The List of sources for the Crusades provides those accounts of the Crusades from the Council of Clermont in 1095 until the fall of Acre in 1291 that were written contemporaneously. These sources include chronicles, personal accounts, official documents and even archaeological findings. As such, these lists provide the medieval historiography of the Crusades.

A number of 19th century historians published collections of the original chronicles and histories of the Crusades.  These include Recueil des historiens des croisades (RHC), Monumenta Germaniae Historica (MGH), Revue de l'Orient Latin/Archives de l’Orient Latin (ROL/AOL) and the Rolls Series. Other collections are of interest to the Crusader period include Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France (RHF),^[1] Rerum Italicarum scriptores (RISc),^[2] Patrologia Latina (MPL) and Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society (PPTS).

Modern reference material to these sources include Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition,^[3] Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (ODB), Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages,^[4] Catholic Encyclopedia,^[5] Encyclopedia of the Medieval Chronicle,^[6] Encyclopædia Iranica,^[7] Encyclopædia Islamica^[8] and Encyclopaedia of Islam.^[9] Contemporary histories include the three-volume A History of the Crusades (1951-1954)^[10][11][12] by Steven Runciman, the Wisconsin collaborative study History of the Crusades (1969-1989)^[13] edited by Kenneth M. Setton, particularly the Select Bibliography^[14] by Hans E. Mayer, Fordham University's Internet Medieval Sourcebook;^[15] and The Crusades: An Encyclopedia^[16] edited by Alan V. Murray.

Principal Western Sources for the History of the Crusades

The Western sources for the history of the Crusades begin with the original Latin chronicles. Later works on the First Crusade were mostly derived from these and are exemplified by William of Tyre's Historia and its continuations. The later Crusades produced a vast library of first-hand accounts, biographies and chronicles.^[17] Other sources include official documents and communications, personal letters and accounts, and topics such as archaeology and numismatics.^[18]

Original Latin Chronicles of the First Crusade

The twelve major chronicles of the First Crusade by contemporaneous Western authors are listed below, referenced to RHC, Runciman and Murray.^[19]

• Gesta Francorum. Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosolimitanorum (Deeds of the Franks and the other pilgrims to Jerusalem) was an anonymous chronicle that proved to be one of the most popular accounts of the First Crusade. Reputed to be written by a follower of Bohemond of Taranto, Gesta Francorum covers the period from November 1095 until the battle of Ascalon in 1099. It was first published in later 1100 or early 1101. (RHC Oc., Volume 3.II. Runc. Vol I, pgs. 329-330)^[20]
• Peter Tudebode. Peter Tudebode was a Poitevin priest in the army of Raymond of Saint-Gilles. His Historia de Hierosolymitano itinere was released shortly after the very similar Gesta Francorum. Tudebode's version includes additional material including the death of Crusader Rainald Porcet who died at the siege of Antioch in 1098. (RHC Oc.,Volume 3.I, Runc. Vol I, pg. 330)^[21]
• Historia Belli Sacri. The Monte Cassino chronicle known as Historia belli sacri was a history written by an unknown monk at the Abbey of Monte Cassino around 1130. The Historia covers the First Crusade and the early days of the Principality of Antioch, and drew material from Gesta Francorum and Gesta Tancredi. Referred to as Tudebodus imitatus et continuatus in RHC. (RHC Oc., Volume 3.III, pp. 167–229, Runc. Vol I, pg. 330)^[22]
• Raymond d’Aguilers. Raymond of Aguilers (d. after 1105) was a participant in the First Crusade and eventually became chaplin of Raymond of Saint-Gilles. His chronicle, Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem (History of the Franks who captured Jerusalem), known as Historia Francorum, concentrated on Raymond's exploits. The work covered the period from the journey to Constantinople in 1096 until the end of 1099, after the capture of Jerusalem. He may have had access to portions of Gesta Francorum but his work is regarded as independent. Pons of Balazun, a member of Raymond's army, is credited as a co-author of Historia Francorum. (RHC Oc., Volume 3.IV, Runc. Vol I, pgs. 328-329)^[23]
• Fulcher of Chartres. Fulcher of Chartres (c. 1059-after 1128) was a priest who participated in the First Crusade eventually joining Baldwin I of Jerusalem. His chronicle Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Perefrinantium consists of three volumes. The first covers the period from the Council of Clermont in 1095 until the death of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1100. The second covers the reign of Baldwin I from 1100–1118, and the third the partial reign of Baldwin II of Jerusalem from 1118-1127 when the narrative was interrupted by the plague in Jerusalem. Because Fulcher was with Baldwin I in Edessa from 1098, some material in his chronicle was derived from Gesta Francorum and Historia Francorum. The three volumes were written from 1100–1106, 1109-1115 and 1118–1127, and compiled into a second edition by Fulcher before his death. (RHC Oc., Volume 3.V-VII, pp. 311–485, Runc. Vol I, pg. 329)^[24]
• Albert of Aachen. Albert of Aachen (d. after 1150) was a historian, presumably German, who wrote the fullest contemporaneous account of the First Crusade in his Historia Hierosolymitanae expeditionis (History of the Expedition to Jerusalem). His chronicle covers the period from the Council of Clermont until 1121. It was written between 1125 and 1150, and has long been regarded as the most authoritative source of the period, but immune from criticism. (RHC Oc., Volume 4.III, pp. 269–713, Runc. Vol I, pg. 331, Runc. Vol II, pg. 476)^[25]
• Ekkehard of Aura. Ekkehard, Abbot of Aura (d. 1126) was a participant in the Crusade of 1101. He wrote his Chronicon universale (World Chronicle) that covers the period 1098–1125. Chronicon was written in 1115 and provides an important perspective on the Rhineland massacres of Jews in 1096. (RHC Oc, Volume 5.I, pp. 7–40, Runc. Vol I, pg. 330)^[26]
• Robert the Monk. Robert of Reims, abbot of Saint-Remi (1055-1122), wrote his Historia Hierosolymitana that covers his participation at the Council of Clermont until as late as 1120. His history was written between 1107-1120 and is regarded as source material for the work of Gilo of Toucy. (RHC Oc., Volume 3.IX, pp. 717–882, Runc. Vol I, pg. 330)^[27]
• Baldric of Bourgueil. Baldric of Dol (1046-1130) was bishop of Dol-Bretagne when he wrote his Historiae Hierosolymitanae libri IV, an account of the First Crusade based on Gesta Francorum. His work was edited by Pierre de Maillezais. (RHC Oc., Volume 4.II, Runc. Vol I, pg. 330)^[28]
• Abridged Version of Fulcher's Chronicle. A shorter version of Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Perefrinantium written c. 1118 is cited separately in both RHC and a paper by Crusades historian Jay Rubenstein. (RHC Oc., Volume 3.VII, pp. 491–543)^[19]
• Radulph of Caen. Ralph of Caen (1080- after 1130) was a Norman chaplin who wrote Gesta Tancredi in expeditione Hierosolymitana (The Deeds of Tancred in the Crusade) Ralph accompanied Bohemond of Taranto in 1107–1108, and wrote Gesta Tancredi in 1113. (RHC Oc., Volume 3.VIII, RISc 5, Runc. Vol I, pg. 331)^[29][30]
• Guibert of Nogent. Guibert of Nogent (1055-1124) was a Benedictine historian who wrote Dei gesta per Francos (Deeds of God through the Franks) based on Gesta Francorum and Gesta Tancredi. The history was written in 1108 and reworked in 1121. (RHC Oc., Volume 3.VIII, pgs. 587–710, Runc. Vol I, pg. 330)^[31]

Contemporaneous Works on the Crusades

Works derived from the original Latin sources written in the early part of the 12th century are listed below.

• Bartolf of Nangis. Bartolf of Nangis (d. before 1109) was a French historian who, in 1108, published Gesta Francorum Iherusalem expugnatium that drew heavily on Gesta Francorum and Fulcher's now lost 1106 manuscript. (Runc. Vol I, pgs. 329, 344)^[32]
• William of Malmesbury. William of Malmesbury (1095-1143) was a prominent English historian whose Gesta Regum Anglorum (Deeds of the Kings of the English) discusses the Council of Clermont based on Fulcher's Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Perefrinantium and includes an account of the White Ship disaster which claimed the lives of over 140 knights and noblemen including famed Crusader Ralph the Red. (Runc. Vol I, pgs. 329, 347)^[33]
• Richard of Poitiers. Richard of Poitiers (d. 1174) was a French monk at Cluny Abbey who wrote Chronica Richardi Pictauiensis, monachus cluniacensis de diuersis libris collecta (The Chronicle of Richard of Poitiers), a chronicle of history from Genesis to the 1170s. His account of the Crusades were taken from Fulcher of Chartres. (Runc. Vol I, pg. 329)
• Translatio sancti Nicolai. Translatio Sancti Nicolai in Venetiam is an anonymous eyewitness 12th century account of Venetian contributions to the Crusades, including a description of the siege of Haifa of 1100.  It was later rewritten to provide context to the translation of the relics of St. Nicholas to Venice.  (RHC Oc. Volume 5.VII.IV, Runc. Vol I, pgs. 313n, 346)^[34]
• Sicard of Cremona. Sicard of Cremona (1155-1215) was an Italian prelate and historian who wrote his Chronica Universalis (1213) that covers universal history from the creation to 1213, includes material based on Fulcher of Chartres’ work. (Runc. Vol I, pg. 329)^[35]
• Expeditio contra Turcos. Expeditio contra Turcos by an anonymous author is a short account based on Tudebode's Historia. (RHC Oc.,Volume 3.I, Runc. Vol I, pgs. 330, 345)
• Hugh of Fleury. Hugh of Fleury (d. after 1118) was a French Benedictine monk who wrote Itineris Hierosolymitani Compendium based on Tudebode's Historia. (RHC Oc., Volume 5.VIII. Primi belli sacri Narrationes minores, pgs. 363–367, Runc. Vol I, pgs. 330, 345)^[36]
• Henry of Huntingdon. Henry of Huntingdon (1088-1157) was an English historian wrote his De Captione Antiochiae before 1129 with a section on the First Crusade based on Tudebode's Historia. (RHC Oc., Volume 5.XI, Runc. Vol I, pg. 330)^[37]
• Caffaro di Rustico. Caffaro di Rustico da Caschifellone (1080-1166) was a Genoese admiral and historian who wrote De liberatione Civitatum Orientis (On the Liberation of the Cities of the East) and began the Annales ianuenses (Genoese annals). His work provides a Genoese perspective on the First Crusade and the Embriaco family. A later historian Reinhold Röhricht wrote Historia Regni Hierosolymitani that is regarded as a continuation of Caffaro's De liberatione. (RHC Oc., Volume 5.II (De libertatione), Runc. Vol I, pgs. 332, 344, Runc. Vol II, pg. 478n, 494)^[38]
• Walter the Chancellor. Walter the Chancellor (d. after 1122) was a French or Norman Crusader who wrote Bella Antiochena (Wars of Antioch) covering the history of the Principality of Antioch from 1114–1122. He was likely present at the battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119. Walter wrote his history between 1119 and 1122 while he was serving as chancellor of the principality. (RHC Oc., Volume 5.III, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 476, 495)^[39]
• Gilon. Gilo of Toucy (d. between 1139-1142) was a French poet and cleric who wrote Historia de via Hierosolymitana, an epic verse history of the First Crusade covering the Council of Clermont through the capture of Jerusalem. The work was written before 1120 and it is believed that Gilo had access to participants. (RHC Oc., Volume 5.XIV, Runc. Vol I, pg. 345)^[40]
• Historia Nicaena vel Antiochena. The anonymous work Historia Nicaena vel Antiochena covers the period from before the Council of Clermont through the capture of Baldwin II of Jerusalem in 1123, covering all of the rulers of the kingdom up to that point. The work was commissioned by Baldwin III of Jerusalem and written in 1146. (RHC Oc., Volume 5.IV, Runc. Vol I, pg. 346 )^[41]

Works of William of Tyre and Continuations

William of Tyre (1130-1186) was a Jerusalem-born historian of French or Italian descent who is regarded as the greatest of the Crusade chroniclers. His Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum and continuations by later historians are key to the understanding of the period.

• Historia. William’s major work Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum (History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea) begins with the events of the First Crusade and goes through the events in the Holy Land through early 1184. It consists of twenty-three books written between 1170–1184. His account up through the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 is based on that of Albert of Aachen, and Fulcher of Chartres and William the Chancellor from 1100–1127. To to a lesser extent, the history is also believed to be derivative of Raymond of Aguilers, Baldric of Dol and Usama ibn Munqidh. The period from 1127-1160 is based on official and personal records. (RHC Oc., Volume 1, Runc. Vol I, pgs. 331–332, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 476-477)^[42]
• Ernoul. Ernoul was a squire of Balian of Ibelin who wrote La Chronique d'Ernoul et de Bernard le trésorier (The Chronicle of Ernoul and Bernard the Treasurer) that covers the period 1183-1197 including an eyewitness account to the fall of Jerusalem in 1187. The work is regarded as an extension of William of Tyre's Historia. (RHC Oc., Volume 1, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 477–478, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 481-482)^[43]
• Estoire d’Eracles. The Estoire d’Eracles émperor (History of Heraclius) is an anonymous history of Jerusalem from 630–1277. The work was written from 1205–1234 with additions from 1220–1277. Estoire d’Eracles draws from both Ernoul and Rothelin. (RHC Oc., Volume 2, Runc. Vol II, pg. 477, pgs. 481-482)
• Rothelin. The Rothelin Continuation is an anonymous history covering the Holy Land from the period from 1229–1261, including the Barons’ Crusade, the Seventh Crusade and the initial Mongol raids in 1260. It only survives as part of Estoire d’Eracles. (RHC Oc., Volume 2, Runc. Vol III, pg. 482)
• Itinerario di la Gran Militia. Itinerario di la Gran Militia, a la Pavese (Itinerary of the Great Army, in Pavese) is an anonymous 15th-century work on the First Crusade based on the work of William of Tyre. (RHC Oc., Volume 5.XIII).

French Historical Works and Chansons

The Franks wrote many accounts of the Crusades, the most important of which were the chanson de geste (songs of heroic deeds) that formed the Crusade cycle.^[44] These include the Chanson d’Antioche and Chanson de Jérusalem. The Occitan Canso d’Antioca is in a similar format.^[45] They also provided many stories of chivalry which evolved after the Second Crusade.^[46] Additional historical material can be found in Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France (RHF) compiled by the Maurist Martin Bouquet.

