy: Building an Economy for the Earth|date=2003|publisher=Earthscan|isbn=978-1-85383-904-7|page=93|access-date=2023-02-08|archive-date=2023-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414231536/https://books.google.com/books?id=5aCyfUsHM6kC&pg=PA93|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The |
The First Industrial Revolution gave way to the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered [[ship]]s and railways, and later in the nineteenth century with the [[internal combustion engine]] and [[electric power]] generation. |
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It has been argued that [[Gross |
It has been argued that [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita was much more stable and progressed at a much slower rate until the industrial revolution and the emergence of the modern [[Capitalism|capitalist]] economy, and that it has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries.<ref>Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis [http://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm essay] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127032512/http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm |date=2007-11-27 }} retrieved Mar. 11, 2006</ref> |
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===Napoleonic |
===Napoleonic era=== |
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{{main|Napoleonic |
{{main|Napoleonic era}} |
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The '''Napoleonic Era''' is a period in the [[History of France]] and Europe. It is generally classified as the fourth stage of the [[French Revolution]], the first being the [[National Assembly]], the second being the [[Legislative Assembly]], and the third being the [[French Directory|Directory]]. The Napoleonic Era begins roughly with Napoleon's [[coup d'état]], overthrowing the Directory and ends at the [[Hundred Days]] and his defeat at [[Waterloo, Belgium|Waterloo]] ([[November 9]] [[1799]] – [[June 28]] [[1815]]). The congress of Vienna soon set out to restore Europe to pre-French revolution days. |
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The Napoleonic era is a period in the [[history of France]] and Europe. It is generally classified as the fourth stage of the [[French Revolution]], the first being the [[National Assembly]], the second being the [[Legislative Assembly]], and the third being the [[French Directory|Directory]]. The Napoleonic era begins roughly with Napoleon's [[coup d'état]], overthrowing the Directory and ends at the [[Hundred Days]] and his defeat at [[Waterloo, Belgium|Waterloo]] ([[November 9]] [[1799]] – [[June 28]] [[1815]]). The [[Congress of Vienna]] soon set out to restore Europe to pre-French Revolution days. |
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===19th century=== |
===19th century=== |
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{{main|19th century}} |
{{main|19th century}} |
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Historians sometimes define a nineteenth century [[List of time periods|historical era]] stretching from 1815 (the [[Congress of Vienna]]) to 1914 (the outbreak of the [[World War I|First World War]]); alternatively, [[Eric Hobsbawm]] defined the [[The long 19th century|"Long Nineteenth Century"]] as spanning the years 1789 to 1914. |
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Historians sometimes define a nineteenth century [[List of time periods|historical era]] stretching from 1815 (the Congress of Vienna) to 1914 (the outbreak of the [[World War I|First World War]]); alternatively, Eric Hobsbawm defined the "[[long nineteenth century]]" as spanning the years 1789 to 1914. |
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During this century, the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]], [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] empires began to crumble and the [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman]] and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] empires ceased. |
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During this century, the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]], [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]], and [[Ottoman Empire]]s began to crumble and the [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman]] and [[Mughal Empire]]s ceased. |
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Following the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the [[British Empire]] became the world's leading power, controlling one quarter of the World's population and one third of the land area. It enforced a [[Pax Britannica]], encouraged trade, and battled rampant piracy. |
Following the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the [[British Empire]] became the world's leading power, controlling one quarter of the World's population and one third of the land area. It enforced a [[Pax Britannica]], encouraged trade, and battled rampant piracy. |
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[[Slavery]] was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful [[Haitian Revolution|slave revolt in Haiti]], Britain forced the [[Barbary pirates]] to halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, [[Slavery Abolition Act|banned slavery throughout its domain]], and charged its navy with ending the global slave trade. Slavery was then abolished in [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|Russia]], [[Emancipation Proclamation|America]], and [[Lei Áurea|Brazil]] (see [[Abolitionism]]). |
[[Slavery]] was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful [[Haitian Revolution|slave revolt in Haiti]], Britain forced the [[Barbary pirates]] to halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, [[Slavery Abolition Act|banned slavery throughout its domain]], and charged its navy with ending the global slave trade. Slavery was then abolished in [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|Russia]], [[Emancipation Proclamation|America]], and [[Lei Áurea|Brazil]] (see [[Abolitionism]]). |
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Following the abolition of the [[slave trade]], and propelled by economic exploitation, the [[Scramble for Africa]] was initiated formally at the [[Berlin West Africa Conference]] in 1884–1885. |
Following the abolition of the [[History of slavery|slave trade]], and propelled by economic exploitation, the [[Scramble for Africa]] was initiated formally at the [[Berlin West Africa Conference]] in 1884–1885. All the major European powers laid claim to the areas of [[Africa]] where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate. The [[French Third Republic|French]] gained major ground in [[West Africa]], the [[Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] in [[East Africa]], and the [[History of Portugal (1834–1910)|Portuguese]] and [[Restoration (Spain)|Spanish]] at various points throughout the continent, while [[Leopold II of Belgium]] was able to retain his personal fiefdom, [[Belgian Congo|Congo]]. |
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Electricity, steel, and petroleum fuelled a [[Second Industrial Revolution]] which enabled [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and the [[United States]] to become [[ |
Electricity, steel, and petroleum fuelled a [[Second Industrial Revolution]] which enabled [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Empire of Japan|Japan]], and the [[United States]] to become [[great power]]s that [[New Imperialism|raced to create empires of their own]]. However, [[Russian Empire|Russia]] and [[Qing dynasty|China]] failed to keep pace with the other world powers which led to massive social unrest in both empires. |
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===20th century=== |
===20th century=== |
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{{main|20th century}} |
{{main|20th century}} |
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Above all, the ''20th century'' is distinguished from most of human history in that its most significant changes were directly or indirectly economic and technological in nature. |
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Above all, the ''20th century'' is distinguished from most of human history in that its most significant changes were directly or indirectly economic and technological in nature. |
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Economic development was the force behind vast changes in everyday life, to a degree which was unprecedented in human history. The great changes of centuries before the 19th were more connected with ideas, religion or military conquest, and technological advance had only made small changes in the material wealth of ordinary people. Over the course of the 20th century, the world’s per-capita [[gross domestic product]] grew by a factor of five [http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/TCEH/2000/TCEH_2.html], much more than all earlier centuries combined (including the 19th with its [[Industrial Revolution]]). Many economists make the case that this understates the magnitude of growth, as many of the goods and services consumed at the end of the century, such as improved medicine (causing world life expectancy to increase by more than two decades) and communications technologies, were not available at any price at its beginning. However, the gulf between the world’s rich and poor grew much wider than it had ever been in the past, and the majority of the global population remained in the poor side of the divide{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. |
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Economic development was the force behind vast changes in everyday life, to a degree which was unprecedented in human history. The great changes of centuries before the 19th were more connected with ideas, religion or military conquest, and technological advance had only made small changes in the material wealth of ordinary people. Over the course of the 20th century, the world's per-capita gross domestic product grew by a factor of five [http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/TCEH/2000/TCEH_2.html], much more than all earlier centuries combined (including the 19th with its [[Industrial Revolution]]). Many economists make the case that this understates the magnitude of growth, as many of the goods and services consumed at the end of the century, such as improved medicine (causing world life expectancy to increase by more than two decades) and communications technologies, were not available at any price at its beginning. However, the gulf between the world's rich and poor grew much wider than it had ever been in the past, and the majority of the global population remained in the poor side of the divide{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}. |
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Still, advancing technology and medicine has had a great impact even in the [[Global South]]. Large-scale industry and more centralized [[Mass media|media]] made brutal dictatorships possible on an unprecedented scale in the middle of the century, leading to wars that were also unprecedented. However, the increased communications contributed to [[democratization]]. |
Still, advancing technology and medicine has had a great impact even in the [[Global South]]. Large-scale industry and more centralized [[Mass media|media]] made brutal dictatorships possible on an unprecedented scale in the middle of the century, leading to wars that were also unprecedented. However, the increased communications contributed to [[democratization]]. |
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Technological developments included the development of [[airplane]]s and [[space exploration]], [[nuclear technology]], advancement in [[genetics]], and the dawning of the [[Information Age]]. |
Technological developments included the development of [[airplane]]s and [[space exploration]], [[nuclear technology]], advancement in [[genetics]], and the dawning of the [[Information Age]]. |
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Major political developments included the [[Israel]]i–[[ |
