![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Manta_alfredi_fushivaru_thila.jpg/390px-Manta_alfredi_fushivaru_thila.jpg)
The market for shark and ray products is first and foremost a luxury one: The gill plates, in the case of manta rays, are used in China for a tonic soup that has become fashionable because of perceived medicinal properties, even though it is not in the traditional Chinese pharmacopoeia. This is a recent trend and has caused a population loss of up to 86% in the last six to eight years.
Threatened rays are those vulnerable to endangerment (extinction) in the near future. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) ranks threatened species in three categories:[4]
The term threatened strictly refers to these three categories (critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable), while vulnerable is used to refer to the least at risk of these categories.[4] The terms can be used somewhat interchangeably, as all vulnerable species are threatened, all endangered species are vulnerable and threatened, and all critically endangered species are endangered, vulnerable and threatened. Threatened species are also referred to as a red-listed species, as they are listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[5]
Together rays and sharks make up the class of modern cartilaginous fishes. Modern fish are either cartilaginous or bony. Cartilaginous fishes have skeletons made of cartilage while bony fishes have skeletons made of bone. Because rays and sharks are closely related, they are often studied together. In 2010 a global IUCN study of vertebrates found that of 1,044 cartilaginous (ray and shark) species examined, 345 or 33% were threatened with extinction.[6][7]
There are four orders of rays: stingrays, skates, electric rays and sawfishes. Like sharks, rays are relatively long living and thrive in stable populations. They are K-strategists which grow slowly, mature late sexually and produce few offspring. They cannot recover as rapidly as many faster growing fish can if their populations are depleted.[8] As with sharks, rays are increasingly becoming vulnerable because of commercial and recreational fishing pressures, the impact of non-ray fisheries on the seabed and ray prey species, and other habitat alterations such as damage and loss from coastal development and marine pollution.[9] Most particularly, the continuing decline of threatened rays and sharks is the consequence of unregulated fishing,[10] as illustrated by a recent international survey which listed only 38 species of skates and rays still subsisting in the highly impacted Mediterranean Sea.[11]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Sawfish_genova.jpg/220px-Sawfish_genova.jpg)
Manta rays are largest rays in the world, with wingspans reaching 7 metres.[13] They have one of the highest brain-to-body mass ratios of all fish.[14] Manta populations suffer when they are caught as bycatch by fishermen fishing for other species, but fisheries which target manta rays are even more harmful. Manta rays use their gills to filter plankton from the sea. Demand for their dried gill rakers, cartilaginous structures protecting the gills, has been growing in traditional Chinese medicine practices.[15] The market is "bogus" since dried manta gills have never been used historically in Chinese medicine, and there is no evidence that the gills have any medicinal value.[13][16][17] The flesh is edible and is consumed in some countries, but is tough and unattractive compared to other fish. To fill the growing demand in Asia for gill rakers, targeted fisheries have developed in other parts of the world, including Sri Lanka, Indonesia, West Africa and Central and South America.[18] Each year, thousands of manta rays, primarily the giant manta ray, are being caught and killed purely for their gill rakers. A fisheries study in Sri Lanka estimated that over a thousand of these were being sold in the country's fish markets each year.[19]
In 2011, manta rays became strictly protected in international waters thanks to their recent inclusion in the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals. The CMS is an international treaty organization concerned with conserving migratory species and habitats on a global scale. Although individual nations were already protecting manta rays, the fish often migrate through unregulated waters, putting them at increased risk from overfishing.[20] In 2013, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) listed both species of manta rays as CITES Appendix II species. This means that the international trade of manta rays will now be monitored and regulated.[2][21]