• Chanson d’Antioche. Chanson d’Antioche is a chanson de geste said to be composed by one Richard the Pilgrim that describes the First Crusade from the original preaching through the taking of Antioch in 1098 and into 1099. While recognizing potential historical inaccuracies in the story, Chanson d’Antioche was a valuable resource in helping catalog participants in the early Crusades.^[47] (Runc. Vol I, pg. 332)^[48]
• Chanson de Jérusalem. Chanson de Jérusalem (Song of Jerusalem) is a 12th-century chanson de geste celebrating the capture of Jerusalem in 1099.^[49]
• Canso d’Antioca. Canso d’Antioca is an Occitan chanson de geste composed between 1108-1118 that describes the First Crusade up to the siege of Antioch in 1097–1098. (Runc. Vol I, pg. 332)^[50]
• Chrétien de Troyes. Chrétien de Troyes (fl. 1160-1191) was a French poet and trouvère who wrote a number of Arthurian romances and whose Conte du graal may have been inspired by Baldwin IV of Jerusalem. His work focused on chivalry and was influential among Crusaders.^[51]
• Jaufre Rudel. Jaufre Rudel (d. after 1147) was Occitan troubadour who likely died on the Second Crusade after writing chansons about his experiences. His fictionalized biography claims he was inspired to go on crusade upon hearing of the beauty of Melisende of Tripoli. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 490 note)
• Ordene de chevalerie. The anonymous Ordene de chevalerie (Order of Knighthood) is an Old French poem written c. 1220 and provides a fictional account of the Kingdom of Jerusalem before the Third Crusade. The work may have drawn on Conte du graal and is included in an Old French translation of William of Tyre.^[52]
• Raoul de Soissons. Raoul de Soissons (1210-1270) was a French trouvère who wrote seven chansons about his participation the Barons’ Crusade, Seventh Crusade and Eighth Crusade, where is presumed to have died in 1270. He was married to Alice of Champagne and, with her, served as regent to Conrad II of Jerusalem.
• Le Tournoi de Chauvency. Jacques Bretel (fl. 1285) was a French trouvère who wrote Le Tournoi de Chauvency concerning the Tournament of Chauvency held in 1285 by Louis V, Count of Chiny, bringing together nearly 500 knights from around Europe.^[53] Many of the participants were past or future Crusaders. It is believed that Louis held the tournament to refute the story of the refusal of his direct ancestor Arnold I of Chiny to provide his sons to the army of Godfrey of Bouillon. Note that Arnold's daughter Helvide accompanied her husband Dodo of Cons with Godfrey on the First Crusade.
• Geoffroi de Charny. Geoffroi de Charny (1300-1356) was a French knight who was the author of several books on chivalry including the Book of Chivalry. He and his wife are the first recorded owners of the Shroud of Turin, lost after the sack of Constantinope in 1204 (see Robert de Clari below).^[54]
• Rodulfus Glaber. Rodulfus Glaber the Bald (985-1047) was a French monk and chronicler whose Historium Sui Temporis provides a history of the Franks from 900–1045.  (RHF, Vol X, Runc. Vol I, pgs. 46, 346)^[55]
• Thiou of Morigny.  Thiou of Morigny was a chronicler at the abbey of Morigny who wrote Chronicon Mauriniacense covering French history from 1108-1147 and includes the genealogy of the houses of Montlhéry and Le Puiset.  (RHF, Vol XXII, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 190n, 248n, 253n, 494)
• Sigebert of Gembloux. Sigebert of Gembloux (1030-1112) was a Belgian Benedictine monk who wrote Chronicon sive Chronographia, a chronological survey covering 381–1111, with an emphasis on 1008–1111. His work also addresses the Rhineland massacres.  A continuation of his work called Auctarium Gemblacense was written by Anselm of Gembloux (d. 1136) and Guillaume de Nangis.  (MGH Scriptores, VI, VII, Runc. Vol I, pg. 346, Runc. Vol II, pg.  479)^[56]
• Milites Regni Francaiæ. Milites Regni Francaiæ is an anonymous work that provided estimates of the size of French forces from Normandy during the reign of Philip II of France (1180-1223).  (RHF, Vol XXII, Runc. Vol I, pgs. 339n, 346)
• Guyot of Provins. Guyot of Provins (d. after 1208) was a Cluniac trouvère and satirist who may have participated in the Third Crusade and Fourth Crusade.  His six surviving songs were written around 1180.  Following the sack of Constantinople in 1204, he questioned in his Œuvres why the pope would allow a Crusade against fellow Christians.  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 127-128, 496)
• Guillem Figuera. Guillem Figuera (d. after 1244) was a French troubadour in the court of emperor Frederick II in the 1230s.  His poem D'un sirventes far (sirventes against Rome) bitterly accused Rome of perfidy and was written in 1229 during the Albigensian Crusade.  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 128, 495)
• Alberic of Trois-Fontaines. Alberic of Trois-Fontaines (d. 1252) was a French chronicler whose Chronicon traces history from Creation until 1241. (RHF, Vol XVIII, Runc. Vol III, pg. 494)^[57]
• Saladin in Literature. Saladin is depicted in many works, some partially historical.  Estoires d’Outremer et de la naissance Salehadin (History of Overseas and of the birth of Saladin)is an anonymous account of the Crusades from 1099 -1230, including a fictional account of Saladin as the descendant of a countess of Ponthieu.  Ordene de chevalerie (Order of Knighthood) is a French poem (c. 1220) about the Kingdom of Jerusalem before the Third Crusade where Saladin becomes a knight.  Dante’s Divine Comedy depicts him as a virtuous non-Christian held in limbo.^[58][59]
• Guillaume de Nangis. Guillaume de Nangis (d. 1300) was a French chronicler wrote his Chronicon, a history of the world from Creation until 1300, and is partially based on that of Sigebert of Gembloux. Some of his works are included in the Grandes Chroniques de France. His account of the White Ship disaster claimed that all men aboard were sodomites. (RHF, Vol XX, Runc. Vol II, pg.  495)
• Grandes Chroniques de France. Grandes Chroniques de France is a compilation of the history of France produced between the 13th and 15th centuries. The original work traced the kings of the Franks from the origins until the death of Philip II of France in 1223, and extended at a later date to the death of Charles V of France in 1380.^[60]
• Miscellaneous Chronicles. Other chronicles cited in the histories include Annals of Vendôme (Chronicon Vindocinense seu de Aquaria), covering the period 768–1347, and Chronique de Saint-Maixent, covering 741–1140. ( Runc. Vol II, pg. 494)

Hebrew Accounts of the First Crusade

The Rhineland massacres of 1096 are the subject of three Hebrew chronicles.^[61]

• Solomon bar Simpson Chronicle. The Solomon bar Simpson Chronicle is an anonymous Hebrew narrative history concerning the Rhineland massacres written around 1140. (Runc. Vol I, pgs. 136–140, 350)^[62]
• Eliezer ben Nathan. Eliezer ben Nathan (1090-1170) was a halakist and poet who wrote of the Rhineland massacres. (Runc. Vol I, pg. 350)
• Mainz Anonymous. Mainz Anonymous (The Narrative of the Old Persecutions) is a Hebrew account of the First Crusade with an emphasis on the massacres at Mainz. (Runc. Vol I, pg. 350)^[63]

Sources for the History of the Latin East, 1100-1192

Original sources from the capture of Jerusalem in 1099 through the Second Crusade, the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187 and the Third Crusade include the William of Tyre works and the following:

• Odo of Deuil. Odo of Deuil (1110-1162) was a French historian and participant in the Second Crusade as the chaplin to Louis VII of France. His De profectione Ludovici VII in Orientem (On Louis VII's journey to the East) covers the period from the origins of the Crusade in France to prior to the siege of Damascus in 1148. (Runc. Vol II, pg. 478)^[64]
• Otto of Freising. Otto of Freising (1114-1158) was a German historian and participant in the Second Crusade who wrote Gesta Friderici imperatoris (Deeds of Emperor Frederick) based on his experiences. The four books of Gesta Friderici cover the periods through the death of Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III, five years of rule by his successor Frederick I, and two books for the period from 1156–1170. The last two books were written by the chronicler Rahewin, possibly with Otto's help through 1158. He also wrote Chronica sive Historia de duabus civitatibus (History of the two cities) covering the history of Germany and Jerusalem through 1146. (Runc. Vol II, pg. 478)^[65]
• Passiones Sancti Thiemonis. The anonymous Passiones Sancti Thiemonis (Martyrdom of Bishop Thiemo) tells of the martyrdom of Thiemo, archbishop of Salzburg.  In 1101, Thiemo joined William IX of Aquitaine in the Crusade of 1101. His martyrdom is described as his torture and death by pulling the intestines out of his body with a spindle.  Otto of Freising repeated the story in his Historia de duabus civitatibus.  (RHC Oc., Volume 5.VI, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 29, 495)^[66]
• Lisiard of Tours. Lisiard of Tours, Bishop of Sees from 1184–1201, wrote his Historiae Hierosolimitanae Secunda Pars covering the history of Jerusalem from 1099–1129. Some of the earlier material may be taken from Bartolf of Nangis. (RHC Oc., Vol 3.VII, Runc. Vol I, pg. 345)
• Annales Herbipolenses. Annales Herbipolenses (Annals of Würzburg) is a work by an anonymous cleric in Würburg is a history covering the Second Crusade from 1125-1158, with later material covering 1201-1204 and 1215.  It is regarded as a continuation of Ekkehard of Aura’s Chronicon universale and is included in Devastatio Constantinopolitana.  (MGH Scriptores, XVI.3, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 267n, 493)^[67][68]
• Suger of St. Denis. Suger of St. Denis (1081-1151) was a French abbot and historian who wrote Vita Ludovici regis, a biography of Louis VI of France, and Historia gloriosi regis Ludovici, a biography of Louis VII of France. (RHF, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 286n, 478, 495)^[69]
• Orderic Vitalis. Orderic Vitalis (1075-1142) was an English chronicler who wrote Historia Ecclesiastica, a general social history of medieval England that includes a section on the First Crusade, with an emphasis on Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy. The account begins with the Council of Clermont and goes through the 1137 submission of Raymond of Poitiers to emperor John II Komnenos. His Historia draws heavily on Fulcher's Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Perefrinantium and his friend Baldric's Historiae Hierosolymitanae libri IV. He also contributed to the continuation of Gesta Normannorum Ducum. (Runc. Vol I, pg. 111n, Runc. Vol II, pg. 479)^[70]
• Annales de le Terre Sainte. The anonymous Annales de le Terre Sainte, published sometime after the Second Crusade provides insight into the period from 1131-1222 and served as a source for other works such as Chronique de Terre Sainte. (AOL, Volume II, Reinhold Röhricht, ed., Runc. Vol II, pgs. 478, 493, Runc. Vol III, pg. 482)
• Expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum. Libellus de Expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum expeditione (Little Book about the Conquest of the Holy Land by Saladin) or Chronicon Terrae Sanctae (Chronicle of the Holy Land)is an anonymous Latin work covering the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 to Saladin. The first part begins with the death of Baldwin V of Jerusalem in 1186 and ends with the surrender of Jerusalem to the Ayyubids in 1187. The second part relates the spread of the news of the surrender to Europe through the siege of Acre and arrival of the Third Crusaders in 1189. (Runc. Vol II, pgs. 478, 494)^[71]
• Chronique de Terre Sainte. The anonymous Chronique de Terre Sainte covers the period from 1131-1222 and is based on the Annales de le Terre Sainte. Its brief narrative serves as the beginning portion of Gestes des Chiprois. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 482)^[72]
• Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris. The anonymous Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris, or Espeditio Friderici Imperatoris, provides a history of the Third Crusade from 1189–1192 with an emphasis on the expedition of Frederick I Barbarossa including the battle of Iconium of 1190. The author may have been Ansbertus (fl. 1190) an Austrian cleric and historian. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 483, 495)^[73]
• Epistola de Morte Friderici Imperatoris. The anonymous Epistola de Morte Friderici Imperatoris is an account of the activities of Frederick I on Third Crusade.  (MGH Scriptores new series, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 10, 495)
• De Expungnata Accone. De Expungnata Accone was an account of the siege of Acre of 1189-1191 by a unknown author named Haymat Monachus.  The work describes the death of Stephen I of Sancerre late in 1190 and his brother Theobald V of Blois a few months later in 1191.  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 32, 496)
• Deeds of Ludwig III of Thuringia (Landgraf Ludwigs Kreuzfahrt). Kreuzfahrt des Landgrafen Ludwigs des Frommen von Thüringen is an anonymous German poem written in 1301 dealing with the exploits of Louis III of Thuringia during the Third Crusade that also includes a description of the fall of Jerusalem and the call for the new Crusade.^[74]
• Itinerarium Peregrinarum et Gesta Regis Ricardi. The anonymous Itinerarium Peregrinarum et Gesta Regis Ricardi (Itnerarium Rgis Ricardi) complied by Richard de Templo and once attributed to medieval grammarian Geoffrey of Vinsauf, is an account to the Third Crusade from 1189–1192, with well-regarded accounts of Saladin's conquest of Jerusalem and the subsequent campaign of Richard I of England. (Rolls Series, Runc. Vol II, pg. 324n, Runc. Vol III, pg. 483)^[75]
• Richard of Devizes. Richard of Devizes (fl. 1190) was an English chronicler and monk who wrote Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi covering the reign of Richard I of England from 1189–1192. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 482)^[76]
• Roger of Howden. Roger of Howden (fl. 1174-1201) was an English chronicler who accompanied Richard I of England on the Third Crusade. His histories include Gesta Regis Ricardi, covering 1170–1192, and Chronica, covering 732–1201. His work was previously attributed to Benedict of Peterborough. (Rolls Series, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 442n, 493, 495)^[77]
• Ralph of Diceto. Ralph of Diceto (1120-1202) was Dean of St. Pauls Cathedral who wrote two books Abbreviationes chronicorum and Ymagines historiarum that cover the periods from the birth of Christ until 1147, and from 1147–1202, respectively. (Rolls Series, Runc. Vol II, pg. 495, Runc. Vol III, pg. 482)^[78]
• Peter of Blois.  Peter of Blois (1130-1211) was a French theologian who wrote Passio Reginaldi, concerning the Third Crusade and the execution of Raynald of Châtillon by Saladin, Dialogus inter regem Henricum secundum et abbatem Bonnevallensem, about Henry II of England, and Conquestio de dilatione vie Ierosolimitane, concerning the fall of Jerusalem in 1187.^[79]
• Historia Rerum Anglicarum. William of Newburgh (1136-1198) was an English historian who wrote Historia rerum Anglicarum (History of English Affairs). Also known as Historia de rebus anglicis, the work covers the period from 1066–1195. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 482)^[80]
• Gesta Philippi Augusti. Rigord (1150-1209) was a French chronicler was wrote Gesta Philippi Augusti, covering the reign of Phillip II of France from 1179–1206, including his role in the Third Crusade. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 483)^[81]
• Melisande Psalter. The Melisende Psalter is a manuscript commissioned around 1135 by Fulk of Jerusalem for his wife Melisende.  The historical value of the psalter is for its contribution to the understanding of Crusader art, but also provides a calendar of event relating to the Kingdom of Jerusalem.^[82]