Major political developments included the [[Israel]]i–[[Palestinian territories|Palestinian]] conflict, two world wars, and the [[Cold War]]. It also saw the former British Empire lose most of its remaining political power over commonwealth countries, most notably by ways of the dividing of the British crown into several sovereignties by the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]], the [[patriation]] of constitutions by the [[Canada Act 1982]] and the [[Australia Act 1986]], and by the independence of countries like [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[South Africa]], and [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]. |
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====World War I==== |
====World War I==== |
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{{main|World War I}} |
{{main|World War I}} |
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The '''First World War''', also known as the '''Great War''', '''The War to End All Wars''', and '''World War I''' (abbreviated '''WWI''') after 1939, was a [[World war|world conflict]], raging from July 1914 to the final [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|Armistice]] on [[1918-11-11]]. The [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]], led by the [[Britain in World War I|British Empire]], [[French Third Republic|France]], [[Russia]] until March 1918, and the [[United States]] after 1917, defeated the [[Central Powers]], led by the [[German Empire]], [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The war caused the disintegration of four empires — the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones — as well as radical change in the European and Middle Eastern maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are sometimes referred to as the [[Triple Entente]], and the Central Powers are sometimes referred to as the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]]. |
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The First World War was a [[World war|world conflict]], raging from July 1914 to the final [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|Armistice]] on 11 November 1918. The [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]], led by the [[Britain in World War I|British Empire]], [[French Third Republic|France]], [[Russia]] until March 1918, [[Japan]] and the [[United States]] after 1917, defeated the [[Central Powers]], led by the [[German Empire]], [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The war caused the disintegration of four empires — the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones — as well as radical change in the European and Middle Eastern maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are sometimes referred to as the [[Triple Entente]], and the Central Powers are sometimes referred to as the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]]. |
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Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]], within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a “[[No man's land]]”) running from the [[North Sea]] to the border of [[Switzerland]]. On the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]], the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and — for the first time — from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages and [[genocide]] committed under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwide [[Spanish flu|influenza outbreak]] at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become a [[pandemic]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Barry|first=John M.|authorlink=John M. Barry|title=The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Greatest Plague in History|publisher=Viking Penguin|year=2004|isbn=0-670-89473-7|series=}}</ref> |
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Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]], within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a "[[no man's land]]") running from the [[North Sea]] to the border of [[Switzerland]]. On the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]], the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and — for the first time — from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages and [[genocide]] committed under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwide [[Spanish flu|influenza outbreak]] at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become a [[pandemic]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Barry|first=John M.|authorlink=John M. Barry|title=The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Greatest Plague in History|publisher=Viking Penguin|year=2004|isbn=0-670-89473-7|series=}}</ref> |
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Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old [[New World Order (political)|world order]] that had emerged after the [[Napoleonic Wars]], which was modified by the mid-19th century’s nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development of [[World War II]] approximately 20 years later. |
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Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old [[New world order (politics)|world order]] that had emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, which was modified by the mid-19th century's nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development of [[World War II]] approximately 20 years later. |
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====World War II==== |
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{{main|World War II}} |
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'''World War II''', also '''WWII''', or the '''Second World War''', was a [[World war|global]] [[war|military conflict]] that took place in 1939–1945. It was the largest and deadliest war in history, culminating in the [[Holocaust]] and ending with the dropping of the [[atom bomb]]. |
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====Interwar period==== |
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Even though [[Japan]] had been fighting in [[China]] since 1937, the conventional view is that the war began on [[September 1]], [[1939]], when [[Nazi Germany]] invaded [[Poland]]. Within two days the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] declared war on Germany, even though the fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then-secret provision of its non-aggression [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], the [[Soviet Union]] joined with Germany on [[September 17]], [[1939]], to conquer Poland and to divide Eastern Europe. |
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{{main|Interwar period}} |
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The Interwar period was the period between the end of World War I in 1918 and the beginning of World War II in 1939. It included the [[Roaring Twenties]], the [[Great Depression]], and the rise of [[communism]] in Russia and [[fascism]] in Italy and Germany. |
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The [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] were initially made up of [[Poland]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]], as well as [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] countries which were controlled directly by the UK, such as the [[British Raj|Indian Empire]]. All of these countries declared war on Germany in September 1939. |
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====World War II==== |
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Following the lull in fighting, known as the "Phoney War", Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the mean time attacked by [[Italy]] as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unsuccessfully to conquer Britain. On [[September 27]], Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement, the [[Tripartite Pact]], and were known as the [[Axis Powers]]. |
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{{main|World War II}} |
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World War II was a [[World war|global]] [[war|military conflict]] that took place in 1939–1945. It was the largest and deadliest war in history, culminating in the [[Holocaust]] and ending with the dropping of the [[atom bomb]]. |
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Nine months later, on [[June 22]], [[1941]], Germany launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, which promptly joined the Allies. Germany was now engaged in fighting a war on two fronts. This proved to be a mistake by Germany - many historians believe that if Germany had successfully carried out the invasion of Britain and put forth their best effort, the war may have turned in favor of the Axis.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} |
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Although Japan had invaded China in 1937, the conventional view is that the World War II began on September 1, 1939, when [[Nazi Germany]] invaded Poland. Within two days the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany, even though the fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then-secret provision of its non-aggression [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], the Soviet Union joined Germany on September 17, 1939 to conquer Poland and divide Eastern Europe. The [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] were initially made up of Poland, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, as well as [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] countries which were controlled directly by the UK, such as the [[British Raj|Indian Empire]]. All of these countries declared war on Germany in September 1939. |
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On [[December 7]], [[1941]], [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor]], bringing it too into the war on the Allied side. China also joined the Allies, as eventually did most of the rest of the world. China was in turmoil at the time, and attacked Japanese armies through guerilla-type warfare. By the beginning of 1942, the major combatants were aligned as follows: the British Commonwealth, the United States, and the Soviet Union were fighting Germany and Italy; and the British Commonwealth, China, and the [[United States]] were fighting Japan. From then through August 1945, battles raged across all of Europe, in the [[North Atlantic Ocean]], across [[North Africa]], throughout [[Southeast Asia]], throughout China, across the [[Pacific Ocean]] and in the air over Japan. |
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Following the lull in fighting, known as the "[[Phoney War]]", Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the meantime, attacked by Italy as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unsuccessfully to conquer Britain. On September 27, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement, the [[Tripartite Pact]], and were known as the [[Axis Powers]]. Nine months later, on June 22, 1941, Germany launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, which prompt it to join the Allies. Germany was now engaged in fighting a war on two fronts. |
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Italy surrendered in September 1943 and split in a northern Germany-occupied [[puppet state]] and in an Allies-friendly state in the South; Germany surrendered in May 1945. Following the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]], [[surrender of Japan|Japan surrendered]], marking the end of the war on [[September 2]], [[1945]]. |