Sawfish are a less well known family of rays which have a long rostrum resembling a saw. Some species can reach 7 metres or 23 feet in length.[22][23][24] All species of sawfish are either endangered or critically endangered as a result of habitat destruction and overfishing.[12] Their young stay close to shore, and are particularly affected by coastal developments.[25] Because their rostrum is easily entangled, sawfishes can easily become bycatch in fishing nets. They are also exploited for the novelty value of their rostrum, their fins are eaten as a delicacy in China, and their liver oil used as a food supplement. While arguing for a global ban on international commerce in 2007, a representative from the National Museums of Kenya stated, "Only the meat is consumed locally; and artisanal fishermen can retire after catching one sawfish due to the high value of a single rostrum, up to $1,450."[12] In 2013 CITES uplisted the largetooth sawfish to Appendix I. This is CITES highest protection level, and means that all international trade of the species is banned.[26][27]
According to a 2021 study published in the journal Nature, relative fishing pressure in the oceans has increased by a factor of 18 since 1970.[28] This overfishing has resulted in the number of oceanic sharks and rays declining globally by 71%, and has increased the global extinction risk to the point where three-quarters of these species are now threatened with extinction. Precautionary science-based catch limits and strict prohibitions are now needed urgently if population collapse is to be avoided,[29][30] if the disruption of ecological functions is to be averted,[31] and if a start is to be made on rebuilding global fisheries.[32][28]
List
[edit]See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b Marshall, A.; Bennett, M.B.; Kodja, G.; Hinojosa-Alvarez, S.; Galvan-Magana, F.; Harding, M.; Stevens, G.; Kashiwagi, T. (2018) [amended version of 2011 assessment]. "Mobula birostris". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T198921A126669349. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T198921A126669349.en. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
- ^ a b Proposal 46: Genus Manta CITES, Sixteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties Bangkok (Thailand), 3–14 March 2013.
- ^ The fight to save threatened sharks and rays WWF, 6 March 2013.
- ^ a b Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (PDF). IUCN. August 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2012.
- ^ "Red List Overview". IUCN Red List. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Archived from the original on 27 May 2012.
- ^ Third of Shark and Ray Species Are Threatened, Study Suggests Science News, 27 October 2010.
- ^ Hoffmann M, C Hilton-Taylor and 173 others (2010) "The impact of conservation on the status of the world's vertebrates" Science, 330: 1503–1509. doi:10.1126/science.1194442
- ^ Conservation of Sharks CITES AC18 Inf. 1, 2002.
- ^ "The Greatest Threats to Sharks". Oceana. 2007. Archived from the original on 3 June 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
- ^ The Future of Sharks: A Review of Action and Inaction Archived 2013-05-12 at the Wayback Machine CITES AC25 Inf. 6, 2011.
- ^ Guide of Mediterranean Skates and Rays. Mendez L., Bacquet A. and F. Briand. Oct. 2022.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364309239_Guide_of_Mediterranean_Skates_and_Rays
- ^ a b c Black, Richard (11 June 2007). "Sawfish protection acquires teeth". BBC News.
- ^ a b Glider of the sea threatened by 'traditional' medicine New Scientist, 25 March 2013.
- ^ Ari, C. (2011). "Encephalization and brain organization of mobulid rays (Myliobatiformes, Elasmobranchii) with ecological perspectives". Open Anatomy Journal. 3: 1–13. doi:10.2174/1877609401103010001.
- ^ Wassener, Bettina (12 March 2013). "No species is safe from burgeoning wildlife trade". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
- ^ Manta Rays Endangered by Sudden Demand from Chinese Medicine ScientificAmerican, 17 January 2012.
- ^ "The global threat to manta and mobula rays" WildAid and Shark Savers. 2011 report.
- ^ "Manta Fisheries". The Manta Trust. 2011. Archived from the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
- ^ "Sri Lanka Manta Project". The Manta Trust. 2011. Archived from the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
- ^ "COP10 Outcome: Migratory Manta Ray under CMS Protection". Convention on Migratory Species. UNEP; CMS. 25 November 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
- ^ CITES conference takes decisive action to halt decline of tropical timber, sharks, manta rays and a wide range of other plants and animals
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2011). "Pristis microdon" in FishBase. February 2011 version.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2011). "Pristis perotteti" in FishBase. February 2011 version.
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- ^ Sawfish Is First Sea Fish on U.S. Endangered List National Geographic News, 4 June 2003.