Sources for the History of the Later Crusades, 1192-1291

The history of the later Crusades from the Fourth Crusade through the siege of Acre in 1291 and includes the following:

• Geoffrey of Villehardouin. Geoffrey of Villehardouin (1150-1215) was a knight and historian who wrote his chronicle De la Conquête de Constantinople (On the Conquest of Constantinople) on the Fourth Crusade based on his experiences in the endeavor. The history, written in 1207, describes the sack of Constantinople in 1204. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 483)^[83]
• Robert de Clari. Robert de Clari (d. after 1216) was a knight who participated in the Fourth Crusade and wrote La Conquête de Constantinople which covers the period 1202–1205. He was one of the last to see the Shroud of Turin prior to the sack of Constantinople in 1204 prior to 1258 (see Geoffroi de Charny above). (Runc. Vol III, pg. 483)^[84]
• Devastatio Constantinopolitana. Devastatio Constantinopolitana was an anonymous account of the Fourth Crusade from the preaching of Peter of Capua in 1198 until after the sack of Constantinople in 1204. The work also includes the accounts of the Crusade of 1101 and Second Crusade of Ekkehard of Aura’s Chronicon universale and the anonymous Annales Herbipolenses. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 119, 495)^[85]
• Gunther of Pairis. Gunther of Pairis (1150-1220) was a German monk who wrote Historia Constantinopolitana about the Fourth Crusade, Solimarius about the First Crusade and an epic Ligurinus about Frederick I. Martin of Pairis was a source for Gunther's Historia. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 496)^[86]
• Martin of Pairis. Martin of Pairis (fl. 1200-1207) was abbot of the monastery of Pairis who traveled on the Fourth Crusade. He was a major source for Gunther of Pairis' Historia Constantinopolitana and wrote of the translation of relics he brought to Pairis from the Crusade.^[87]
• Anonymus Halberstadensis. Anonymus Halberstadensis (Anonymous of Halberstadt) wrote Deeds of the Bishops of Halberstadt as a defense of Conrad of Krosigk, a participant in the Fourth Crusade, who triumphantly returned to Germany with numerous relics from the Holy Land including holy thorns and hair of the Virgin Mary. He also wrote De Peregrinatione in Greciam on his pilgrimage to Greece. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)^[88]
• Chronica Regia Coloniesis. The Chronica Regia Coloniesis (Royal Chronicle of Cologne) is a Latin text that provides the history of the Frankish kings, Byzantine emperors and German kings and emperors from 576-1202.  The work through 1106 depends on the Chronicon universale of Ekkehard of Aura.  It was continued through 1237 in Chronica sancti Pantaleonis.  (MGH Scriptores in usum scholarum, Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)^[89][90]
• Ralph of Coggeshall. Ralph of Coggeshall (d. after 1227) was an English chronicler who continued a Chronicon Anglicanum from the years 1187–1224, concentrating on the Third and Fourth Crusades. (Rolls Series, Runc. Vol II, pg. 495)^[91]
• Jacques de Vitry. Jacques de Vitry (1160/1170-1240) was a theologian and historian who wrote Historia Orientalis on the history of the Holy Land from the advent of Islam until the Fifth Crusade. Afterwards he helped organized the Sixth Crusade. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 483, 485, 497)^[92]
• Oliver of Paderborn. Cardinal Oliver of Paderborn (d. 1227), also known as Oliverus scholasticus, wrote his Historia Damiatina reflecting his experience in the Fifth Crusade. Historia Damiatina, De Itinere Frisonum and Gesta Crucigerorum Rhenanorum are critical sources for the Fifth Crusade. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 145, 483, 497 [Opera, I. Historia Damiatina, II. Epistolae])^[93]
• De Itinere Frisonum. De Itinere Frisonum is an eyewitness account of the journey of the Frisian crusading fleet from Friesland to Acre in 1217 to participate in the Fifth Crusade. The work is related to the anonymous Gesta Crucigerorum Rhenanorum, a narrative of the Fifth Crusade. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 147, 495)
• Freidank. Freidank (d. 1233) was a German poet who wrote Bescheidenheit (practical wisdom, correct judgement, discretion) which provided an eyewitness account of the city of Acre during the Sixth Crusade.^[94]
• Jean de Joinville. Jean de Joinville (1224-1317) was a French chronicler who wrote the influential Life of Saint Louis, a biography of Louis IX of France. Joinville accompanied Louis on the Seventh Crusade and Eighth Crusade and wrote his biography between 1305–1309, relying on the Grandes Chroniques de France for events after 1254. He was with Louis during his captivity by the Egyptians in 1250 after the battle of al-Mansurah and reported interactions of the king with the Assassins. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 484)^[95]
• Matthew Paris. Matthew Paris (1200-1259) was and English chronicler who wrote Chronica Majora presenting a universal history from Creation until 1259. His work includes in-depth discussions of the battle of Hattin in 1187 and Frederick II and the Fifth and Sixth Crusades. Chronica contains one of the earliest surviving maps of the Holy Land.^[96]
• Philip of Novara. Philip of Novara (1200-1270) was an Italian historian who wrote History of the War between the Emperor Frederick and Sir John of Ibelin and Memoirés covering a period after 1230. The first served as a basis for portions of Chronique de Terre Sainte and the second included in Gestes des Chiprois. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 482, 497)^[97]
• Fidenzio of Padua. Fidenzio of Padua (1230-after 1291) was a Franciscan friar and historian who published Liber recuperations Terre Sancte, a history of the Holy Land and approaches to retaking the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Liber also included an adverse biography of the Prophet Muhammad. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 430–431, 495)^[98]
• Tolomeo of Lucca.  Bartholomew of Lucca (1236-1327), known as Tolomeo, was an Italian historian who wrote Annales Luccienses covering events from 1061–1303.  (MGH Scriptores, VIII, Runc. Vol I, pg. 346)^[99]
• Thaddeus of Naples. Thaddeus of Naples wrote Hystoria de desolacione civitatis Acconensis based on eyewitness accounts of the fall of Acre of 1291. It is supplemented by the De excisions urbis acconis, an anonymous account of the siege of Acre, and Gestes des Chiprois. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 484, 495)^[100][101]

Related Histories and other Works

Other histories and literary works with limited discussion of the Crusade but still of interest have been cited by modern historians. These works include annals and poems, primarily Italian, German and English, providing accounts of European actives prior to 1095. Some of these are presented below.

• Goffredo Malaterra.  Goffredo Malaterra (fl. 1099) was a Benedictine monk and historian who wrote De Rebus Gestis Rogerii Calabriae et Siciliae Comitis et Roberti Guiscardi Ducis fratris eius which chronicles the Norman conquest of Italy in the mid-11th century, including Robert Guiscard.  Related contemporaneous works include the poem Gesta Roberti Wiscardi by William of Apulia and L'Ystoire de li Normant (History of the Normans) by Amatus of Montecassino.  (MPL 149, RISc 5, Runc. Vol I, pg. 346)^[102]
• Bariot Chronicles.  The major chronicles of Bari and southern Italy are Annales Barenses (anonymous, covering 605-1102), Annales Lupi Protospatharii (Lupus of Apulia, covering 805-1102) and Anonymi Barensis Chronicon (anonymous, covering 855-1118).  Topics of the works include the Norman conquest of Italy and material on the First Crusade.  (MGH Scriptores, V, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 47n, 493)^{[103][104][105]}
• Annales Beneventani. Annales Beneventani covers the history of the Santa Sophia monastery in Benevento from the time of Christ until 1128 in three editions. The later Annales Palidenses is a history of Rome in the 11th and 12 centuries.  Both include material on pope Paschal II.  (MGH Scriptores, III, V, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 35n, 105n, 493)^[106][107]
• Landulph of Saint Paul.  Landolph of Saint Paul (fl. 1077-1137), also known as Landulf Junior to distinguish him from Landulf of Milan, was an Italian historian who wrote Historia Mediolanensis (A Milanese History) concerning the events in Italy at the turn of the 12th century. (Runc. Vol II, pg. 494)
• Chronica Monasterii Casinensis. Chronica Monasterii Casinensis was a history of the monastery of Monte Cassino from 1075-1138 begun by Leo of Ostio (1046-1117) and completed by Peter Diaconus (1107-ca.1140)  (MGH Scriptores, VI, RISc 4, MPL 173, Runc. Vol II, pg. 495)^[108]
• Romuald of Salerno. Romuald Guarna (1110/1120-1182) was archbishop of Salerno and wrote Chronicon sive Annales covering the history of southern Italy and Sicily from Creation until 1178.  (MGH Scriptores, XIX, Runc. Vol II, pg. 495)
• Annales ianuesses. The Annales ianuenses (Geneose Annals) are the official history of Genoa, covering the period 1099-1234.  The were begun by Caffaro di Rustico after 1156 following his history of the First Crusade.  In 1163, the work was continued by various officials and finished by a scribe named Ogerius.  (MGH Scriptores, XVIII, Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)^[109]
• Bartholomaeus of Neocastro. Bartholomaeus of Neocastro (1240-1293), known as Bartholomew, was an Italian jurist who wrote a chronicle Historia Sicula concerning the Kingdom of Sicily and Kingdom of Naples from the death of emperor Frederick II in 1250 until 1293.  (RISc 13, Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)^[110]
• Jacobus de Auria.  Jacobus de Auria (fl. 1280-1294) wrote his Annales covering this history of Genoa from 1280-1294.  They were continued through 1436 by the Castigatissimi Annali di Genova of Agostino Giustiniani.  (MGH Scriptores, XVIII, Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)
• Benedetto Accolti. Benedetto Accolti the Elder (1415-1464) was an Italian historian who wrote De Bello a Christianis contra Barbaros gesto pro Christi Sepulchro et Judaea recuperandis libri IV (On the War carried on by the Christians against the Barbarians, for the Recovery of Christ's Sepulchre, and of Judea), a history of the First Crusade. Published in 1464, the sources are uncertain. (RHC Oc., Volume 5.XI, Runc. Vol I, pg. 344)
• Annales Palidenses. Annales Palidenses, also known as Pöhlder Chronik, are a set of annals written in Saxony in the later 12th century based partially on the work of Honorius Augustodunensis (1080-1154), Ekkehard of Aura and Sigebert of Gembloux.   The annals include the exploits of Conrad III of Germany during the Second Crusade.  (MGH Scriptores, XVI, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 268n, 285n, 493)^[111]
• Otto of Sankt Blasien. Otto of Sankt Blasien (d. 1223) was a German chronicler who wrote his annals Ad librum VII chronici Ottonis Frisingensis episcopi continuatae historiae appendix sive Continuatio Sanblasian covering the period of German history from 1146-1209. (MGH Scriptores, XX, Runc. Vol II, pg.495)^[112]
• Friedrich von Hausen. Frederick von Hausen (1150-1190) was a German poet who accompanied Frederick I on the Third Crusade. He wrote five works based on his experiences and was one of the earliest of the minnesingers. He died at the battle of Philomelion of 1190. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 490n)^[113]
• Wolfram von Eschenbach. Wolfram von Eschenbach (1160/1180-c.1220) was a German knight and minnesinger whose work including Parzival was an inspiration to Crusaders.^[114]
• Works from Tegernsee Abbey. Works from the German Tegernsee Abbey include the Expeditio Ierosolimitana, an epic poem about the First Crusade written by Bavarian monk Metellus of Tenernsee (d. after 1170) and songs by famed minnesinger Walther von der Vogelweide (1170-1230).^[115]
• Albrecht von Johansdorf. Albrecht von Johansdorf (1180-1209) was a minnesinger who wrote five recruitment songs for the Third Crusade. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 490n).^[116]
• Caesarius of Heisterbach. Caesarius of Heisterbach (1180-1240) was a Cistercian prior who wrote Dialogus miraculorum, a collection of miracle stories, popular because of the many stories related by returning Crusaders. (Runc. Vol II, pg. 494)^[117]
• Annales Claustroneoburgenses. Annales Claustroneoburgenses is an anonymous history of Klosterneuburg Monastery covers 1075-1139, continued until 1455 by the Annales Mellicenses.  (MGH Scriptores, IX, Runc. Vol III, pg. 494)^[118]
• Annales Marbacenses. Annales Marbacenses, or the Marbach Annals, are from the Marbach Abbey covering the period from the 7th century until the 1240s.  The earlier portion is derived from the Chronica sive Historia de duabus civitatibus of Otto of Freising and is combined with a later series of annals from Neuberg Abbey. (MGH Scriptores, XVII, Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)^[119]
• Gesta Normannorum Ducum. Gesta Normannorum Ducum (The Deeds of the Norman Dukes) was originally written by William of Jumièges (c. 1100-after 1070) covering the period through 1066, and later extended by Orderic Vitalis and Robert of Torigni (1110-1186) through the death of Henry I of England in 1135. (Runc. Vol II, pgs. 349n, 495 )^[120][121]
• Joseph of Exeter. Joseph of Exeter (fl. 1180-1190) was an English poet who accompanied his uncle, Baldwin of Forde, archbishop of Canterbury, on the Third Crusade. His account Antiocheis is mostly lost, but sections praising the warriors of Britain. including King Arthur, survive.  (Runc. Vol I, pg. 345)
• Amboise. Ambroise of Normandy (fl. 1190) was a Norman poet who chronicled the Third Crusade in his Old French poems L´Estoire de la guerre sainte and Itinerarium regis Ricardi (Runc. Vol II, pgs. 478–479, Runc. Vol III, pg. 483)
• John of Salisbury. John of Salisbury (1115/1120-1180) was bishop of Chartres and historian who wrote Historia Pontificalis quae Supersunt covering the years 1148-1152 while he was employed by pope Eugene III.  It is a description of Western Europe during and after the Second Crusade.  (Runc. Vol II, pg. 494)
• Chronicles of Ricardus Anglicus. Ricardus Anglicus (1161-1242), also known as Richard de Morins, was an English canon lawyer who began the Chronicles of Ricardus Anglicus (Annales de Dunstoplia), the annals of Dunstable Priory, in 1210.  The material in the annales prior to 1202 (when Ricardus became prior) is based on Ralph of Diceto’s Abbreviationes chronicorum and Ymagines historiarum, and is extended to 1297 in Annales Monastici.  (Runc. Vol III, pg. 494)^[122]
• Roger Bacon.  Roger Bacon (1219-1292) was an English philosopher who wrote Opus Majus at the request of pope Clement IV, covering a broad set of topics in natural science and philosophy.  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 340, 495)^[123]
• Chronicle of Mailros. The Chronicle of Mailros (Chronicle of Melrose Abbey) is a history written by the monks of Melrose Abbey covering universal history from 745-1270.  The material before the founding of the abbey in 1140 is based on the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Chronica of Roger of Howden.  The Chronicle includes the oldest known account of the sealing of the Magna Carta and records the solar eclipse of 1 May 1185.  (Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)^[124]
• Bartholomew of Cotton. Bartholomew of Cotton (d. 1321/1322) was a Benedictine monk from Cotton who was master of the cellar at the Friary of Norwich.  He wrote his Historia Anglicana providing the history of Saxon and Norman kings through 1292.  His work was extended by the Norwich Chronicle to 1298.  (Rolls Series, Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)^[125][126]
• Minor Works. Other works of interest include Historia ducum Venetorum, Annales Romani, and those by Geoffrey the Lombard and Gunther of Basle. (MGH Scriptores, V, Runc. Vol I, pg. 332, Runc. Vol II, pg. 494, Runc. Vol III, pg. 495).