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On December 7, 1941, [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor]], bringing it too into the war on the side of the Allies. China also joined the Allies, as did most of the rest of the world. China was in turmoil at the time, and attacked Japanese armies through guerilla-type warfare. By the beginning of 1942, the alignment of the major combatants were as follows: the British Commonwealth, the Soviet Union and the United States were fighting Germany and Italy; China, the British Commonwealth, and the United States were fighting Japan. The United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union and China were referred as a "trusteeship of the powerful" during the [[World War II]]<ref name = Justus>{{cite book |last1=Doenecke |first1=Justus D. |last2=Stoler |first2=Mark A. |title=Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62 |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0847694167 |access-date=2019-10-13 |archive-date=2016-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203230343/https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62 |url-status=live }}</ref> and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in [[Declaration by United Nations]]<ref>Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley. ''FDR and the Creation of the U.N.'' (Yale University Press, 1997)</ref> These four countries were considered as the "[[Four Policemen]]" or "Four Sheriffs" of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies power]] and primary victors of World War II.<ref>{{cite book|first=John Lewis|last=Gaddis|title=The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947|url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd|url-access=registration|year=1972|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231122399|pages=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd/page/24 24]–25}}</ref> Battles raged across all of Europe, in the [[North Atlantic Ocean]], across North Africa, throughout Southeast Asia, throughout China, across the Pacific Ocean and in the air over Japan. Italy surrendered in September 1943 and was split into a northern Germany-occupied [[puppet state]] and an Allies-friendly state in the South; Germany surrendered in May 1945. Following the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]], [[surrender of Japan|Japan surrendered]], marking the end of the war on September 2, 1945. |
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It is possible that around 62 million people [[World War II casualties|died in the war]]; estimates vary greatly. About 60% of all casualties were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation, [[genocide]] (in particular, the [[Holocaust]]), and aerial bombing. The former Soviet Union and China suffered the most casualties. Estimates place deaths in the Soviet Union at around 23 million, while China suffered about 10 million. No country lost a greater portion of its population than Poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of its pre-war population of 34.8 million died. |
It is possible that around 62 million people [[World War II casualties|died in the war]]; estimates vary greatly. About 60% of all casualties were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation, [[genocide]] (in particular, the [[Holocaust]]), and aerial bombing. The former Soviet Union and China suffered the most casualties. Estimates place deaths in the Soviet Union at around 23 million, while China suffered about 10 million. No country lost a greater portion of its population than Poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of its pre-war population of 34.8 million died. |
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The Holocaust (which roughly means "burnt whole") was the deliberate and systematic murder of millions of Jews and other "unwanted" during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war's beginning, or if the plans for it came about later. |
The Holocaust (which roughly means "burnt whole") was the deliberate and systematic murder of millions of Jews and other "unwanted" during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war's beginning, or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as in the ''[[Kristallnacht]]'' (Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans. |
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After World War II, [[Europe]] was informally split into Western and Soviet [[Sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. [[Western Europe]] later aligned as [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) and [[Eastern Europe]] as the [[Warsaw Pact]]. There was a shift in power from Western Europe and the [[British Empire]] to the two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. These two rivals would later face off in the [[Cold War]]. In Asia, the defeat of Japan led to its [[democratization]]. [[Chinese Civil War|China's civil war]] continued through and after the war, resulting eventually in the establishment of the [[People's Republic of China]]. The former colonies of the European powers began their road to independence. |
After World War II, [[Europe]] was informally split into Western and Soviet [[Sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. [[Western Europe]] later aligned as [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) and [[Eastern Europe]] as the [[Warsaw Pact]]. There was a shift in power from Western Europe and the [[British Empire]] to the two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. These two rivals would later face off in the [[Cold War]]. In Asia, the defeat of Japan led to its [[democratization]]. [[Chinese Civil War|China's civil war]] continued through and after the war, resulting eventually in the establishment of the [[People's Republic of China]]. The former colonies of the European powers began their road to independence. |
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====Cold War and |
====Cold War and 1990s==== |
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{{main|Cold War}} |
{{main|Cold War|1990s}} |
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{{ |
{{see also|Contemporary history|Post–Cold War era}} |
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After the Second World War, the [[Cold War]] between the "West" (USA, Western Europe, Japan) and the "East" (Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and partially China) dominated politics from roughly 1943, still in the middle of the World War, until 1989 and 1990, in which the system conflict ended. |
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The [[Cold War]] between the "West" (the United States, Western Europe, and Japan) and the "East" (the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China) dominated politics from the end of World War II in 1945 until the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapse of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, at which point the Cold War ended and the [[post–Cold War era]] began (which includes most of the [[1990s]], the last decade of the 20th century). |
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The [[Korean War]] and [[Vietnam War]], later the [[Afghanistan]] occupation by the Soviet Union, dominated the political life, while the [[Generation of Love]] and the rise of [[computer]]s changed society in very different, complex ways, including higher social and local mobility. |
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The [[Korean War]], [[Vietnam War]], and later the [[Soviet–Afghan War]], dominated the political life, while the [[counterculture of the 1960s]] and the [[Information Age|rise of computers]] changed society in very different, complex ways, including higher social and local mobility. |
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At the end of the twentieth century, the world was at a major crossroads. Throughout the century, more technological advances had been made than in all of preceding history. Computers, the Internet, and other technology radically altered daily lives. However, several problems faced the world. |
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At the end of the twentieth century, the world was at a major crossroads. Throughout the century, more technological advances had been made than in all of preceding history. Computers, the Internet, and other technology radically altered daily lives. However, several problems faced the world during the Cold War period and the 1990s that followed. |
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First of all, the gap between rich and poor nations continued to widen. Some said that this problem could not be fixed, that there were a set amount of wealth and it could only be shared by so many. Others said that the powerful nations with large economies were not doing enough to help improve the rapidly evolving economies of the [[Third World]]. However, developing countries faced many challenges, including the scale of the task to be surmounted, rapidly growing populations, and the need to protect the environment, and the cost that goes along with it. |
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First of all, the gap between rich and poor nations continued to widen. Some said that this problem could not be fixed, that there were a set amount of wealth and it could only be shared by so many. Others said that the powerful nations with large economies were not doing enough to help improve the rapidly evolving economies of the [[Third World]]. However, developing countries faced many challenges, including the scale of the task to be surmounted, rapidly growing populations, and the need to protect the environment, and the cost that goes along with it. |
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Secondly, disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as [[SARS]], [[West Nile virus|West Nile]], and [[Bird Flu]] continued to spread quickly and easily. In poor nations, [[malaria]] and other diseases affected the majority of the population. Millions were infected with [[HIV]], the virus which causes [[AIDS]]. The virus was becoming an [[AIDS in Africa|epidemic in southern Africa]]. |
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Secondly, disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. Viruses such as [[West Nile virus|West Nile]] and [[Avian influenza]] continued to spread quickly and easily. In poor nations, [[malaria]] and other diseases affected the majority of the population. Millions were infected with [[HIV]], the virus which causes [[AIDS]], which was becoming an [[AIDS in Africa|epidemic in southern Africa]] and around the world. |
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Increased [[globalization]], specifically [[Americanization]], was also occurring. While not necessarily a threat, it was causing anti-Western and [[Anti-Americanism|anti-American]] feelings in parts of the world, especially the [[Middle East]]. English was quickly becoming the global language, with people who did not speak it becoming increasingly disadvantaged. |
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Increased [[globalization]], specifically [[Americanization]], was also occurring. While not necessarily a threat, it was causing anti-Western and [[Anti-Americanism|anti-American]] feelings in parts of the world, especially the [[Middle East]]. English was quickly becoming the global language, with people who did not speak it becoming increasingly disadvantaged. |
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[[Terrorism]], [[dictatorship]], and the spread of nuclear weapons were also issues requiring immediate attention. Dictators such as [[Kim Jong-il]] in [[North Korea]] continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons. The fear existed that not only are terrorists already attempting to get nuclear weapons, but that they have already obtained them. |
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[[Terrorism]], [[dictatorship]], and the spread of nuclear weapons were also issues requiring immediate attention. Dictators such as [[Kim Jong-il]] in [[North Korea]] continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons. The fear existed that not only are terrorists already attempting to get nuclear weapons, but that they have already obtained them. |
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===21st century=== |
===21st century=== |
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{{main|21st century}} |
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{{Expand section|date=September 2023}} |
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{{see also|Contemporary history}} |
{{see also|Contemporary history}} |
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The 2000s [[decade]] refers to the years from 2000 to 2009 inclusively. So far, the 2000s has been marked generally with an escalation of the social issues of the 1990s, which included the rise of [[terrorism]], [[Stress (medicine)|stress]], the rapid, exponential expansion of economic globalization on an unprecedented scale {{fact|date=February 2007}}, the rapid expansion of [[communication]]s and [[telecommunications]] with [[mobile phones]] and the [[Internet]] and international pop culture. |
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The 2000s decade refers to the years from 2000 to 2009 inclusively. The 2000s were marked generally with an escalation of the social issues of the 1990s, which included the rise of [[terrorism]], [[Stress (medicine)|stress]], the rapid, exponential expansion of economic globalization on an unprecedented scale,{{citation needed|date=February 2007}} the rapid expansion of [[communication]]s and [[telecommunications]] with [[mobile phones]] and the [[Internet]] and international pop culture. |
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In North America and the Middle East, most major political developments in the 2000s revolved around the [[War on Terrorism]] and the [[Iraq War]]. Elsewhere, the major theme has been the rapid development of Asia's economic and political potential, with [[China]], experiencing immense economic growth, moving toward the status of a regional power and billion-consumer market. [[India]], along with many other developing countries, is also growing rapidly, and began integrating itself into the world economy. |
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In North America and the Middle East, most major political developments in the 2000s revolved around the [[War on Terrorism]] and the [[Iraq War]]. Elsewhere, the major theme was the rapid development of Asia's economic and political potential, with [[China]], experiencing immense economic growth, moving toward the status of a regional power and billion-consumer market. [[India]], along with many other developing countries, were also growing rapidly, and began integrating themselves into the world economy. |
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A trend connecting economic and political events in North America, Asia, and the Middle East was the rapidly increasing demand for fossil fuels, which, along with fewer new petroleum finds, greater extraction costs (see [[peak oil]]), and political turmoil, saw the price of gas and oil soar ~500% between 2000 and 2005. In some places, especially in Europe, gas could be $5 a gallon, depending on the currency. |
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The entire [[Writing|written works]] of humanity, from the beginning of [[recorded history]] to 2003, in all known [[language]]s, are estimated to be at five [[exabyte]]s of data.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2010/07/quote-of-the-day-google-ceo-compares-data-across-millennia/344989/|title=Quote of the Day: Google CEO Compares Data Across Millennia|first=Benjamin|last=Carlson|date=3 July 2010|website=The Atlantic|access-date=10 February 2019|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919150658/https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2010/07/quote-of-the-day-google-ceo-compares-data-across-millennia/344989/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://social.techcrunch.com/2010/08/04/schmidt-data/|title=Eric Schmidt: Every 2 Days We Create As Much Information As We Did Up To 2003|date=4 August 2010 |access-date=24 February 2021|archive-date=10 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210233247/https://techcrunch.com/2010/08/04/schmidt-data/|url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2003, with the beginning of [[social media]] and "[[user-generated content]]", the same amount of data is created every two days.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://i.imgur.com/gpXRWoq.png |title=Archived copy |access-date=10 February 2019 |archive-date=10 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210233245/https://i.imgur.com/gpXRWoq.png |url-status=live }}</ref> The growth of human knowledge and information continues at an [[Exponential growth|exponential rate]]. |
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[[Google]], [[YouTube]], [[Ask.com]] and [[Wikipedia]] emerged as popular websites, becoming the 2nd, 3rd, 7th and 9th most popular websites by the end of the decade respectively. [[Amazon (website)|Amazon]] overtook [[eBay]] as the most-visited e-commerce site in 2008. [[AOL]] significantly declined in popularity throughout the decade, falling from being the most popular website to no longer being within the top 10. [[Excite (web portal)|Excite]] and [[Lycos]] fell outside the top 10, and [[MSN]] fell from the second to sixth most popular site, though it quadrupled its monthly visits (going from 325 to 1.2 billion monthly visits). [[Lycos|Yahoo]] maintained relatively stable popularity, remaining the most popular website for most of the decade.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Eagle |first=James |date=2022-09-09 |title=Animation: The Most Popular Websites by Web Traffic (1993-2022) |url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/cp/most-popular-websites-by-web-traffic/ |access-date=2023-01-09 |website=Visual Capitalist |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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[[File:Walkman NWZ-810 & iPod Nano 5G.jpg|thumb|The rise of [[Portable media player|MP3 players]], [[download]]able music, and cellular [[ringtone]]s in the mid-2000s ended the decade-long dominance that the [[Compact disc|CD]] held up to that point.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lynskey |first=Dorian |date=2015-05-28 |title=How the compact disc lost its shine |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/may/28/how-the-compact-disc-lost-its-shine |access-date=2024-02-05 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>]] |
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[[Telecommunications]] in the early 21st century are much more advanced and universal than they were in the late 20th century. Only a few percent of the world's population were [[Internet]] users and [[cellular phone]] owners in the late 1990s; as of 2023, 64.4% of the world's population is online, and as of 2019, an estimated 67% own a cell phone.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/274774/forecast-of-mobile-phone-users-worldwide/|title=Number of mobile phone users worldwide 2015–2020|website=Statista|access-date=12 January 2019|archive-date=26 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201226111553/https://www.statista.com/statistics/274774/forecast-of-mobile-phone-users-worldwide/|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 2010s, [[artificial intelligence]], mainly in the form of [[deep learning]] and [[machine learning]], became more prevalent and is prominently used in [[Gmail]] and [[Google]]'s search engine, in banking, with the military and other areas. In 2020, 9% of the world's population still lacked access to electricity.<ref>{{cite web |title=Database |url=https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/results?p=Access_to_Electricity&i=Electricity_access_rate,_Total_(%) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508135440/https://trackingsdg7.esmap.org/results?p=Access_to_Electricity&i=Electricity_access_rate,_Total_%28%25%29%252A |archive-date=8 May 2023 |access-date=8 May 2023 |website=Trackingsdg7.esmap.org}}</ref> |
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[[File:Triptychon Maha Kumbh Mela.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|India's [[Prayag Kumbh Mela]] is regarded as the world's largest [[religious festival]].]] |
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In 2001, [[Dennis Tito]] became the first [[space tourist]], beginning the era of [[commercial spaceflight]]. Entrepreneurs [[Elon Musk]] and [[Richard Branson]] are working towards commercial space exploration, colonization and tourism, while [[China]] and [[India]] have made substantial strides in their space programs. On 3 January 2019, China landed a robotic spacecraft on the [[far side of the Moon]], the first to do so.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.history.com/news/china-plans-historic-landing-on-dark-side-of-the-moon|title=China Makes Historic Landing on 'Dark Side' of the Moon|first=Sarah|last=Pruitt|website=HISTORY|date=3 January 2019 |access-date=12 January 2019|archive-date=24 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124065205/https://www.history.com/news/china-plans-historic-landing-on-dark-side-of-the-moon|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Major events relating to the War on Terrorism included the [[September 11, 2001 Attacks]], the [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]], the [[2003 Istanbul bombings]], the [[2004 Madrid train bombings]], the [[Beslan school siege]], the [[Timeline of the 2005 London bombings|2005 London bombings]], the [[2005 Delhi bombings]], and the [[2008 Mumbai attacks|2008 Mumbai Hotel Siege]]. |
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The violence in Iraq, even after democratic elections on January 30, 2005, caused much political stir in all countries occupying the country (United States, Britain, Australia, etc), and political debates of these countries in 2006 and 2007 were highly influenced by the unstable situation in the Near East, especially Iraq and the discussion over Iran's nuclear weapons program. |
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Less influential, but omnipresent, was the debate on Turkey's participation in the [[European Union]]. |
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New virus strains, such as [[SARS]] and [[2009 swine flu pandemic|swine flu]], emerged and spread during the 2000s. |
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Some territories and states have gained independence during the 21st century. These are Timor-Leste, Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo, Crimea, South Ossetia, Abkhazia, Donetsk People's Republic, Kherson Oblast, Luhansk People's Republic, and Zaporizhzhia Oblast. However, some of them have only been recognized by some UN member states.{{explain|date=April 2024}} |
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The 2010s featured several major events in the Middle East which had effects elsewhere in the world. These events included the [[Arab Spring]], the [[Syrian civil war]], and the expansion of the extremist terrorist group [[Islamic State|ISIL]]. Beginning in 2015, Europe was affected by a [[2015 European migrant crisis|migrant crisis]]. Several terrorist attacks occurred in Europe during the 2010s, including the [[November 2015 Paris attacks]]. |
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Information technology progressed, with [[smartphone]]s becoming widespread. [[Internet]] coverage grew from 29% to 54% of the world population, and also saw advancements in wireless networking devices, mobile telephony, and [[cloud computing]]. Advancements in [[data processing]] and the rollout of [[4G|4G broadband]] allowed [[Big data|data]], [[metadata]], and information to be collected and dispersed among domains at paces never before seen while online resources such as [[social media]] facilitated phenomena such as the [[Me Too movement]], the rise of [[slacktivism]], and online [[cancel culture]]. [[WikiLeaks]] gained international attention for publishing classified information on topics related to [[Guantanamo Bay files leak|Guantánamo Bay]], [[Syria Files|Syria]], the [[Afghan War documents leak|Afghan]] and [[Iraq War documents leak|Iraq]] wars, and [[United States diplomatic cables leak|United States diplomacy]]. [[Edward Snowden]] blew the whistle on [[Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)|global surveillance]], raising awareness on the role governments and private entities play in [[global surveillance]] and [[information privacy]]. [[Baidu]] (4th), [[Twitter]] (6th) and [[Instagram]] (8th) emerged to become among the top 10 most visited websites, while [[Wikipedia]] went from the 9th to the 5th most popular website, almost sextupling its monthly visits. [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]] significantly declined in popularity, descending from being the 1st to the 9th most popular site, with monthly visits declining by two-thirds. [[Google]], [[Facebook]], [[YouTube]] and [[Yandex Search|Yandex]] maintained relatively consistent popularity and remained within the [[List of most visited websites|top 10]] throughout the 2010s. |