Modern histories concerning the Crusades are derived from these sources (and those listed below) began in the 16th century and are described in Historiography of the Crusades.^[127]

Byzantine, Frankish Greek and Cypriot Sources of the Crusades

The Byzantine empire, subsequent Latin Empire of Constantinople, Frankish Greek states of the Frankokratia and the Kingdom of Cyprus offer a large number of sources on Crusades history, beginning with Alexios I Komnenos and his reign as described in The Alexiad, and continuing into the 14th century.^[128] Historiens grecs in RHC, edited by Carl B. Hase, includes translations of many of these documents as does Patrologia Graeco-Latina (MPG).

The Alexiad of Anna Komnene

Anna Komnene (1083-1153) was a Byzantine princess and historian who wrote the seminal work The Alexiad in around 1148. The daughter of emperor Alexios I Komnenos, Anna's work covers the history of her father's reign and beyond, the years from 1081–1108. The work comprises 13 books and is categorized as:

• Attacks on Byzantium by Robert Guisard and the crowning of Alexios I (1081-1087)
• Pecheneg invasions of Byzantium (1091)
• Relations with the Turks including the Seljuk Tzachas and the conspiracy of Nicephorus Diogenes (1087-1094)
• The First Crusade and aftermath (1094-1104)
• Attacks by Bohemond of Taranto (1104-1108)
• Final excursions and death of Alexios I (1108-1118).

After her father's death, she attempted to usurp her brother John II Komnenos and was exiled. She wrote The Alexiad during her confinement. (RHC Gr. Volume 1.II, MPG 131, Runc. Vol I, pg. 327, Runc. Vol II, pg. 475)^[129]

Other Byzantine, Latin Empire and Frankish Greek Sources

Other references relevant to the Crusades are historical documents relating to Byzantium, before and after the time of Alexios I, the Latin Empire and Frankish Greece.

• Liutprand of Cremona. Liutprand of Cremona (921-972) was an Italian historian whose works Antapodosis, seu rerum per Europam gestarum, covering 887–949, and Relatio de legatione Constantinopolitana ad Nicephorum Phocam covering 968–969, are an important source of Byzantine politics of the 10th century.  (MGH Scriptores, 41, Runc. Vol I, pg. 346)^[130]
• Michael Attaleiates. Michael Attaleiates (1022-1080) was a Byzantine public servant and historian who wrote The History, a political and military history of the empire from 1034–1079. The work naturally praises emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates, but also show and affinity towards the general Alexios I. He also prepared a number of policy documents including Ordinance for the Poor House and Monastery. (RHC Gr., Volume 1.1, Runc. Vol I, pg. 347)
• Michael Psellos. Michael Psellos (1017-1078) was a Byzantine polymath and historian who wrote his Chronographia covering the emperors of the 11th century through Michael VII Doukas. (RHC Gr., Volume 1.1)
• Letter from Alexios I Komnenos. Emperor Alexios I Komnenos wrote a missive known as his Mousai to his son and successor John II Komnenos. (Runc. Vol I, pgs. 328, 344)^[131]
• John Kinnamos. John Kinnamos (1143-after 1185) was a Byzantine historian who Summary of the feats of the late emperor and purple-born lord John Komnenos and narration of the deeds of his celebrated son the emperor and purple-born lord Manuel I Komnenos done by John Kinnamos his imperial secretary, an extension of The Alexiad covering the years 1118–1176. This includes the defeat of Manuel I Komnenos by the Seljuks of Rûm at the battle of Myriokephalon in 1176. (RHC Gr., Volume 1.II, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 475, 495)^[132]
• Niketas Choniates. Niketas Choniates (1155-1217) was a Byzantine historian who wrote Nicetæ Choniatæ Historia (Niketas Choniates’ History) covering the period 1118–1207. His account of the sack of Constantinople in 1204 is particularly well-regarded. (RHC Gr., Volume 1.II/III, Runc. Vol II, pg. 475, Runc. Vol III, pg. 481)^[133]
• George Akropolites. George Akropolites (1217-1282) was a Byzantine historian whose Annals is a continuation of the Nicetæ Choniatæ Historia and covers the period from the loss of Constantinople in 1204 until its recovery by Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261. (RHC Gr., Volume 1.V, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 481, 498)
• George Pachymeres. George Pachymeres (1242-1310) was a Byzantine Greek historian whose History, published in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, Volumes 37–38, was a continuation of Akropolites’ work for the years 1255–1308. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 481)
• Joannes Zonaras. Joannes Zonaras (fl. 12th century) was a Byzantine theologian and chronicler who wrote Epitome Historiarum (Extracts of History) covering Byzantium from Creation until the death of Alexios I in 1118. (Runc. Vol I, pg. 328)
• Michael Glykas. Michael Glykas (1130-1200, approximate) was Byzantine scholar who wrote a history of Byzantium from Creation until the death of Alexios I in 1118. (Runc. Vol I, pg. 328)
• Theodore Skoutariotes. Theodore Skoutariotes (1230-after 1282) was a Byzantine cleric who wrote his Chronicles, a history of Byzantium from Creation until 1261.^[134]
• Chronicle of the Morea. The Chronicle of the Morea is a 14th-century history cover the Franks establishing Crusader states in Greece from 1202-1292 (later in some editions). The work includes a discussion of the civil organization of the Principality of Achaea.^[135]
• Henry of Valenciennes. Henry of Valenciennes was a chronicler of Henry of Flanders, Latin Emperor of Constantinople, from 1206–1216. His work is regarded as a continuation of that of Geoffrey of Villehardouin (see above).^[136]
• Nicephorus Gregoras. Nicephorus Gregoras (1295-1360) was a Byzantine theologian and historian who wrote his 37-volume Byzantine History covering the years 1204–1359. (RHC Gr., Volume 1.V, MPG 146)
• Laonikos Chalkokondyles. Laonikos Chalkokondyles (1430-1470) was a Byzantine Greek historian from Athens whose Histories encompassed the last 150 years of the Byzantine empire, from 1298–1463.^[137]
• Doukas. Doukas (1400-after 1462) was a chronicler of the last of the Byzantine emperors, Constantine XI Palaiologos, from 1449–1453.^[138]

Sources from the Kingdom of Cyprus

The Kingdom of Cyprus was founded in 1192 at the end of the Third Crusade and continued through the 15th century. Historical sources for the Crusades beyond those discussed above for the Later Crusades include the following.

• Gestes des Chiprois. An author known as the Templar of Tyre (fl. 1315-1320) wrote Les Gestes des Chiprois (Deeds of the Cypriots), a history of the Crusader states and Kingdom of Cyprus between 1132–1309. The work includes one of two descriptions of the fall of Acre in 1291 and an account of the trials of the Knights Templar in 1311. The Templar of Tyre may be Gerard de Monreal, secretary to Guillaume de Beaujeu, Grand Master of the Knights Templar, who died at the siege. (RHC Ar., Volume 2.VI, AOL, XIIIe, XIVe, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 482, 496)^[139][140]
• Guillaume de Machaut. Guillaume de Machaut (1300-1377) was a French poet who wrote La Prise d’Alixandre, an account of the campaign of Peter I of Cyprus, titular king of Jerusalem, against Egypt during the Alexandrian Crusade.^[141]
• Leontios Machairas. Leontios Machairas (1360/1380-after 1432) was a Cypriot historian who wrote his Kronika (Chronicle) covering the history of Cyprus from the visit of Saint Helen in the late 3rd century until 1432. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 481)^[142]
• Francesco Amadi. Francesco Amadi (d. after 1445) was an Italian chronicler whose Chroniques d’Amadi et de Stromboldi covers the Crusades from 1095 and a history of Cyprus through 1441.  Chroniques d’Amadi includes narratives from a number of sources including Estoire d’Eracles, Annales de le Terre Sainte and Les Gestes des Chiprois, along with original material.  The Chroniques de Stromboldi are a translation of Leontios Machairas’ Kronika by Diomède Stromboldi.  (Runc. Vol III, pg. 494)^[143]
• Floria Bustron. Floria Bustron (d. before 1570) was a jurist and historian who wrote Historia overo commentarii de Cipro (Chronique de l’Ile de Chypre), an account of Cyprus through the 16th century, including the trials of the Knights Templar in Cyprus in 1311. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)^[144]
• Georgios Boustronios. Georgios Boustronios (1439-after 1502) was a Cypriot chronicler who wrote Diegesis Kronikas Kyprou (Narrative of the Chronicle of Cyprus) that extends Macharias’ Chronicle until 1489 when Cyprus was ceded by queen Catherine Cornaro to the Republic of Venice. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 481).

Arabic and Persian Sources

The major historical works written in Arabic or Persian, by Moslem or Coptic Christian authors, include the foundational chronicles of ibn Qalanisi and ibn al—Athir for the First Crusade and after, as well as other chronicles, biographies, reference material, legal documents, travel accounts and literature.^[145] Modern historians including Aziz Suryal Atiya,^[146] Carole Hillenbrand,^[147] Francesco Gabrieli,^[148] Clifford E. Bosworth^[149] and Farhad Daftary^[150] have produced numerous work that also provide extensive bibliographies of Arabic and Persian sources.

The Damascus Chronicle of ibn Qalanisi

Ibn al-Qalanisi (1071-1160), a descendant of Banū Tamim, was a politician and historian in Damascus who wrote Dhail or Mudhayyal Ta'rikh Dimashq (Continuation of the Chronicle of Damascus) covering the period 1056–1160. During that time, Damascus was ruled by Seljuks, Burids and finally Zengids. It is regarded as a continuation of Hilal al-Sabi’ s History which ends in 1056. The major version available in translation was compiled and edited by H. A. R. Gibb and provides a yearly chronicle from1096-1160.^[151] The rulers of Damascus during the chronicle include Duqaq, Toghtekin, his son Taj al-Mulk Buri and Nur ad-Din, son of Zengi. Accounts of the siege of Tyre in 1111–1112, the Assassins, and Crusader interactions with the Fatimids are noteworthy. Ibn al-Qalanisi was the first Arabic chronicler of the Crusades to have widespread usage of suffixed curses (e.g.,may God curse them) to his mentions of the Franks (Runc. Vol I, pgs. 333-334)^[152]

Complete History by ibn al-Athir

Ali ibn al-Athir (1160-1233) was an Arab or Kurdish historian whose family settled in Mosul in 1181 during the rule of the Zengid emir Izz al-Din Mas’ud. He wrote his masterpiece Complete Work of History, also known as The Complete History, The Perfect or al-Kāmil fi’l-Ta’rīkh, beginning in 1231. His work is chronological, and includes the Creation, the pre-Islamic world of Arabs, Persians, Romans and Jews, the caliphate and successor dynasties, and the Crusades from 1096–1231. The work draws heavily on that of ibn al-Qalanisi. D. S. Richards, Emeritus Fellow of Arabic at Oxford, translated portions of ibn al-Athir as part of Ashgate Publishing's Crusade Texts in Translation. They are titled under the general descriptor The chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr for the crusading period from al-Kāmil fīʾl-taʾrīkh, and include the following three parts:

1. The Years 491–541/1097–1146. The Coming of the Franks and the Muslim Response (2005)
2. The Years 541–589/1146–1146. The Age of Nur al-Din and Saladin (2007)
3. The Years 589–629/1193–1231. The Ayyūbids after Saladin and the Mongol Menace (2008).

The volumes include extensive bibliographical information on manuscript source, primary sources, and translations. (RHC Or., Volumes 1, 2, Runc. Vol I, pg. 334, Runc. Vol II, pg. 481, Runc. Vol III, pg. 485)^[153]

Sources on the Caliphate before 1096

Most modern histories of the Crusades include relevant background material on the Fatimid caliphate, the Abbasid caliphate and sultanates including the Seljuk and Ghaznavid dynasties.^[154] Major references are identified in Principal Sources for the History of the Near East, 600-1050.^[155]

• Ibn Muyessar. Ibn Muyessar, also known as Taj al-Din Abu 'Abdallah Muhammad or ibn Moyessar, (d. 1278) was an Egyptian historian who wrote Textes Arabes et ètudes Islamiques concerning Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Egypt. The extract included in RHC includes historical material on caliphs al-Mu’izz li-Din Allah, al-Aziz Billah and al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, viziers al-Afdal Shananshah and al-Ma’mum al-Bata’ihi, and Mamluk sultan Baibars. (RHC Or., Volume 3 [extracts], Runc. Vol II, pgs. 348n, 496)^[156]
• Al-Makrizi. Al-Makrizi (1364-1442) was an Egyptian historian descended from the Fatimids who wrote extensively on the caliphates and sultanates that ruled the country. Some of his material appears to be based on that of ibn Muyessar. (History of Egypt in ROL, Vol. VIII-X, Runc. Vol II, pg. 496)^[157]
• Ibn al-Athir's Account of the Seljuks. The history of the Seljuks from ibn al-Athir's The Complete Work History was translated by D. S. Richards into The Annals of the Saljuq Turks: Selections from al-Kamil fi’l-Tarikh ibn al-Athir that covers the period from 1029–1097, including the Seljuk sultans from Chaghri and Tughril through Barkiyaruk. (RHC Or., Volume 1, Runc. Vol I, pg. 334).^[158]
• Severus ibn al-Muqaffa. Severus ibn al-Muqaffa (d. 987) was a Coptic Orthodox bishop living in Egypt at the time of the overthrow of the Abbasid caliphate by the Fatimids. He was the initial author of Ta'rikh Batarikat al-Kanisah al-Misriyah (History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria). (Runc. Vol I, pg. 349)
• Muhammad Aufi. Muhammad Aufi (1171-1242) was a Persian historian whose Jawami ul-Hikayat (Collections of Stories and Illustrations of Histories) is the standard account of Persian history, and in particular the Ghaznavids, from Creation until the fall of the Abbasid caliphate under al-Mustansir in 1242.^[159]

Other Arabic-language Historical Sources on the Crusades

Selected Arabic languages sources for the pre-Crusades and Crusades eras include the following.