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In 2016, [[Neo-nationalism|nationalist political movements]] led to the [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|Brexit referendum]] in the United Kingdom and the [[2016 United States presidential election|election]] of [[Donald Trump]] as the President of the United States. |
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The 2020s have so far been dominated by a global pandemic and the first major war in Europe since World War II.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} |
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In 2022, [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russia invaded Ukraine]], a major escalation of [[Russo-Ukrainian War|a conflict]] that has lasted since 2014. The invasion was met with [[Reactions to the Russian invasion of Ukraine|international condemnation]]. The [[United Nations General Assembly]] passed [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/1|a resolution]] condemning the invasion and demanding a full Russian withdrawal in March 2022. The [[International Court of Justice]] ordered Russia to suspend military operations and the [[Council of Europe]] expelled Russia. Many countries [[International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|imposed sanctions]] on Russia and its ally Belarus, and provided [[List of humanitarian aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War|humanitarian]] and [[List of military aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War|military aid to Ukraine]]. The [[Baltic states]] all declared Russia a [[State terrorism|terrorist state]]. [[Protests against the Russian invasion of Ukraine|Protests occurred]] around the world, along with mass arrests of [[2022 anti-war protests in Russia|anti-war protesters in Russia]], which also enacted a law enabling greater [[Censorship in Russia|media censorship]]. Over 1,000 [[Corporate responses to the Russian invasion of Ukraine|companies closed their operations]] in Russia and Belarus as a result of the invasion. |
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====Fourth Industrial Revolution==== |
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{{Excerpt|Fourth Industrial Revolution}} |
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====COVID-19 pandemic==== |
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A trend connecting economic and political events in North America, Asia, and the Middle East is the rapidly increasing demand for fossil fuels, which, along with fewer new petroleum finds, greater extraction costs (see [[peak oil]]), and political turmoil, saw the price of gas and oil soar ~500% between 2000 and 2005. In some places, especially in Europe, gas could be $5 a gallon, depending on the currency. |
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{{main|COVID-19 pandemic}} |
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[[File:2020-3-20 黄冈送别山东援鄂医疗队 黄梅戏大剧院.jpg|thumb|210px|Chinese medics in [[Huanggang]], Hubei, in 2020]] |
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In 2020, an outbreak of the [[COVID-19]] disease, first documented in late 2019 in [[Wuhan]], China, spread to other countries becoming a [[COVID-19 pandemic|global pandemic]], which caused a major socio-economic disruption all over the world. Many countries ordered mandatory [[COVID-19 lockdowns|lockdowns]] on movement and closures of non-essential businesses.<ref>[https://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/the-global-crisis-of-our-time-the-long-term-impacts-of-covid-19 The Global Crisis of Our Time: The Long-Term Impacts of COVID-19] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127230853/https://www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/the-global-crisis-of-our-time-the-long-term-impacts-of-covid-19 |date=27 January 2021 }}, ''Oxford Research Group''</ref> The threat of the disease caused the [[COVID-19 recession]], although the distribution of vaccines has since eased the economic impact in many countries. |
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More generally, COVID-19 has been held up as an example of a [[global catastrophic risk]] unique to the modern era's ease of travel. New diseases can spread far faster and further in the contemporary era than any previous era of human history; [[pandemic prevention]] is one resulting field to ensure that if this happens with a sufficiently deadly virus, humanity can take measures to stop its spread. |
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Major events relating to the War on Terrorism include the [[September 11, 2001 Attacks]], the [[Moscow Theatre Siege]], the [[2003 Istanbul bombings]], the [[11 March 2004 Madrid train bombings|Madrid train bombings]], the [[Beslan school hostage crisis]], the [[July 2005 London bombings|2005 London bombings]], the [[29 October 2005 Delhi bombings|October 2005 New Delhi bombings]], and the 2008 Mumbai Hotel Siege. |
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The 2020s began with the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]—the first reports of [[SARS-CoV-2|the virus]] were published on December 31, 2019, though the [[Investigations into the origin of COVID-19|first cases are said to have appeared]] nearly a month earlier<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-12-31 |title=Chinese officials investigate cause of pneumonia outbreak in Wuhan |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-pneumonia-idUSKBN1YZ0GP |access-date=2022-12-01 |archive-date=2020-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430221818/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-pneumonia-idUSKBN1YZ0GP |url-status=live }}</ref>—which caused [[COVID-19 recession|a global economic recession]] as well as continuing [[2021–2023 inflation surge|financial inflation concerns]] and [[2021–2023 global supply chain crisis|a global supply chain crisis]]. |
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The violence in Iraq, even after democratic elections on January 30, 2005, caused much political stir in all countries occupying the country (USA, Britain, Australia, etc), and political debates of these countries in 2006 and 2007 are highly influenced by the unstable situation in the Near East, especially Iraq and the discussion over Iran's nuclear weapons program. |
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====Population growth==== |
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Less influential, but omnipresent, is the debate on Turkey's participation in the [[European Union]]. |
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On 15 November 2022, the world population grew to over 8 billion people, and in 2023, [[India]] overtook [[China]] as the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|most populous country]] in the world.<ref>[https://www.un.org/en/desa/world-population-reach-8-billion-15-november-2022 World population reach 8 billion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120024524/https://www.un.org/en/desa/world-population-reach-8-billion-15-november-2022 |date=2023-01-20 }} United Nations 15 November 2022</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=UN DESA Policy Brief No. 153: India overtakes China as the world's most populous country {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/un-desa-policy-brief-no-153-india-overtakes-china-as-the-worlds-most-populous-country/#:~:text=UN%20DESA%20Policy%20Brief%20No,the%20world%27s%20most%20populous%20country&text=Department%20of%20Economic%20and%20Social%20Affairs |access-date=2023-05-18 |website=www.un.org |archive-date=2023-06-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626135116/https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/un-desa-policy-brief-no-153-india-overtakes-china-as-the-worlds-most-populous-country/#:~:text=UN%20DESA%20Policy%20Brief%20No,the%20world%27s%20most%20populous%20country&text=Department%20of%20Economic%20and%20Social%20Affairs |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* [[Post-classical history]] |
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* ''[[Early modern period|Early Modern era]]'' ( [[Early modern period]] ) |
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* [[Modernism]] |
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* [[Modernity]] |
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* [[Humanism]] |
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* [[Age of Enlightenment]] |
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* [[Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns]] |
* [[Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns]] |
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* [[ |
* [[Timelines of modern history]] |
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* [[Postmodernism]] |
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==Notes== |
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* [[Postmodernity]] |
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{{Notelist}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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*[http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/index.html China and Europe] |
*[http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/index.html China and Europe] |
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{{Periods of the History of Europe}} |
{{Periods of the History of Europe}} |
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{{Western culture}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:Historical eras]] |
[[Category:Historical eras]] |
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[[Category:Modern history]] |
[[Category:Modern history]] |
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[[Category:Western culture]] |
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[[als:Neuzeit]] |
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[[bn:আধুনিক বিশ্ব]] |
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[[he:העת החדשה]] |
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[[uk:Нова історія]] |
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Revision as of 03:24, 23 April 2024
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The modern era or the modern period, also known as modern history or modern times, is the period of human history that succeeds the post-classical era (also known, particularly with reference to Europe, as the Middle Ages), which ended around 1500 AD, up to the present. This terminology is a historical periodization that is applied primarily to European and Western history.
The modern era can be further divided as follows:
- The early modern period lasted from c. AD 1500 to 1800 and resulted in wide-ranging intellectual, political and economic change. It brought with it the Age of Discovery, the Age of Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution and an Age of Revolutions, beginning with the American War of Independence and the French Revolution and later spreading in other countries, partly as a result of upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars.
- The late modern period began around 1800 with the end of the political revolutions in the late 18th century and involved the transition from a world dominated by imperial and colonial powers into one of nations and nationhood following the two great world wars, World War I and World War II.
- Contemporary history refers to the period following the end of World War II in 1945 and continuing to the present. It is alternatively considered either a sub-period of the late modern period or a separate period beginning after the late modern period. It includes the currently-ongoing 21st century.
The modern period has been a period of significant development in the fields of science, politics, warfare, and technology. It has also been an Age of Discovery and globalization. During this time, the European powers and later their colonies, began a political, economic, and cultural colonization of the rest of the world.
By the late 19th and early 20th century, modernist art, politics, science, and culture has come to dominate not only Western Europe and North America, but almost every civilized area on the globe, including movements thought of as opposed to the western world and globalization. The modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism, capitalism, urbanization, and a belief in the positive possibilities of technological and political progress.
The brutal wars and other conflicts of this era, many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and the connected loss of strength of traditional religious and ethical norms, have led to many reactions against modern development. Optimism and the belief in constant progress have been most recently criticized by postmodernism, while the dominance of Western Europe and North America over the rest of the world has been criticized by postcolonial theory.
Terminology
Eras can not easily be defined. 1500 is an approximate starting period for the modern era because many major events caused the Western world to change around that time: from the Fall of Constantinople (1453), Gutenberg's moveable type printing press (1450s), completion of the Reconquista (1492) and Christopher Columbus's voyage to the Americas (also 1492), to the Protestant Reformation begun with Martin Luther's Ninety-five Theses (1517).[further explanation needed]
The term "modern" was coined shortly before 1585 to describe the beginning of a new era.[1]
The term "Early Modern" was introduced in the English language in the 1930s[2] to distinguish the time between what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800) (when the meaning of the term Modern Ages was developing its contemporary form).
Sometimes distinct from the modern periods themselves, the terms "modernity" and "modernism" refer to a new way of thinking, distinct, from previous ways of thinking such as medieval thinking.
The European Renaissance (about 1420–1630) is an important transition period beginning between the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern Times, which started in Italy.
"Postmodernism", coined 1949, on the other hand, would describe rather a movement in art than a period of history, and is usually applied to arts, but not to any events of the very recent history.[3] This changed, when postmodernity was coined to describe the major changes in the 1950s and 1960s in economy, society, culture, and philosophy.
These terms stem from European History; in worldwide usage, such as in China, India, and Islam, the terms are applied in a very different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discoveries.[4]
Characteristics
The concept of the modern world as distinct from an ancient or medieval world rests on a sense that the modern world is not just another era in history, but rather the result of a new type of change. This is usually conceived of as progress driven by deliberate human efforts to better their situation.
Advances in all areas of human activity—politics, industry, society, economics, commerce, transport, communication, mechanization, automation, science, medicine, technology, and culture—appear to have transformed an Old World into the Modern or New World. In each case, the identification of the old Revolutionary change can be used to demarcate the old and old-fashioned from the modern.
Starting in western countries the modern world has seen a systematic re-evaluation of value systems, monarchical regimes, and feudal economic systems. These have often been replaced by democratic and liberal ideas in the areas of politics, science, psychology, sociology, and economics.
Some events of modern history, though born out of context not entirely new, show a new way of perceiving the world. The concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments. Historians analyse the events taking place in Modern Times, since the so-called "Middle Ages" (between Modern and Ancient Times).
Early modern period-
Late 15th to 17th century
Renaissance and early Reformation (c. 1450–1600)
- Gutenberg's moveable type printing press (1450s): information age and newspapers.
- Discovery of America (1492): Voyages of Christopher Columbus.
- Machiavelli's Il Principe (The Prince) started to circulate.
- Copernicus and the beginning of the Scientific Revolution
- Martin Luther challenges the Church on 31 October 1517 with the 95 Theses: Reformation.
- Age of Discovery
- Mercantilist economic theory and policy
- Fall of the Spanish Armada 8 August 1588 enabled the Rise of the British Empire
Late Reformation and early Baroque (c. 1600–1700)
The "Baroque" is a term usually applied to the history of art, architecture and music during this period.
- Thirty Years' War 1618–1648 in Central Europe decimated the population by up to 20%.
- The treaties of the Peace of Westphalia are signed in 1648, which ended several wars in Europe and established the beginning of sovereign states.
- The Glorious Revolution of 1688 establishes modern parliamentary democracy in England.
- Continuation of the Scientific Revolution
- The beginning of the reign of Louis XIV r. 1643–1715, an example of the Age of Absolutism.
18th century
Age of Enlightenment and early Age of Revolution (ca. 1700–1800)
- War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714)
- The 1713 Peace of Utrecht marked the change from Spanish to British naval supremacy.
- War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748)
- Seven Years' War (1754–1763)
- American Revolution (1765–1783)
- French Revolution (1789–1799)
- The beginning of the Industrial Revolution around 1760.
Late modern period
Industrial Revolution
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg/211px-Maquina_vapor_Watt_ETSIIM.jpg)
The Industrial Revolution was the major technological, socioeconomic, and cultural change in late 18th and early 19th century that began in Britain and spread throughout the world. During that time, an economy based on manual labour was replaced by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of machinery. It began with the mechanisation of the textile industries and the development of iron-making techniques, and trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads, and then railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.[5] The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries.
The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact. Eric Hobsbawm held that it "broke out" in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,[6] while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of George III, The Regency, and George IV).[7]
The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting the majority of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous and is often compared to the Neolithic Revolution, when mankind developed agriculture and gave up its nomadic lifestyle.[8]
The First Industrial Revolution gave way to the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships and railways, and later in the nineteenth century with the internal combustion engine and electric power generation.
It has been argued that GDP per capita was much more stable and progressed at a much slower rate until the industrial revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, and that it has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries.[9]
Napoleonic era
The Napoleonic era is a period in the history of France and Europe. It is generally classified as the fourth stage of the French Revolution, the first being the National Assembly, the second being the Legislative Assembly, and the third being the Directory. The Napoleonic era begins roughly with Napoleon's coup d'état, overthrowing the Directory and ends at the Hundred Days and his defeat at Waterloo (November 9 1799 – June 28 1815). The Congress of Vienna soon set out to restore Europe to pre-French Revolution days.
19th century
Historians sometimes define a nineteenth century historical era stretching from 1815 (the Congress of Vienna) to 1914 (the outbreak of the First World War); alternatively, Eric Hobsbawm defined the "long nineteenth century" as spanning the years 1789 to 1914.
During this century, the Spanish, Portuguese, and Ottoman Empires began to crumble and the Holy Roman and Mughal Empires ceased.
Following the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire became the world's leading power, controlling one quarter of the World's population and one third of the land area. It enforced a Pax Britannica, encouraged trade, and battled rampant piracy.
Slavery was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain forced the Barbary pirates to halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, banned slavery throughout its domain, and charged its navy with ending the global slave trade. Slavery was then abolished in Russia, America, and Brazil (see Abolitionism).
Following the abolition of the slave trade, and propelled by economic exploitation, the Scramble for Africa was initiated formally at the Berlin West Africa Conference in 1884–1885. All the major European powers laid claim to the areas of Africa where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate. The French gained major ground in West Africa, the British in East Africa, and the Portuguese and Spanish at various points throughout the continent, while Leopold II of Belgium was able to retain his personal fiefdom, Congo.
Electricity, steel, and petroleum fuelled a Second Industrial Revolution which enabled Germany, Japan, and the United States to become great powers that raced to create empires of their own. However, Russia and China failed to keep pace with the other world powers which led to massive social unrest in both empires.
20th century
Above all, the 20th century is distinguished from most of human history in that its most significant changes were directly or indirectly economic and technological in nature.
Economic development was the force behind vast changes in everyday life, to a degree which was unprecedented in human history. The great changes of centuries before the 19th were more connected with ideas, religion or military conquest, and technological advance had only made small changes in the material wealth of ordinary people. Over the course of the 20th century, the world's per-capita gross domestic product grew by a factor of five [1], much more than all earlier centuries combined (including the 19th with its Industrial Revolution). Many economists make the case that this understates the magnitude of growth, as many of the goods and services consumed at the end of the century, such as improved medicine (causing world life expectancy to increase by more than two decades) and communications technologies, were not available at any price at its beginning. However, the gulf between the world's rich and poor grew much wider than it had ever been in the past, and the majority of the global population remained in the poor side of the divide[citation needed].
Still, advancing technology and medicine has had a great impact even in the Global South. Large-scale industry and more centralized media made brutal dictatorships possible on an unprecedented scale in the middle of the century, leading to wars that were also unprecedented. However, the increased communications contributed to democratization.
Technological developments included the development of airplanes and space exploration, nuclear technology, advancement in genetics, and the dawning of the Information Age.