• Hilal al-Sabi’. Hilal bin al-Muhassin al-Sabi' (969-1056) was an Arabic civil servant historian who worked for Buyid emir of Iraq Samsam al-Dawla. His works include Rusum dar al-khilafa (Rules and Regulations) and Tarikh Hilal al-Sabi (History) and provide insight into the Abbasid caliphate of the 11th century.^[160]
• Al-Sulami. Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami (1039-1106) was a Damascene historian who was among the first to preach jihad against the crusading Franks in his Kitāb al- Jihād (Book of Struggle or Jihad). He is among the first to use suffixed curses in describing the Franks.^[161]
• Al-Azimi. Al-Azimi (1090-after 1161) was an Aleppan chronicler of Syria, writing Al Muwassal 'ala al-Asl al-Mu’assal, a history of Syria, and Ta'rikh Halab (The History of Aleppo). His work influenced other historians such as ibn al-Athir and covered the Mirdasid rule of the city and the rise of the Seljuk Aksungur al-Hajib, father of Zengi. (Runc. Vol I, pg. 334, Runc. Vol II, pg. 480)^[162]
• Usama ibn Munqidh. Usama ibn Munqidh (1095-1188) was Syrian from the Banū Munqidh dynasty of Shaizar who served under Zengi, Nur ad-Din, Saladin as well as the Fatimids and Artuqids throughout his 50-year career. His most famous work was Kitab al-I’tibar (Book of Contemplation) written as a gift to Saladin in 1183, and includes numerous accounts of the Crusaders. (Runc. Vol II, pg. 496)^[163][164]
• Ibn Asakir. Ibn Asakir al-Dimashqi al-Shafi`i al-Ash`ari (1105-1175) was an Islamic scholar and historian from Damascus. He was a prolific author, mostly of religious texts, and wrote his Tarikh Dimashiq (History of Damascus) under the patronage of Nur ad-Din who built the madrasa Dar al-Hadith in his name in 1170.^[165]
• Al-Isfahani. Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani (1125-1201) was a Persian historian who lived in Mosul and was in the service of Saladin. His major works were a chronicle al-Fath al-Qussīfī’l-Fath al-Qudsī (Eloquence on the Conquest of Jerusalem) covering the period from 1187–1189, and al-Barq al-Shāmī (The Syrian Lightning), an autobiography that extolls Saladin's military expeditions. The latter was used in The Book of Two Gardens of Abu Shama. (Runc. Vol II, pgs. 480, 496)^[166]
• Al-Maqdisi. Diya al-Din al-Maqdisi.(1173-1245) was a Muslim scholar and historian who accompanied Saladin on his quests. He wrote of the life of Muslims under Frankish rule in his biographical dictionary, Karāmāt Mashā’ikh al-Ard al-Muqaddasa (The Cited Tales of the Wondrous Doings of the Shaykhs of the Holy Land). He was an early supporter of jihad against the Franks.^[167]
• Sibt ibn al-Jawzi. Sibt ibn al-Jawzi (1185-1256) was an Islamic preacher and historian who wrote Mirat az-Zeman (Mirror of time in histories of the notables), a lengthy encyclopedic biographical history covering Moslem history through 1256, with the material on the 12th century mostly derivative of other authors.^[168] (RHC Or., Volume 3 [extracts], Runc. Vol II, pg. 482)^[169]
• Kamal al-Din. Kamal al-Din (1192-1262), also known by his family name of Ibn al-Adim, was an Aleppan historian who wrote Bughyat al-ṭalab fī tārīkh Ḥalab (The Crème de la Crème of the History of Aleppo), a biographic study of the rulers of Aleppo through 1260. (RHC Or., Volume 3, Runc. Vol I, pg. 334, Runc. Vol II, pg. 480)^[170]
• Ibn Wasil. Jamāl al-Din Muhammad ibn Wasil (1208-1298) was a Syrian historian who wrote Mufarrij al-Kurūb fi Akhbār Barii Ayyûb (The Remover of Worries about Reports of the Scions of Ayyûb) as history of the Ayyubid dynasty through the rise of Baibars in 1260. (Runc. Vol II, pgs. 485, 498)^[171]
• Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad. Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad (1145-1234) was an Arab historian who counted Saladin as among his close friends. His biography of the sultan was al-Nawādir al-Sultaniyya wa'l-Maḥāsin al-Yūsufiyy (The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin) is regarded as seminal and also provides key insight into the Third Crusade. He also wrote an Islamic legal treatise The Refuge of Judges from the Ambiguity of Judgements as well as The Virtues of the Jihad. Much of the knowledge of Baha ad-Din comes from his biography in ibn Khallikan's work. (RHC Or., Volume 3, PPTS, Vol VIII, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 480, 496)^[172]
• Ibn Abi Tayyi. Ibn Abi Tayyi (1180-1228) was an Aleppan historian whose Universal History is mostly lost. Excerpts of his material is included in other works including the Sīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn used in The Book of Two Gardens of Abu Shama. ( Runc. Vol II, pgs. 437n, 481–482)^[173]
• Abu Shama. Abū Shāma Shihāb al-Dīn al-Maqdisī (1203-1268) was a chronicler of 13th century Damascus thirteenth-century Damascus. Best known for his histories Kitāb al-rawḍatayn fī akhbār al-dawlatayn al-Nūriyya wa-l-Ṣalāḥiyya (The Book of the Two Gardens, concerning affairs of the reigns of Nur ad-Din and Saladin) and al-Dhayl ʿalā l-rawḍatayn (Sequel to the Two Gardens). The Book of the Two Gardens consists mainly of transcripts from ibn Qalanisi, ibn al-Athir, Baha ad-Din Shaddad, al-Isfahani, ibn Abi Tayyi and the Rasāʾil of al-Fadil. (RHC Or., Volumes 4, 5, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 376n, 383–386, 481, Runc. Vol III, pg. 485)^[174]
• Ibn al-Amid.  al-Makin ibn al-Amid (1205-1273) was a Coptic Christian historian from Egypt who wrote his al-Majmu` al-Mubarak (The blessed collection) in two parts.  The first part is concerned with the world from the time of Adam until 586.  The second traces Islamic history from the prophet Mohammed until the time of Baibars in 1260.  The second half was published later under the titles Historia saracenica and L'Histoire mahometane.  (Runc. Vol III, pg. 485)^[175]
• Ibn Khallikan. Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282) was an Arab Islamic scholar who wrote a biographical dictionary Wafayat al-ayan wa-anba al-zaman (Deaths of Eminent Men and the Sons of the Epoch) which documented the prominent people of the time, including Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad. It was written between 1256–1274. (RHC Or., Volume 3, Runc. Vol II, pg. 482, Runc. Vol III, pg. 486)^[176]
• Chronicon orientale.  Chronicon orientale (al-Taʾrīkh al-sharqī) is a universal history written by an anonymous Coptic Christian between 1257–1260.  The work covers the period from the Old Testament through Egypt and Syria up to 1260. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 485-486)
• Abu’l-Fida. Abu’l-Fida (1273-1331) was a Kurdish politician, geographer and historian from Syria who had descended from Ayyub, father of Saladin. He wrote numerous works including Tarikh al-Mukhtasar fi Akhbar al-Bashar (Concise History of Humanity), a history called An Abridgment of the History at the Human Race, a continuation of ibn al-Athir's The Complete History, through 1329, and texts Taqwim al-Buldan (A Sketch of the Countries) and Kunash, concerning geography and medicine, respectively. (RHC Or., Volume 1, Runc. Vol III, pg. 486)^[177]
• Ibn al-Furat. Ibn al-Furat (1334-1405) was an Egyptian historian who wrote the universal history Taʾrīkh al-duwal wa ’l-mulūk (History of the Dynasties and Kingdoms). Only the portions after 1106 were completed. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 498)^[178]
• Badr al-Din al-Ayni. Badr al-Din al-Ayni (1360-1453), known as al-Aini, was an Arab Islamic scholar who wrote his The Necklace of Pearls (Perles d’Historie) covering the Ayyubid and Mamluk sultanates from 1226, with most of the early work derived from previous histories.  (RHC Or., Volume 2.1, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 486, 498)^[179]
• Abu’l-Mahāsin. Abu’l-Mahāsin Yūsuf (1411-1469) was a student of al-Makrizi who wrote a biography of Saladin referred to as Anecdotes and good habits of the life of the Sultan Youssof and az-Zahireh. His Nodjoum is extracted in RHC and covers the years 1098-1157 although his chronology differs from the mored-accepted one of ibn al-Athir. (RHC Or., Volume 3, Runc. Vol II, pg. 496)^[180]
• Other Arab Historians of the Crusades. These include ibn al-Azraq al-Fariqi and Ibn Abd al-Zahir, Hamdan ibn Abd ab-Rahim, Ibn Zuraiq, al-Fadil, as-Shaibani, ibn ad-Dahhan, ibn at-Tawair, al Maqrizi^[181] and Ismail al-Jazari.^[182] (Runc. Vol I, pg. 334, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 485-486).

Persian Sources

The Persian sources shown below are generally concerned with the Nizari Isma’ili State, established in Persian at Alamut Castle in 1092, the relations with neighboring Arab and Turkic empires such as the Seljuk sultanate of Rûm and Khwarazmians, and the Mongol conquest of Persia beginning in 1219.^[183][184]

• Hassan-i Sabbah.  Hassan-i Sabbah (1050-1124) was the Persian founder of the Assassins and first ruler of the Nizari Isma’ili State that operated throughout Persian and Syria.  His autobiography Sarguzasht-e Sayyidnā (The Adventures of Our Lord) has not survived but was available to other scholars including Ata-Malik Juvayni and Rashid al-Din.  The Assassins were viewed as advantageous to the Crusaders in the early 12th century, particularly Tancred, and detrimental to their Muslim foes.  Later activities were not so beneficial, losing de facto King of Jerusalem, Conrad of Montferrat in 1192 and Philip of Montfort of Tyre in 1270 to Assassins.  (Runc. Vol II, pgs. 119-120)^[185]
• Ibn al-Malāḥimī. Ibn al-Malāḥimī (before 1090-1141) was a Khwarazmian Islamic scholar who authored a number of religious texts including al-Muʿtamad fī uūl ̣al-dīn (The Reliable Book on the Principles of Religion), al-Fāʾiq fī l-uūl (The Excellent Book on the Principles of Religion), Tuḥfat al-mutakallimīn fī l-radd ʿalā l-falāsifa (The Gift to the Theologians Concerning the Refutation of the Philosophers) and al-Tajrīd (The Abstract)
• Al-Shahrazuri. Al-Shahrazuri (fl. 1201-1211) was a Persian historian who wrote Nuzhat al arwâḥ wa rawḍat al-afrâḥ, a compilation of biographies of notable scholars of 13th-century Persia.^[186]
• Ata-Malik Juvayni.  Ata-Malik Juvayni (1226-1283) was a Persian historian who wrote Tarīkh-i Jahān-gushā (History of the World Conqueror) an account of the Mongol Empire.  The work describes the Ilkhanate as well as the Assassins of the Nizari Isma’ili State. After the Mongol destruction of the Nizaris, Juvayni had access to the archives of the sect, drawing from them for his history before destroying them. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 301)^[187]
• Ibn Bibi.  Ibn Bibi (d. after 1285) was a Persian historian whose work el-Evâmirü'l-Alâiyye fi’l-umûri'l-Alâiyye was written at the request of Ata-Malik Juvayni.  The history covers the Seljuk sultanate of Rûm from the period 1192-1280 and was presented to then sultan Kaykhusraw III.  (Runc. Vol II, pg. 483, Runc. Vol III, pg. 487)^[188]
• Rashid-al-Din. Rashid-al-Din Hamadani (1247-1318) was a Jewish-turned-Islamic physician and historian who was vizier to the Ilkhan Ghazan whose Jāmiʿ al-Tawārīkh (Compendium of Chronicles) was a history of the Mongols from the time of Adam until 1311.  The book deals with the history of Mongol conquests from the time of Genghis Khan through that of Ghazan and the History of the Franks through 1305. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 487, 499)^[189][190]
• De modo Sarracenos extirpandi. Guillaume Adam (d. 1341) was a missionary and later archbishop of Soltaniyeh, Persia.  He wrote De modo Sarracenos extirpandi (1316-1317) detailing his approach for the West to defeat the Byzantine empire and the Ilkhanids.  He may also have written Directorium ad passagium faciendum, a Crusade proposed to Philip VI of France.  (RHC Ar., Volume 2.IV, Runc. Vol III, pg. 494)^[191]
• Omar Khayyam. Omar Khayyam (1048-1131) was a Persian polymath who was the author of numerous mathematical, scientific and poetic works.  Khayyam went to work in the service of Nizam al-Mulk, vizier to Malik-Shah I, in 1075 and later worked for Ahmad Sanjar in Merv.  He is recognized in historical works by al-Isfahani and al-Shahrazuri. In his translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, poet Edward Fitzgerald claimed a friendship among Khayyam, Hassan-i Sabbah and Nizam al-Mulk which is most certainly false.^[192]

Armenian, Syriac and Georgian Sources

Historical sources from the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, including the Bagratuni dynasty, Christian historians writing in the Syriac language in the Levant, and the Kingdom of Georgia, under the Bagrationi dynasty, are described below.^[193]

The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa

Matthew of Edessa (second half of 11th century-1144) was an Armenian historian from Edessa His history Chronicle covers the first half of the 9th century through second half of the 12th. The work is in three parts. The first part covers the period 951–1051. The second covers 1051–1101, and the third covers up to 1129, with some material up to 1136 that may have been done by a collaborator. While the first two parts are a broader history of Byzantine and Caucusus affairs, the third part focuses exclusively on Edessa and its environs. Two parts of the Chronicle have received particular attention. The first is a letter from emperor John I Tzmiiskes to king Ashot III of Armenia in 975 and the second is a discourse from exiled king Gagik II of Armenia to Constantine X Doukas after 1045 on the divergence of the Greek and Armenian churches. The work was continued after his death, believed to be during the siege of Edessa, by Gregory the Priest. (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol I, pgs 335–336, Runc. Vol II, pg. 483)^[194]

Other Armenian Sources

Other sources of Armenian history in addition to Matthew of Edessa include the following.^[195]