Major political developments included the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, two world wars, and the Cold War. It also saw the former British Empire lose most of its remaining political power over commonwealth countries, most notably by ways of the dividing of the British crown into several sovereignties by the Statute of Westminster, the patriation of constitutions by the Canada Act 1982 and the Australia Act 1986, and by the independence of countries like India, Pakistan, South Africa, and Ireland.
World War I
The First World War was a world conflict, raging from July 1914 to the final Armistice on 11 November 1918. The Allied Powers, led by the British Empire, France, Russia until March 1918, Japan and the United States after 1917, defeated the Central Powers, led by the German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. The war caused the disintegration of four empires — the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones — as well as radical change in the European and Middle Eastern maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are sometimes referred to as the Triple Entente, and the Central Powers are sometimes referred to as the Triple Alliance.
Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the Western Front, within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a "no man's land") running from the North Sea to the border of Switzerland. On the Eastern Front, the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and — for the first time — from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages and genocide committed under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwide influenza outbreak at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become a pandemic.[10]
Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old world order that had emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, which was modified by the mid-19th century's nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development of World War II approximately 20 years later.
Interwar period
The Interwar period was the period between the end of World War I in 1918 and the beginning of World War II in 1939. It included the Roaring Twenties, the Great Depression, and the rise of communism in Russia and fascism in Italy and Germany.
World War II
World War II was a global military conflict that took place in 1939–1945. It was the largest and deadliest war in history, culminating in the Holocaust and ending with the dropping of the atom bomb.
Although Japan had invaded China in 1937, the conventional view is that the World War II began on September 1, 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded Poland. Within two days the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany, even though the fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then-secret provision of its non-aggression Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union joined Germany on September 17, 1939 to conquer Poland and divide Eastern Europe. The Allies were initially made up of Poland, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, as well as British Commonwealth countries which were controlled directly by the UK, such as the Indian Empire. All of these countries declared war on Germany in September 1939.
Following the lull in fighting, known as the "Phoney War", Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the meantime, attacked by Italy as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unsuccessfully to conquer Britain. On September 27, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement, the Tripartite Pact, and were known as the Axis Powers. Nine months later, on June 22, 1941, Germany launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, which prompt it to join the Allies. Germany was now engaged in fighting a war on two fronts.
On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor, bringing it too into the war on the side of the Allies. China also joined the Allies, as did most of the rest of the world. China was in turmoil at the time, and attacked Japanese armies through guerilla-type warfare. By the beginning of 1942, the alignment of the major combatants were as follows: the British Commonwealth, the Soviet Union and the United States were fighting Germany and Italy; China, the British Commonwealth, and the United States were fighting Japan. The United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union and China were referred as a "trusteeship of the powerful" during the World War II[11] and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in Declaration by United Nations[12] These four countries were considered as the "Four Policemen" or "Four Sheriffs" of the Allies power and primary victors of World War II.[13] Battles raged across all of Europe, in the North Atlantic Ocean, across North Africa, throughout Southeast Asia, throughout China, across the Pacific Ocean and in the air over Japan. Italy surrendered in September 1943 and was split into a northern Germany-occupied puppet state and an Allies-friendly state in the South; Germany surrendered in May 1945. Following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered, marking the end of the war on September 2, 1945.
It is possible that around 62 million people died in the war; estimates vary greatly. About 60% of all casualties were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation, genocide (in particular, the Holocaust), and aerial bombing. The former Soviet Union and China suffered the most casualties. Estimates place deaths in the Soviet Union at around 23 million, while China suffered about 10 million. No country lost a greater portion of its population than Poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of its pre-war population of 34.8 million died.
The Holocaust (which roughly means "burnt whole") was the deliberate and systematic murder of millions of Jews and other "unwanted" during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war's beginning, or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as in the Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans.
After World War II, Europe was informally split into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Western Europe later aligned as North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Eastern Europe as the Warsaw Pact. There was a shift in power from Western Europe and the British Empire to the two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. These two rivals would later face off in the Cold War. In Asia, the defeat of Japan led to its democratization. China's civil war continued through and after the war, resulting eventually in the establishment of the People's Republic of China. The former colonies of the European powers began their road to independence.
Cold War and 1990s
The Cold War between the "West" (the United States, Western Europe, and Japan) and the "East" (the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China) dominated politics from the end of World War II in 1945 until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, at which point the Cold War ended and the post–Cold War era began (which includes most of the 1990s, the last decade of the 20th century).
The Korean War, Vietnam War, and later the Soviet–Afghan War, dominated the political life, while the counterculture of the 1960s and the rise of computers changed society in very different, complex ways, including higher social and local mobility.
At the end of the twentieth century, the world was at a major crossroads. Throughout the century, more technological advances had been made than in all of preceding history. Computers, the Internet, and other technology radically altered daily lives. However, several problems faced the world during the Cold War period and the 1990s that followed.
First of all, the gap between rich and poor nations continued to widen. Some said that this problem could not be fixed, that there were a set amount of wealth and it could only be shared by so many. Others said that the powerful nations with large economies were not doing enough to help improve the rapidly evolving economies of the Third World. However, developing countries faced many challenges, including the scale of the task to be surmounted, rapidly growing populations, and the need to protect the environment, and the cost that goes along with it.
Secondly, disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. Viruses such as West Nile and Avian influenza continued to spread quickly and easily. In poor nations, malaria and other diseases affected the majority of the population. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS, which was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa and around the world.
Increased globalization, specifically Americanization, was also occurring. While not necessarily a threat, it was causing anti-Western and anti-American feelings in parts of the world, especially the Middle East. English was quickly becoming the global language, with people who did not speak it becoming increasingly disadvantaged.
Terrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of nuclear weapons were also issues requiring immediate attention. Dictators such as Kim Jong-il in North Korea continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons. The fear existed that not only are terrorists already attempting to get nuclear weapons, but that they have already obtained them.
21st century
The 2000s decade refers to the years from 2000 to 2009 inclusively. The 2000s were marked generally with an escalation of the social issues of the 1990s, which included the rise of terrorism, stress, the rapid, exponential expansion of economic globalization on an unprecedented scale,[citation needed] the rapid expansion of communications and telecommunications with mobile phones and the Internet and international pop culture.
In North America and the Middle East, most major political developments in the 2000s revolved around the War on Terrorism and the Iraq War. Elsewhere, the major theme was the rapid development of Asia's economic and political potential, with China, experiencing immense economic growth, moving toward the status of a regional power and billion-consumer market. India, along with many other developing countries, were also growing rapidly, and began integrating themselves into the world economy.
A trend connecting economic and political events in North America, Asia, and the Middle East was the rapidly increasing demand for fossil fuels, which, along with fewer new petroleum finds, greater extraction costs (see peak oil), and political turmoil, saw the price of gas and oil soar ~500% between 2000 and 2005. In some places, especially in Europe, gas could be $5 a gallon, depending on the currency.
The entire written works of humanity, from the beginning of recorded history to 2003, in all known languages, are estimated to be at five exabytes of data.[14][15] Since 2003, with the beginning of social media and "user-generated content", the same amount of data is created every two days.[16] The growth of human knowledge and information continues at an exponential rate.
Google, YouTube, Ask.com and Wikipedia emerged as popular websites, becoming the 2nd, 3rd, 7th and 9th most popular websites by the end of the decade respectively. Amazon overtook eBay as the most-visited e-commerce site in 2008. AOL significantly declined in popularity throughout the decade, falling from being the most popular website to no longer being within the top 10. Excite and Lycos fell outside the top 10, and MSN fell from the second to sixth most popular site, though it quadrupled its monthly visits (going from 325 to 1.2 billion monthly visits). Yahoo maintained relatively stable popularity, remaining the most popular website for most of the decade.[17]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Walkman_NWZ-810_%26_iPod_Nano_5G.jpg/220px-Walkman_NWZ-810_%26_iPod_Nano_5G.jpg)
Telecommunications in the early 21st century are much more advanced and universal than they were in the late 20th century. Only a few percent of the world's population were Internet users and cellular phone owners in the late 1990s; as of 2023, 64.4% of the world's population is online, and as of 2019, an estimated 67% own a cell phone.[19] In the 2010s, artificial intelligence, mainly in the form of deep learning and machine learning, became more prevalent and is prominently used in Gmail and Google's search engine, in banking, with the military and other areas. In 2020, 9% of the world's population still lacked access to electricity.[20]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Triptychon_Maha_Kumbh_Mela.jpg/330px-Triptychon_Maha_Kumbh_Mela.jpg)
In 2001, Dennis Tito became the first space tourist, beginning the era of commercial spaceflight. Entrepreneurs Elon Musk and Richard Branson are working towards commercial space exploration, colonization and tourism, while China and India have made substantial strides in their space programs. On 3 January 2019, China landed a robotic spacecraft on the far side of the Moon, the first to do so.[21]
Major events relating to the War on Terrorism included the September 11, 2001 Attacks, the Moscow theater hostage crisis, the 2003 Istanbul bombings, the 2004 Madrid train bombings, the Beslan school siege, the 2005 London bombings, the 2005 Delhi bombings, and the 2008 Mumbai Hotel Siege.
The violence in Iraq, even after democratic elections on January 30, 2005, caused much political stir in all countries occupying the country (United States, Britain, Australia, etc), and political debates of these countries in 2006 and 2007 were highly influenced by the unstable situation in the Near East, especially Iraq and the discussion over Iran's nuclear weapons program.
Less influential, but omnipresent, was the debate on Turkey's participation in the European Union.
New virus strains, such as SARS and swine flu, emerged and spread during the 2000s.
Some territories and states have gained independence during the 21st century. These are Timor-Leste, Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo, Crimea, South Ossetia, Abkhazia, Donetsk People's Republic, Kherson Oblast, Luhansk People's Republic, and Zaporizhzhia Oblast. However, some of them have only been recognized by some UN member states.[further explanation needed]
The 2010s featured several major events in the Middle East which had effects elsewhere in the world. These events included the Arab Spring, the Syrian civil war, and the expansion of the extremist terrorist group ISIL. Beginning in 2015, Europe was affected by a migrant crisis. Several terrorist attacks occurred in Europe during the 2010s, including the November 2015 Paris attacks.
Information technology progressed, with smartphones becoming widespread. Internet coverage grew from 29% to 54% of the world population, and also saw advancements in wireless networking devices, mobile telephony, and cloud computing. Advancements in data processing and the rollout of 4G broadband allowed data, metadata, and information to be collected and dispersed among domains at paces never before seen while online resources such as social media facilitated phenomena such as the Me Too movement, the rise of slacktivism, and online cancel culture. WikiLeaks gained international attention for publishing classified information on topics related to Guantánamo Bay, Syria, the Afghan and Iraq wars, and United States diplomacy. Edward Snowden blew the whistle on global surveillance, raising awareness on the role governments and private entities play in global surveillance and information privacy. Baidu (4th), Twitter (6th) and Instagram (8th) emerged to become among the top 10 most visited websites, while Wikipedia went from the 9th to the 5th most popular website, almost sextupling its monthly visits. Yahoo significantly declined in popularity, descending from being the 1st to the 9th most popular site, with monthly visits declining by two-thirds. Google, Facebook, YouTube and Yandex maintained relatively consistent popularity and remained within the top 10 throughout the 2010s.
In 2016, nationalist political movements led to the Brexit referendum in the United Kingdom and the election of Donald Trump as the President of the United States.
The 2020s have so far been dominated by a global pandemic and the first major war in Europe since World War II.[citation needed]
In 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine, a major escalation of a conflict that has lasted since 2014. The invasion was met with international condemnation. The United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution condemning the invasion and demanding a full Russian withdrawal in March 2022. The International Court of Justice ordered Russia to suspend military operations and the Council of Europe expelled Russia. Many countries imposed sanctions on Russia and its ally Belarus, and provided humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine. The Baltic states all declared Russia a terrorist state. Protests occurred around the world, along with mass arrests of anti-war protesters in Russia, which also enacted a law enabling greater media censorship. Over 1,000 companies closed their operations in Russia and Belarus as a result of the invasion.
Fourth Industrial Revolution
"Fourth Industrial Revolution", "4IR", or "Industry 4.0"[22] is a neologism describing rapid technological advancement in the 21st century.[23] The term was popularised in 2016 by Klaus Schwab, the World Economic Forum founder and executive chairman,[24][25][26][27][28] who asserts that these developments represent a significant shift in industrial capitalism.[29]
A part of this phase of industrial change is the joining of technologies like artificial intelligence, gene editing, to advanced robotics that blur the lines between the physical, digital, and biological worlds.[29][30]
Throughout this, fundamental shifts are taking place in how the global production and supply network operates through ongoing automation of traditional manufacturing and industrial practices, using modern smart technology, large-scale machine-to-machine communication (M2M), and the Internet of things (IoT). This integration results in increasing automation, improving communication and self-monitoring, and the use of smart machines that can analyse and diagnose issues without the need for human intervention.[31]
It also represents a social, political, and economic shift from the digital age of the late 1990s and early 2000s to an era of embedded connectivity distinguished by the ubiquity of technology in society (i.e. a metaverse) that changes the ways humans experience and know the world around them.[32] It posits that we have created and are entering an augmented social reality compared to just the natural senses and industrial ability of humans alone.[29]COVID-19 pandemic
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/2020-3-20_%E9%BB%84%E5%86%88%E9%80%81%E5%88%AB%E5%B1%B1%E4%B8%9C%E6%8F%B4%E9%84%82%E5%8C%BB%E7%96%97%E9%98%9F_%E9%BB%84%E6%A2%85%E6%88%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%89%A7%E9%99%A2.jpg/210px-2020-3-20_%E9%BB%84%E5%86%88%E9%80%81%E5%88%AB%E5%B1%B1%E4%B8%9C%E6%8F%B4%E9%84%82%E5%8C%BB%E7%96%97%E9%98%9F_%E9%BB%84%E6%A2%85%E6%88%8F%E5%A4%A7%E5%89%A7%E9%99%A2.jpg)
In 2020, an outbreak of the COVID-19 disease, first documented in late 2019 in Wuhan, China, spread to other countries becoming a global pandemic, which caused a major socio-economic disruption all over the world. Many countries ordered mandatory lockdowns on movement and closures of non-essential businesses.[33] The threat of the disease caused the COVID-19 recession, although the distribution of vaccines has since eased the economic impact in many countries.
More generally, COVID-19 has been held up as an example of a global catastrophic risk unique to the modern era's ease of travel. New diseases can spread far faster and further in the contemporary era than any previous era of human history; pandemic prevention is one resulting field to ensure that if this happens with a sufficiently deadly virus, humanity can take measures to stop its spread.
The 2020s began with the COVID-19 pandemic—the first reports of the virus were published on December 31, 2019, though the first cases are said to have appeared nearly a month earlier[34]—which caused a global economic recession as well as continuing financial inflation concerns and a global supply chain crisis.
Population growth
On 15 November 2022, the world population grew to over 8 billion people, and in 2023, India overtook China as the most populous country in the world.[35][36]
See also
Notes
References
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- ^ Doenecke, Justus D.; Stoler, Mark A. (2005). Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0847694167. Archived from the original on 2016-12-03. Retrieved 2019-10-13.
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- ^ Carlson, Benjamin (3 July 2010). "Quote of the Day: Google CEO Compares Data Across Millennia". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
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- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 10 February 2022. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
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- ^ Pruitt, Sarah (3 January 2019). "China Makes Historic Landing on 'Dark Side' of the Moon". HISTORY. Archived from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
- ^ Bai, Chunguang; Dallasega, Patrick; Orzes, Guido; Sarkis, Joseph (1 November 2020). "Industry 4.0 technologies assessment: A sustainability perspective". International Journal of Production Economics. 229: 107776. doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2020.107776. ISSN 0925-5273. S2CID 218941878.
- ^ Ross, Philip; Maynard, Kasia (2021). "Towards a 4th industrial revolution". Intelligent Buildings International. 13 (3): 159–161. doi:10.1080/17508975.2021.1873625.
- ^ McGinnis, Devon (27 October 2020). "What Is the Fourth Industrial Revolution?". The 360 Blog from Salesforce. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
- ^ "The Fourth Industrial Revolution will be people powered | McKinsey". www.mckinsey.com. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
- ^ Signé, Njuguna Ndung'u and Landry (8 January 2020). "The Fourth Industrial Revolution and digitization will transform Africa into a global powerhouse". Brookings. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
- ^ Marr, Bernard. "Why Everyone Must Get Ready For The 4th Industrial Revolution". Forbes. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
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