• Gregory the Priest. Gregory the Priest (fl. 1160s) was an Armenian priest from Kaysun who wrote Chronique de Grégoire le Prètre, a continuation of Mathew of Edessa's Chronicle, to cover Armenian history from 1136–1162. (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 348n, 354–357, 483)^[196]
• Nerses Shnorhall.  Nerses Shnorhall (1102-1173), also known as Nerses IV the Gracious, was Catholicos of Armenia from 1166–1173.  His poem Voghb Yedesyo (Elégie sur la Prise d’Edessa, or Elegy on the taking of Edessa) has modest historical interest.  Following the fall of Jerusalem, his successor Gregory IV Dgha wrote a similar poem Elégie sur la Prise de Jérusalem (Elegy on the taking of Jerusalem), again with limited historical significance.  (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol II, pg. 483)^[197]
• Nerses of Lambron. Nerses of Lambron (1153-1198), nephew of Nerses Shnorhall, was archbishop of Tarsus and author of numerous works on ecclesiastical history.  Those with particular historical relevance include his Mediation of the Institution of the Church and the Master of the Mass and Letter to Leo II, King of Armenia, both excerpted in RHC.  (RHC Ar., Volume 1)^[198][199]
• Samuel of Ani.  Samuel of Ani (fl. 12th century) also known as Samuel Anec’i (Anetsi) was an Armenian priest and historian from Ani whose Universal Chronicle (La Chronographie de Samuel d’Ani) covers Armenian history from the time of Adam until 1180.  He was a student of Hovhannes Imastaser (1047-1129), an Armenian polymath whose biography may have be written by Kirakos of Gandzaketsi. (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol I, pgs. 335, 349, Runc. Vol II, pg. 483)^[200]
• Kirakos of Gandzaketsi. Kirakos Gandzaketsi (1200/1202-1271), also known as Cyriacus of Ganja, was an Armenian historian whose History of Armenia covers the period from the 3rd century to the 12th century.  The work includes accounts of the subjugation of the Armenians by Turkic and Mongol invaders, in particular Abaqa Khan.  He also wrote The Journey of Haithon, King of Little Armenia, To Mongolia and Back about the travels of Hethum I of Armenia to the Mongolian court and possibly a biography of Hovhannes Imastaser. (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol I, pg. 335, Runc. Vol II, pg. 483)^[201]
• Vardan Areweic’i. Vardan Areweic’i (1200‑1271) also known as Vartan the Great or Vardan of the East was an Armenian historian whose work History of the World covers the period from Creation until 1264 when he was sent by Hethum I of Armenia on a mission to Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan.  (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol I, pg. 335, Runc. Vol II, pg. 483, Runc. Vol III, pg. 497)^[202]
• Vahram of Edessa. Vahram of Edessa (d. after 1289), also known as Vahram Rabuni, was a monk who, as secretary to Leo II of Armenia, wrote his Chronique Rimée de la Petite Arménie (The Rhymed Chronicle of Armenia Minor) covering Armenian history from the time of Ashot I of Armenia (rule from 884-890) until the death of Leo II in 1289.  His work discusses Constantine II, Ruben III, Thoros II, Leo I, and queen Isabella among others.  (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol I, pg. 349, as History of the Rupenian Dynasty, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 182n, 201n, 484)^[203]
• Sempad the Constable.  Sempad the Constable (1208-1276), also known as Smbat Sparapet, was an Armenian noble and brother of Hethum I.  He wrote Chronique du Royaume de Petite Armenie (Chronicle of the Kingdom of Little Armenia) covering Armenian history through 1270.  He also translated the Assizes of Antioch into French.  (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol II, pg. 483, Runc. Vol III, pg. 484)^[204]
• Continuation of Sempad's Chronique.  The continuation and ending of Sempad the Constable’s Chronique du Royaume de Petite Armenie was anonymously authored and covered the period from Sempad’s death until th 1330s.  (RHC Ar., Volume 1, [Appendix to Chronique], Runc. Vol II, pg. 483)^[205]
• Mekhitar of Airavang.  Mekhitar of Airavang (1230-1300), also known as Mxit’ar of Ayrivank’, was an Armenian monk known for his work Chronological History covering through 1289.  (Runc. Vol I, pgs. 335, 349)^[206]
• Chant Populaire.  An anonymous popular song called Ballad on the captivity of Leo describes the captivity of Leo II of Armenia following the battle of Mari in 1266.   (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol III, pg. 499)
• Historical Poem of Hethum II.  Hethum II of Armenia (1266-1307) composed Poeme de Hethoum II, Roi d’Arménie, a short chronicle of Armenian Cilicia, published in 1308. The work was subsequently included in some Armenian Bible. (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol III, pg. 323)^[207]
• Hayton of Corycus.  Hayton of Corycus (1240-1310/1320), also known as Hethum of Gorigos, was an Armenian noble and historian whose La Flor des estoires de la terre d'Orient (Flower of the Histories of the East) concerns the Muslim conquests and Mongol invasion.  (RHC Ar., Volume 1 [Table Chronologiques], RHC Ar., Volume 2.II, Runc. Vol II, pg. 487)^[208][209]
• Mekhithar de Daochir. Mekhithar de Daochir (fl. 1262), also known as Mxit’ar of Tašir, wrote an account called Relation of the Conference held with the Papal Legate, presumably about a meeting with Armenian Catholicos Constantine I of Cilicia in Acre in 1262.  (RHC Ar., Volume 1)^[206]
• Directorium ad passagium faciendum. The Directorium ad passagium faciendum (Initiative for making the passage) is a Latin text written in 1332 attributed either to a Dominican priest named Burcard (Brocardus Monacus) or to Guillaume Adam.  The objective of the work was to persuade Philip VI of France to embark on a Crusade to conquer Serbian-occupied Albania. (RHC Ar., Volume 2.III, Runc. Vol III, pg. 494)^[191]
• Mardiros de Crimée. Mardiros de Crimée (fl. 1375), the Martyr of Crimea, wrote Liste Rimée des Souverains de la Petite Arménie (Poem on the Kings of Little Armenia) about the Rubenid dynasty from Ruben I of Armenia (ruled 1080-1095) through Leo V of Armenia  who ruled through 1375.^[210]
• Jean Dardel. Jean Dardel (fl. 1375-1383) was a French friar who was an advisor to Leo V of Armenia and wrote a chronicle of Armenian history called Chronique d’Arménie that covers the 14th century.  (RHC Ar., Volume 2.I, Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)^[211]
• Minor sources. The include works in Documents arméniens of RHC by Gregory IV Dgha, entitled Elégie sur la Prise de Jérusalem, and by Basil the Doctor, entitled Oraison Funèbre de Baudouin for his patron Baldwin of Marash. (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 240n, 483)

Syriac Sources

Several historic sources of the Crusades were written in the Syriac language by scholars belonging to the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Church of the East. These include the following.^[212]

• Basil bar Shumna. Basil bar Shumna (d. 1169/1171) was metropolitan Bishop of Edessa in the Syriac Orthodox Church beginning in 1143 who wrote a (now lost) history of Edessa covering the period from 1118-1169/1171.  His work was used in both the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian and the Chronicle of 1234.  (Runc. Vol I, pg. 335, Runc. Vol II, pg. 484)^[213]
• The Chronicle of Michael the Syrian. Michael the Syrian (1126-1199), also known as Michael the Great, was patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church and author of his Chronicle in Syriac covering history of the world from Creation until 1195 and includes material from writings of Basil bar Shumna. (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol I, pg. 335, Runc. Vol II, pg. 484)^[214]
• Chronicle of 1234. The Chronicle of 1234, also known as the Anonymous Syriac Chronicle, is a history of Syria and Armenia from Creation until 1234.  The work includes material from writings of Basil bar Shumna. The author also provides a first-hand account of the loss of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187, later joining the staff of the maphrian of the Syriac Orthodox Church, likely Gregorios Jacob.  (RHC Ar., Volume 1, Runc. Vol I, pg. 349, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 126n, et al., 483, 484)^[215][216]
• Bar Hebraeus. Bar Hebraeus (1226-1286), also known as Gregory bar Ebroyo was a scientist and historian who served as maphrian of the Syriac Orthodox Church at Mosul from 1266–1286.  He wrote numerous works including Chronicon Syriacum and Chronicon Ecclesiasticum covering political/civil and ecclesiastical history from Creation until the later 1280s.  (Runc. Vol II, pgs. 111n, 118n, 484)^[217]

Georgian Sources

The Kingdom of Georgia and the ruling Bagrationi dynasty played an important role in the history of the Crusades, primarily engaging with the Byzantine empire and dominant Muslim sultanates ruling in the area. Georgia had eight monasteries in Jerusalem in 12th century and so an interest in the Holy Land, and fought regularly with the Artuqids and Seljuks. The major Georgian historical sources include the following.^[218]

• Sumbat Davitis Dze. Sumbat Davitis Dze (fl. 1030) was a Georgian historian who wrote The Life and Tale of the Bagratids, a history of the Bagrationi dynasty from Biblical king David through 1030.^[219]
• Ibn al-Azraq al-Fariqi. Ibn al-Azraq al-Fariqi (1116-1176) was a historian from Mayyafariqin who wrote Ta'rikh Mayyafariqin wa-Amid (The history of Mayyafariqin and Amid) a history that concentrates on the Artuqid dynasty, particularly Ilghazi and his victory over Roger of Salerno at the battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119. The narrative then provides an account information on the Bagrationi dynasty from 1121–1163. This includes an account of the battle of Didgori in 1121 in which David IV of Georgia defeated the Muslim armies led by Ilghazi. Ibn al-Azraq served under the subsequent kings Demetrius I and George III. (Runc. Vol II, pg. 496)^[220]
• The Georgian Chronicles. The Georgian Chronicles are a compendium of medieval texts from the 9th through 14th centuries describing the history of the Kingdom of Georgia. The original works covered the period from Creation through 786. Later this was extended to the period 1008–1125, covering the Bagrationi dynasty from the rule of Bagrat III of Georgia through that of David IV of Georgia. The chronicles include The Life and Tale of the Bagratids, authored by Sumbat Davitis Dze, History of the King of Kings, Tamar, the life of Tamar of Georgia (d. 1213), and Chronicle of a Hundred Years, covering the years 1212–1318. (Runc. Vol II, pg. 484, (Runc. Vol II, pgs. 160n, 431n, 497, Runc. Vol III, pg. 488)^[221]

Related Documents and Disciplines

Crusader historians have made use of numerous religious, legal and personnel documents as well as scientific disciples such as archaeology in their attempt to accurately depict their chronicles. These include legal treatises of the Crusader States, Papal documents, personal accounts from travels and pilgrimage, genealogy, geography, archaeological studies, numismatics and art history.

Organization and Administration of the Kingdom

The organization and administration of the Kingdom of Jerusalem provides much information to the histories of the Crusades.^[222][223] In particular, the legal documents concerning the Crusades and later governing of the Kingdom of Jerusalem are of significance to the study of the Crusades and form the first series of the RHC, entitled Assises de Jérusalem ou Recueil des ouvrages de jurisprudence composés pendant le XIIIe siècle dans les royaumes de Jérusalem et de Chypre, edited by Auguste-Arthur, Count of Beugnot.  Relevant texts are listed below.^[224]

• Assizes of Jerusalem. The Assizes of Jerusalem are a set of six legal texts (see I-VI below) from the kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus dating from the late 12th and early 13th centuries. According to legend, the court system was established by Godfrey of Bouillon in 1099, with the king serving as judge of the high court. The laws were lost when Jerusalem was taken in 1187, and were kept at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.  Known as Letres dou Sepulcre, Philip of Novara allegedly received the original laws from a jurist named Raoul of Saint Omer (d. 1220). Regardless, the legend allowed the envisioning of a legal structure existing since the founding of the kingdom. (RHC Lois, Volumes 1, 2, Runc. Vol II, pg. 479, Runc. Vol III, pg. 484)^{[225][226][227]}
• I. Livre de Jean d’Ibelin.  Livre de Jean d’Ibelin was written by jurist John of Ibelin (1215-1266), count of Jaffa and Ascalon.  Ibelin wrote his lengthy legal work from 1264-1266.  The treatise enumerates the laws of the kingdom and procedures of the feudal council, the Haute Cour. It also included details about the kingdom’s ecclesiastical and baronial structures.  (RHC Lois, Volume 1.I  Runc. Vol III, pg. 484)^[228]
• II. Livre de Geoffroy le Tort.  Livre de Geoffroy le Tort is a short legal treatise written by a minor noble named Geoffroy le Tort (Tor) after 1265.  The work addresses addresses feudal customs such as homage, and is partially derived from that of Philip of Novara.  (RHC Lois, Volume 1.II)
• III. Livre de Jacques d'Ibelin.  Livre de Jacques d’Ibelin is written by James of Ibelin, count of Jaffa from 1266–1268, the son of John of Ibelin.  His short treatise describes the practices, customs and ordinances of the kingdom and is often published in conjunction with that of Geoffrey le Tort.  (RHC Lois, Volume 1.III)
• IV. Livre de Philippe de Navarre. This legal treatise, also known as Le Livre de forme de plait, was written by Philip of Novara in the 1250s.  The work is from an aristocratic viewpoint, written in the literary language of knights, and is a handbook on feudal law.  (RHC Lois, Volume 1.IV  Runc. Vol III, pg. 484)^[229]
• V. La Clef des Assises de la Haute Cour du royaume de Jérusalem et de Chypre.  The work La Clef des Assises de la Haute Cour was written in the mid-13th century by an anonymous author and details the laws of the Haute Cour of the kingdom.  (RHC Lois, Volume 1.V)
• VI. Livre au Roi.  Livre au Roi is the earliest of the assizes, written c.1200 for Amalric II of Jerusalem.  It is the only text preserving the établissement of King Baldwin II, which allowed the king to disinherit his vassals, bypassing the normal judgement of the Haute Cour. The work also includes the Assise sur la ligece, a law promulgated by Amalric I of Jerusalem which made each lord a direct vassal of the king with equal voting rights granted to vavasours as those of barons.  (RHC Lois, Volume 1.VI)
• Livre des Assises de la Cour des Bourgeois. Livre des Assises de la Cour des Bourgeois discusses formation and procedures of the Burgess court of the kingdom, Cour des Bourgeois, including the legal matters of resident Franks below the noble class. The work was written from 1229-1244 and was compiled in stages by multiple authors.  It also served as a handbook for members of the court, providing descriptions of the responsibilities of officers of the court, the rights of burgesses, and when they could utilize the court. Legal matters in the work include misdemeanors, the sale of property, the legal rights of landowners and renters, and rules on lending, marriage, inheritance, dowry, illegitimacy and wills and testaments.  (RHC Lois, Volume 2.I, Runc. Vol III, pg. 484) ^[230]
• Assizes of Antioch. The Assizes of Antioch provided the legal code for the Principality of Antioch similar to those of the kingdom.  Each of the Crusader states had assizes, but that of Antioch is the only one to survive, through a translation by Sempad the Constable.  (Runc. Vol III, pg. 484)^[231]
• Assizes of Romania. The Assizes of Romania were the collection of legal codes complied in Principality of Achaea that became the foundation of the laws of  the states of Frankokratia following the Partitio terrarium imperil Romania in 1204. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 485, 495)^[232][233]

Papal and other Religious Documents

Major papal and other religious documents relevant to Crusader history, some of which have been published in Patrologia Latina (MPL), include the following.

• Papal Letters. Papal letters are generally referred to in medieval times as Litterae apostolicae (Apostolic letters) and include the Papal bulls typically used to call for the early Crusades.  Some of the more relevant ones are presented below.  (Runc. Vol II, pg. 479)^[234]
• Gregory VII.  Prior to the First Crusade, Gregory VII (1073-1085) proposed to William I, Count of Burgundy in 1075 that he form a task force with Raymond of Saint-Gilles to support the Greeks against the Normans in southern Italy and then proceed to Constantinople.  Chronicler Bernold of Constance, documenter of the reforms proposed by Gregory, is also the major source on the Council of Piacenza.  (MPL 148, MGH Epistolas, II, Runc. Vol I, pg. 344)^[235]
• Urban II.  In 1095, pope Urban II (1088-1099) addressed the Council of Clermont, issuing a call-to-arms for Christians to go to the Holy Land to aid emperor Alexios I Komnenos, in what was to become the First Crusade.  Gesta Francorum and the works of Fulcher of Chartres, Robert the Monk, Baldric of Dol and Guibert of Nogent include accounts of that address.  Later, the pope issued a Letter of Instruction to the Crusaders. (Runc. Vol I, pgs. 108, 346)^[236]
• Paschal II. Pope Paschal II (1099-1118) issued the papal bull Pie postulatio volunatis in 1113 recognizing the establishment of the Knights Hospitaller. (MPL 163, Runc. Vol II, pg. 158n)^[237]
• Eugene III.  In response to the fall of Edessa in 1144, pope Eugene III (1145-1153) issued a papal bull known as Quantum praedecessores to undertake the Second Crusade to the Holy Land. (Runc. Vol II, pg. 248)^[238]
• Innocent II. Pope Innocent II (1130-1143) issued the papal bull Omne datum optimum in 1139 endorsing the Knights Templar.
• Alexander III. Vita Alexandri III is the biography of pope Alexander III (1159-1181) in Liber Pontificalis, Volume II.  (Runc. Vol II, pg. 495)^[239]
• St. Bernard of Clairvaux. St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) was a French abbot who was commissioned by Eugene III to preach the new Crusade, with biography Vita Sancti Bernardi (MPL 185). After the failure of the Crusades, Bernard wrote De Consideratione Libri Quinque (Five books on consideration: advice to a Pope) as an apology to Eugene III for the Second Crusade.  (MPL 182, Runc. Vol I, pg. 343, Runc. Vol II, pg. 236n, 495)^[240][241]
• Gregory VIII. Pope Gregory VIII (1187) issued a papal bull in 1187 known as Audita tremendi calling for the Third Crusade after the fall of Jerusalem.
• Innocent III. In 1198, pope Innocent III (1198-1216) issued the papal bull Post Miserabile calling for the Fourth Crusade. After the sack of Constantinople, he sent a reprimand to the papal legate before embracing the inevitable. Later, Innocent called for the Fifth Crusade during the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215. (MPL 214–217, Runc. Vol III, pg. 496)^[242][243]
• Gesta Innocentii III. Gesta Innocentii III (The Deeds of Innocent III) was written between 1204-1209 by a member of the pope’s curia.  (MPL 214, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 109-112, 496)^[244]
• Peter of Capua. Peter of Capua (d. 1242) was a theologian who served as papal legate and cardinal.  After his participation in the Fourth Crusade, he was sent to secure papal support for emperor Isaac II Angelos.  His works include Alphabetum in artem sermocinandi and Summa.  (Runc. Vol III, pg. 117n)^[245]
• Gregory IX. Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241) issued papal bull Rachel suum videns in 1234 calling for what was to become known as the Barons’ Crusade.  He also updated canonical laws in his Decretales Gregorii IX, critiqued by Hostiensis (d. 1271), a canonist who was an influential writer on the legal aspects of Crusading. (MGH Epistolas, XIII.1, Runc. Vol III, pg. 496)^[246][247]
• Humbert of Romans. Humbert of Romans (1190/1200-1277) was a Dominican friar who wrote De predicatione crucis  and De eruditione praedicatorum outlining his sermons and general approach to preaching the Crusades..He is known for his preaching and organizational support for the Seventh Crusade under Louis IX of France.  His Opus tripartitum, to be presented at the Second Council of Lyon, discussed reforms necessary for successful crusading.  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 340-341)^[248]
• Second Council of Lyon. The Second Council of Lyon of 1272 included a call by pope Gregory X (1271-1276) for a new Crusade, in liaison with the Mongols, to recover the Holy Land.  The pope's death in 1276 put an end to these plans.  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 340-341).^{[249][250][251]}
• Clement V. Pope Clement V (1305-1314) issued the papal bull Vox in excelso in 1312 in order to dissolve the Knights Templar. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 438)
• Later Popes. Letters of 13th century popes from Innocent III forward are included in Bibliothèque des Ecoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome (Library of the French schools of Greece and Rome). (Runc. Vol III, pg. 494)
• Liber Pontificalis. Liber Pontificalis (The Book of Popes) is a collection of biographies of the popes from Saint Peter through Pius II (1458-1464).  The work includes Annales Romani is a history of the city of Rome from 1044-1187 (with gaps). (MGH Scriptores, V, Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)^[252]

The Military Orders and the Holy Land after 1291

The military orders of the Holy Land include the Knights Templar, Knights Hospitaller and Teutonic Knights.^[253] Other works relating to the orders and activities in the Holy land after the fall of Acre include Gestes des Chiprois and Thaddeus of Naples' Hystoria de desolacione civitatis Acconensis.^[254]

• Cartulaire général de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers. Cartulaire général de l'Ordre des Hospitaliers (1100-1310) is a collection of original documents on the history of the Knights Hospitaller, edited by J. Delaville le Roulx and published 1894 and 1906. (Runc. Vol II, pg. 494)^{[citation needed]}
• Exordium Hospitalariorum. Exordium Hospitalariorum, also known as Tractus de Exordio Sacrae Domus Hospitalis Jerosolimitani, is a history of the Knights Hospitaller written by an unknown author known only as Joseph the “Historiographer.”  (RHC Oc., Volume 5.IX, Runc. Vol I, pg. 345)
• Fragmentum Provinciale de Captione Damiate. Fragmentum Provinciale de Captione Damiate is an anonymous account of the Siege of Damietta of 1218–1219 and the roles of the military orders, John of Brienne and Sauvary of Mauléan in the battle and its aftermath.  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 161-163, 495)^[255]
• Ricaut Bonome. Ricaut Bonomel (fl. 1265-1266) was a Knight Templar and troubadour at the time of the Eighth Crusade whose work Poems is traced to between the capture of the Hospitaller castle at Arsuf in 1265 and the loss of the Templar fortress at Saphet in 1266 by Mamluk sultan Baibars.  (Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)
• Pierre Dubois.  Pierre Dubois (1255-1321) was a French propagandist who wrote De recuperatione Terre Sancte about recovery of the Holy Land using the wealth of the Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 495)^[256]
• Bruno, Bishop of Olmütz.  Bruno von Schauenburg (1205-1281), Bishop of Olmütz, was an advisor to Ottokar II of Bohemia and published his memoirs Bericht sometime after 1272.  As described there, after the death of Richard of Cornwall in 1272, Bruno pressed pope Gregory X to appoint Ottokar II as king of Germany, citing the failure of the Teutonic Knights in their pursuing Lord Edward’s Crusade.  The position went instead to Rudolf I of Germany.  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 339, 495)
• Collectio de Scandalis Ecclesiae.  Gilbert of Tournai (d. 1284) was a Franciscan historian linked to Saint Bonaventure (1221-1274) whom he accompanied to the Second Council of Lyon of 1272.  Gilbert wrote a Collectio de Scandalis Ecclesiae (Collection of Church scandals), addressed to pope Gregory X, taking an adversarial position to the Knights Templars and Knights Hospitallers, suggesting that they be united into a single institution. He also castigated the negligence of Christians towards the Holy Land, and called for a new Crusade. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 339, 495)^[257][258]
• De Excidio Urbis Acconis. De Excidio Urbis Acconis (Destruction of the City of Acre) is an anonymous account of the siege of Acre of 1291, with earlier material based on William of Tyre’s Historia.  De Excidio presents a more popular view (as opposed to nobleman) of the history and of the Knights Hospitaller’s last stand.  The work takes a dim view of the Knights Templar and, in particular, Otto de Grandson, master of the English knights at Acre.  For other works on the siege, see Gestes des Chiprois and Hystoria de desolacione civitatis Acconensis. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 419, 495)^[259]
• Galvano of Levanti. Galvano of Levanti, a physician in the papal court of Boniface VIII, was a propagandist who wrote Liber Sancti Passagii Christocolarum contra Saracenos pro recuperatione Terra Sanctae in 1295 dedicated to Philip IV of France called for a new Crusade.  He was influenced by Thaddeus of Naples’ account of the fall of Acre.  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 431, 495)
• Peter of Dusburg. Peter of Dusburg (d. after 1326) was a German chronicler of the Teutonic Knights though his history Chronicon terrae Prussiae that includes a discussion of the origin of the order in 1192 at Acre and its history in Outremer.^[260]
• William Durand. William Durand (d. 1328/1330) was bishop of Mende who wrote in 1311 a three-volume work De modo celebrandi concilii et corruptelis for pope Clement V, who later issued papal bull Vox in excelso.  His work Informatio brevis de Passagio futuro, in Historie littéraire de la France, XXXV, a treatise published in 1312 on a possible Crusade to the Holy Land.  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 433, 495)^[261]
• La Devise des Chemins de Babiloine.  La Devise des Chemins de Babiloine is a document prepared for Foulques de Villaret (d. 1327), Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller, providing an assessment of Mamluk forces, as research for a possible invasion.  When the document was written in 1306–1307, al-Nasir Muhammad was sultan of Egypt and Syria.^[262]
• Rhodiorum historia.  Rhodiorum historia is a collection of histories of the Knights Hospitaller written by Guillaume Caoursin (1430-1501), the historian of the Knights Hospitaller.  He also wrote Stabilimenta Rho-diorum militum, a compilation of the order’s rules, Obsidionis Rhodiae urbis descripto, an account of the siege of Rhodes in 1480.^[263]
• Trials of the Knights Templar. The trials of the Knights Templar in Cyprus in 1311 are discussed in Gestes des Chiprois by the Templar of Tyre, the Chroniques d’Amadi et de Stromboldi and Historia overo commentarii de Cipro. (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 495, 496)^[264]

Correspondence

Crusaders and other travelers to the Holy Land have documented their experiences through personal correspondence, and many of these have been recognized by historians, for example the letters of Stephen, Count of Blois and Anselm of Ribemont. Some of the more important letters are listed below.^[265]

• Letters of the First Crusade. Two of the oft-cited letters from Crusaders are those of Stephen, Count of Blois, to his wife Adela of Normandy in June 1097 from NIcaea, and March 1098 from Antioch (a third letter has been lost), and that of Anselm of Ribemont to his superior Manasses II, archbishop of Reims, sent from Antioch in November 1097. (RHC, Oc., Volume 3.X, Runc. Vol I, pgs. 222, 333, 344, 346)^[266]
• Letters from Symeon II.  Symeon II of Jerusalem (fl. 1080-1099) sent a letter with Adhemar of Le Puy from Antioch to the Western church describing the progress of the Crusade.  (Runc. Vol I, pgs. 222, 346)
• Letter of Dagobert on Jerusalem.  In 1100, Dagobert of Pisa, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, wrote to Bohemond of Taranto offering him the lordship of Jerusalem in opposition to the knights of the city who supported Baldwin of Boulogne.  The letter was intercepted and Bohemond captured shortly thereafter.  (Runc. Vol I, pgs. 311–312, 345)^[267]
• Reinstatement of Arnulf. In 1116, pope Paschal II sent a letter reinstating Arnulf of Chocques to the post of patriarch of Jerusalem. (Runc. Vol II, pg. 104, AA, Vol XII, 24, pg. 704)
• Letters from Conrad III of Germany.  During the Second Crusade, Conrad III of Germany wrote of the crusade to Wibald, abbot of Corvey, about status of his contingent, especially after the devastating loss at the siege of Damascus in 1148.^[268]
• Letter on the Fall of Jerusalem.  In 1187, after the siege of Jerusalem, a certain Ansbert wrote of Saladin's victory to the Master of the Hospitallers.^[269]
• Communications of Frederick Barbarasso. In 1189, early in the Third Crusade, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I wrote to Leopold V of Austria and received from Sibylla of Jerusalem letters regarding the emperor Isaac II Angelos' dealings with Saladin.^[270]
• Epistolae Cantuarenses. Epistolae Cantuarenses include letters of the archbishops of Canterbury Baldwin of Forde and Hubert Walter of the later 12th century discussing the relationship with the Canterbury Cathedral and Baldwin’s travel to the Holy Land in 1190.  It includes a letter concerning the deaths of Sibylla of Jerusalem and her daughters.  (Rolls Series, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 30, 495)
• Communications of Innocent III. After the Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae in 1204, Innocent III exchanged letters with Baldwin I, Latin Emperor, on the status of Constantinople. (RHF Vol XVIII,  Runc. Vol III, pgs. 128, 495
• Letters on the Sixth Crusade.  After the retaking of Jerusalem in the Sixth Crusade in 1229, the event was seen from different viewpoints in the letters of  Frederick II to Henry III of England and that of Gerold of Lausanne, Patriarch of Jerusalem, to the faithful.  (Rolls Series, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 189-191)^[271]
• Insights on the Seventh Crusade.  After the siege of Damietta in 1249, a knight named Guy in service of Louis IX of France during the Seventh Crusade wrote of the siege to his half-brother, providing a unique insight into the conflict.^[272]
• Letter from Joseph of Chauncy to Edward I.  Following the Second Battle of Homs in 1281, Joseph of Chauncy, Prior of the English Hospitallers, wrote to Edward I of England concerning the activities of Hugh I of Jerusalem and Bohemond VII of Antioch.  (PPTS, Vol V, (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 392, 495)
• Letter from Jean de Villiers. Jean de Villiers, Grand Master of the Hospitallers, wrote a letter to Europe following the siege of Acre in 1291 trying to explain the loss of the city to the Mamluks. The letter recounts the story of Hospitaller Marshall Matthew of Clermont, who leapt into the midst of the Mamluks causing them to flee like “sheep from wolves”  This story is also told in De Excidio Urbis Acconis,Thaddeus of Naples’ Hystoria de desolacione civitatis Acconensis, and Gestes des Chiprois.^[273]

Accounts of Travel to the Holy Land and the Far East

Pilgrims, missionaries and other travelers to the Holy Land have documented their experiences through accounts of travel and even guides of sites to visit. Many of these have been recognized by historians, for example the travels of ibn Jubayr and Marco Polo. Some of the more important travel accounts are listed here. Many of these are also of relevance to the study of historical geography (see below) and some can be found in the publications of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society (PPTS).^[265]

• Sæwulf.  Sæwulf was an English pilgrim who travelled to the Holy Land from 1102–1103.  His experiences were documented in the work Pilgrimage of Sæwulf to Jerusalem and the Holy Land. (PPTS, Vol IV, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 87n, 480, 495)
• John of Würzburg.  John of Würzburg (fl. 1160s) was a German priest who traveled to the Holy Land in the 1160s.  His work Descriptio terrae sanctae (Description of the Holy Land) may have been written as late as 1200.  His objective was to update the 7th-century De locis sanctis.  (PPTS, Vol V, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 480, 494)^[274]
• John Phocas.  John Phocas (fl. 12th cent) was a Byzantine traveler to the Holy Land who wrote of his exploits in Ekphrasis of the Holy Places (Concise Description).  (Runc. Vol II, pgs. 475, 495)^[275]
• Benjamin of Tudela.  Benjamin of Tudela (1130-1173) was a Jewish Spaniard  whose travels in 1166-1172 through Europe, Asia and Africa were document ed in work The Travels of Benjamin.  His account included descriptions of Jewish colonies in Syria of the time.  (Runc. Vol II, pgs. 296n, 484)^[276]
• Ibn Jubayr.  Ibn Jubayr (1145-1217) was an Arab geographer and traveler who documented his experiences in al-Rihlah (The Voyage) which includes his trip to Mecca from 1183-1185 and included travel to Egypt and Sicily.  (RHC Or., Volume 3, Runc. Vol II, pgs.  481, 496)^[277][278]
• Hakon Paulsson. Haakon Paulsson (d. ca. 1123) was a Norwegian Jarl who traveled to Jerusalem in 1120 and whose account is presented in the Orkneyinga saga written by an unknown Icelandic author.^[279]
• Neophytos of Cyprus. Neophytos of Cyprus (1134-1214) was a Cypriot monk who travelled to the Holy Land in 1158 and documented his experiences in De Calamitatibus Cypri.  His work also describes the plight of the Cypriots under Richard I of England during the conquest of the island in 1191.  (Runc. Vol II, pg. 496)^[280]
• Nikulas of Munkethverâ. Nikulas of Munkethverâ (d. 1169), an Icelandic abbot, visited Jerusalem from 1149-1153 and documented his travels in Leiðarvisir og borgarskipan.  The account is essentially a travel guide to Europe and the Holy Land for pilgrims.^[281]
• Henry the Lion.  Henry the Lion (1129/1130-1195) was Duke of Saxony who went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1172 where he met Kilij Arslan II, the Seljuk sultan of Rûm.  His journey was chronicled in Chronica Slavorum by a Benedictine monk named Arnold of Lübeck. (MGH Scriptores, 14, Runc. Vol II, pg. 393n, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 10, 74)^[282]
• Giovanni da Pian del Carpine.  Giovanni da Pian del Carpine (ca. 1185-1252), also known as John Pianô del Carpine, was a Franciscan missionary who was one of the first explorers to reach the Mongol empire.  His travels from 1245-1247 were documented in his Historia Mongalorum quos nos Tartaros appelamus (History of Mongols and Tartars).  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 485, 497)^[283][284]
• William of Rubrick.  William of Rubrick (fl. 1253-1255) was a Flemish Franciscan missionary who accompanied Louis IX of France on the Seventh Crusade and, in 1253, set out on a journey to Mongol territory.  His report of his travels Itinerarium fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis de ordine fratrum Minorum, Galli, Anno gratiae 1253 ad partes Orientales presented to Louis IX in 1255.  (Runc. Vol III, pg. 485)^[285]
• Marco Polo. Marco Polo (1254-1324) was an Italian explorer who traveled in Asia from Persia to China in 1271–1295.  He documented his exploits in The Travels of Marco Polo.  In particular, he wrote of the Assassins at Alamut Castle.^[286][287]
• Rabban Bar Sauma. Rabban Bar Sauma (1220-1289) was a Turkic monk who travelled from Mongol-controlled China to Jerusalem from 1287-1288 and recorded his activities in The Monks of Kublai Khan, Emperor of China, translated by E. A. W. Budge.  He also wrote a biography of his traveling companion Nestorian Yahballaha III.  (ROL, 1893, 1894, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 487, 499)^[288]
• Burchard of Mount Sion. Burchard of Mount Sion (fl. 1283) was a German friar who took a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1283 and documented his travels in Descriptio Terrae Sanctae (Description of the Holy Land), one of the last detailed accounts prior to 1291.^[289]
• Ludolf von Sudheim. Ludolf von Sudheim (fl. 1340), also known asLudolf of Suchem, travelled to the Holy Land from 1336–1341, writing De Terra sancta et itinere Iherosolomitano et de statu eius et aliis mirabilibus, que in mari conspiciuntur, videlicet mediterraneo (Description of the Holy Land, and of the Way Thither) documenting the fall of the Crusader states.  (PPTS, Vol XII, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 485, 496)
• Felix Fabri. Felix Fabri (1441-1502) was a Swiss Dominican theologian who travelled to the Holy Land and recorded his experiences in the Book of the Wanderings.  (PPTS, Vol XII-IX, Runc. Vol III, pgs. 485, 495)
• Related Works. Related works include Itinerarium Egeriae by Egeria (once attributed to Saint Sylvia of Aquitaine) and Chronica Slavorum by Arnold of Lübeck. (PPTS, Vol 1, Runc. Vol I, pgs. 39n, 346, Runc. Vol II, pgs. 390n, 449n, 493)^[290]

Genealogical Studies

The genealogy of the ruling classes of Christians and Muslims in the Holy Land during the Crusades period is summarized below (refer to Vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Islamic Dynasties). Runciman's Volume II, Appendix III^[11] and Volume III, Appendix III^[12] provide the genealogical trees of the major families. Specific reference documents include the following.

• Lignages d’Outremer. Lignages d’Outremer (Lineages of Outremer) was a genealogical study laying out the pedigrees of prominent Crusader families written in 1270. The Lignages traces fifteen noble families of Outremer and Cyprus that descended from Guy and Stephanie of Milly, parents of Philip of Milly. (RHC Lois, Volume 2, Appendix III, Runc. Vol II, pg. 494)^[291]
• Islamic Dynasties. Bosworth's work The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Handbook provides complete lists of original sources for the dynasties relevant to the Crusades, including the Abbasid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Seljuk caliphates, sultanates and khanates.^[154]
• Other Genealogies. Additional sources for historical materials include Historiens orientaux from RHC whose Introduction provides detailed genealogies for the caliphates and sultanates active during the Crusades. Additional material on the Artuqids is found in the works of ibn al-Azraq al-Fariqi^[292] and the Seljuks from 1070–1154 in Taef El-Azhari's workThe Seljuks of Syria during the Crusades.^[293] The discussion in Documents arméniens of RHC also includes information on the genealogy of the Armenian leaders. Thiou of Morigny's Chronicon Mauriniacense includes the genealogy of the houses of Montlhéry and Le Puiset, families with strong ties to the Crusader armies and the kingdom.

Historical Geography

Historical cartography, geography and topography are important sources in the study of the history of the Crusades.^[294]  Some of the more important contemporaneous works are presented below. In addition, many of the travel accounts above, in particular those of ibn Jubayr and William of Rubrick, also provide geographical and architectural information. A list of modern sources is provided in Zacour and Hazard, pgs. 525–529.^[14]

• Tractatus de locis et statu sancte terre ierosolimitane. Tractatus de locis et statu sancte terre ierosolimitane is an anonymous work concerning the geography of the Kingdom of Jerusalem prior to the fall of the city in 1187.  It also discusses the ethnography of the Christian groups living there as well as the feudal structure of the kingdom.  The non-Christian groups such as Jews, Bedouins and Assassins are also discussed.^[295]
• Muhammad al-Idrisi.  Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100-1165) was an Arab geographer who spent time at the court of Roger II of Sicily who commissioned the Tabula Rogeriana.  The Tabula Rogeriana was the most advanced map of the world at the time it was published in 1158 and was still in use at the time of Christopher Columbus.  (Runc. Vol III, pg. 498)^[296]
• Yaqut al-Hamawi. Yaqut al-Hamawi (1179-1229) was an Arab scholar whose work Kitāb Mu'jam al-Buldān (Alphabetical Dictionary of Geography) is simultaneously a book of geography, history, biography and Islam.  Much of his work was derived from travel through Egypt, Syria and Persia.  (Runc. Vol III, pg. 499)^[297][298]
• Ibn Abd al-Zahir.  Ibn Abd al-Zahir (1223-1293) was an Egyptian historian who wrote extensively of the Mamluk sultans as well as a geographical study Kitāb al-Rawḍah al-Bahīyah used extensively by al-Makrizi. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 485)^[299]
• William of Rubruck. William of Rubruck (fl. 1253-1255) was a Flemish missionary and explorer who was on the Seventh Crusade and afterwards traveled to the Mongol empire.  His exploits were documented in Itinerarium fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis de ordine fratrum Minorum, Galli, Anno gratiae 1253 ad partes Orientales and presented to Louis IX of France.  (Runc. Vol III, pgs. 485, 498)^[300]
• Taqwim al-Buldan. Taqwim al-Buldan (A Sketch of the Countries )is a text on geography by Abu’l-Fida (d. 1331).  It includes descriptions of the major cities of the world and contains the first known reference to the circumnavigator's paradox, in which travelers gain or lose a day circling the globe.^[301]
• Al-Dimashqi. Al-Dimashqi (1256-1327), the Damascene, was an Arab geographer whose work K. Nuk̲h̲bat al-Dahr fi ʿAd̲j̲āʾib al-Barr wal-Baḥr (Cosmographie de Ch. A. Abd. M. de-Dimichqi, or Geography) covered Greater Syria as well as Southeast Asia. (Runc. Vol III, pg. 498)^[302]
• Marino Sanudo.  Marino Sanudo the Elder (1260-1338) was a Venetian statesman and geographer who wrote Chronique de Romanie, and Liber Secretorum Fidelium Crucis (The Book of the Secrets of the Faithful of the Cross), a work on geography which was offered to the pope as a manual for the reconquest of the Holy Land.  (RISc 22, Runc. Vol III, pg. 497)^[303][304]

Archaeological Studies

Archaeological exploration has contributed to the understanding of the history of the Crusades by verifying or refuting accounts presented in original sources.  Particular emphasis has been on Crusader castles, history of the art of the period and epigraphy of Arabic inscriptions.^[305] Some of the more important researchers and the work are included below.^[306]

• Emmanuel Guillaume-Rey. Emmanuel Guillaume-Rey (1837-1913) was a French archaeologist, topographer and orientalist who wrote seminal works on the archaeology of the Holy Land including Etudes sur les monuments de l'architecture militaire des croisés (1871), Étude historique et topographique de la tribu de Juda (1862) and Étude sur la topographie de la ville d'Acre au XIIIe siècle (1879).  (Runc. Vol III, pg. 502)^[307][308]
• Max van Berchem. Max van Berchem (1863-1921) was a Swiss epigraphist and historian whose work includes Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum (1894)and Epigraphie des Assassins de Syrie (1897).  He was the pioneer in the use of Arabic inscriptions in historical analysis.
• Moshe Sharon. Moshe Sharon (b. 1937) is an Israeli historian whose Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae, published beginning in 1997, provides the epigraphy of the Holy Land relating to construction, dedication, religious endowments, epitaphs, Quranic texts, prayers and invocations.  His work has been instrumental in the continued analysis of original texts of the Crusades.
• Sheila Blair. Sheila Blair (b. 1948) is an American scholar of Islamic art who wrote the article Arab Inscriptions in Persia, in Epigraphy (Encyclopædia Iranica, 1998).^[309]
• Hugh Kennedy. Hugh Kennedy (b. 1947) is a British historian whose Crusader Castles (1994) is an account of the history and architecture of Crusader castles in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, County of Tripoli and Principality of Antioch between 1099 and 1291.^[310]
• David Nicolle. David Nicolle (b. 1944) is a British historian specializing in the military history of the Middle East.  His Crusader Castles in the Holy Land, 1192-1302 (2004) examines the early fortifications erected by the Crusaders in Israel, the Palestinian territories, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey.^[311]
• Denys Pringle.  Denys Pringle (b. 1951) is a British archaeologist and medievalist whose work Secular Buildings in the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem:  An Archaeological Gazeteer (1997) provides descriptive gazetteer of secular buildings (to include industrial sites) known to have existed within the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
• Camile Enlart. Camille Enlart (1862-1927) was a French archaeologist and art historian who wrote a seminal work L'art gothique et la Renaissance en Chypre (1899) on Crusader-era art.^[312]
• Other Works.  Other archaeological studies of the Middle East during the Crusader period include: Medieval Fortifications in Cilicia (2019) by Dweezil Vandekerckhove, covering Armenian structures from 1198-1375; Unknown Crusader Castles (2001) by Kristian Molin provides a military history of the Holy Land, Armenia, Cyprus and Greece from the First Crusade until 1380.^[313]

Numismatics and Sigillography

The disciples of numismatics, the study of coins and other money, and sigillography, the study of seals of Byzantium and the Latin Eas, play an important role in interpreting histories.^[314][315] The coinage of Outremer that has been studied are the coins of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Frankish Syria, and those of the Islamic world, including Frankish imitiation.^[316]

• Coinage of the Crusaders.  These are the coins with Latin or Greek inscriptions and include the money the Crusaders took with them (Western European), money they encountered en route (primarily Byzantine) and coins minted in the kingdom.^[317][318]
• Louis Félicien de Saulcy. Louis Félicien de Saulcy (1807-1880) was a French historian, numismatist and archaeologist whose study Numismatique des croisades (1847) was a pioneering work on the coins of the Crusader era.^[319]

• Gustave Schlumberger. Gustave Schlumberger (1844-1929) was a French historian and numismatist of the Crusades and Byzantine empire.  His classic study of coins Numismatique de l'Orient Latin (1878) is the standard reference. His Sigillographie de l’empire byzantin (1884) is a compendium of Byzantine seals.  He also wrote Sigillographie de l’Orient latin (1877), with a continuation by Ferdinand Chalandon (1875-1921), on the seals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Latin Empire of Constantinople.^[320]
• Coinage with Arabic Inscriptions.  In the Holy Land, the Crusaders encountered monetary systems different than that in Western Europe and Byzantium.  The Muslims used gold, silver and copper coinage, and the European also adopted Arabic gold and silver issues.^[321]
• George C. Miles. George C. Miles (1904-1975) was an Islamic numismatist whose work Fatimid Coins in the Collection of the University Museum, Philadelphia, cataloged of one major collection with references to previous work in the area.
• Paul Balog. Paul Balog (1900-1982) was an Italian Islamic numismatic and archaeologist.  His works include The Coinage of the Ayyubids (1980) and The Coinage of the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt and Syria (1964), both regarded as classic studies in Islamic numismatics.^[322][323]
• Monnaies à lé genres arabes de l’Orient latin. Monnaies à lé genres arabes de l’Orient latin (1958) by Paul Balog and Jacques Yvon (1923-1983) is the standard reference for the classifications of coins in Arabic from the Crusader era.^[324]

See Also

• Art of the Crusades
• Crusader States
• Crusades
• Historiography of the Crusades
• Islamic view on the Crusades
• List of Crusader Castles
• Military History of the Crusader States
• Military Orders of the Crusades

References