- ^ Proposal 45: Pristis microdon CITES, Sixteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties Bangkok (Thailand), 3–14 March 2013.
- ^ "CITES Appendices I, II and III". Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Retrieved 7 March 2013.
- ^ a b Pacoureau, Nathan; Rigby, Cassandra L.; Kyne, Peter M.; Sherley, Richard B.; Winker, Henning; Carlson, John K.; Fordham, Sonja V.; Barreto, Rodrigo; Fernando, Daniel; Francis, Malcolm P.; Jabado, Rima W.; Herman, Katelyn B.; Liu, Kwang-Ming; Marshall, Andrea D.; Pollom, Riley A.; Romanov, Evgeny V.; Simpfendorfer, Colin A.; Yin, Jamie S.; Kindsvater, Holly K.; Dulvy, Nicholas K. (2021). "Half a century of global decline in oceanic sharks and rays". Nature. 589 (7843): 567–571. Bibcode:2021Natur.589..567P. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-03173-9. hdl:10871/124531. PMID 33505035. S2CID 231723355.
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- ^ Dulvy, Nicholas K.; Simpfendorfer, Colin A.; Davidson, Lindsay N.K.; Fordham, Sonja V.; Bräutigam, Amie; Sant, Glenn; Welch, David J. (2017). "Challenges and Priorities in Shark and Ray Conservation". Current Biology. 27 (11): R565–R572. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.04.038. PMID 28586694. S2CID 20632998.
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- ^ Manjaji Matsumoto, B.M.; Fahmi; White, W.T. (2016). "Urogymnus lobistomus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T161546A104290442. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T161546A104290442.en. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Himantura lobistoma" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Compagno, L.J.V. (2016). "Fluvitrygon oxyrhyncha". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T44185A104180982. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T44185A104180982.en. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Himantura oxyrhyncha" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Manjaji Matsumoto, B.M.; Last, P.R.; Fahmi; White, W.T. (2016). "Maculabatis pastinacoides". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T161540A104190354. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T161540A104190354.en. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Himantura pastinacoides" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Vidthayanon, C.; Baird, I.; Hogan, Z. (2016). "Urogymnus polylepis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T195320A104292419. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T195320A104292419.en. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Himantura polylepis" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Compagno, L.J.V. (2016). "Fluvitrygon signifer". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T39411A104182090. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T39411A104182090.en. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Himantura signifer" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ White, W.T.; Manjaji Matsumoto, B.M.; Fahmi (2016). "Pateobatis uarnacoides". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T161547A104234006. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T161547A104234006.en. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
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- ^ Manjaji Matsumoto, B.M.; White, W.T.; Gutteridge, A.N. (2016). "Himantura uarnak". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T161692A68629130. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T161692A68629130.en. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Himantura uarnak" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Rigby, C. (2012). "Himantura undulata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2012: e.T161621A14793852. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS.T161621A14793852.en. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
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- ^ Kulka, D.W.; Sulikowski, J.; Gedamke, T. (2009). "Leucoraja ocellata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161631A5468670. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161631A5468670.en. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
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- ^ White, W.T.; Kyne, P.M.; Last, P.R. (2016). "Myliobatis hamlyni". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T60124A68634957. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T60124A68634957.en. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
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- ^ Sulikowski, J.; Kulka, D.; Gedamke, T.; Barker, A. (2009). "Malacoraja senta". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161477A5432745. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161477A5432745.en. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
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- ^ Marshall, A.; Barreto, R.; Carlson, J.; Fernando, D.; Fordham, S.; Francis, M.P.; Herman, K.; Jabado, R.W.; Liu, K.M.; Pacoureau, N.; Rigby, C.L.; Romanov, E.; Sherley, R.B. (2019). "Mobula alfredi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T195459A68632178. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T195459A68632178.en. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Manta birostris" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Marshall, A.; Barreto, R.; Carlson, J.; Fernando, D.; Fordham, S.; Francis, M.P.; Herman, K.; Jabado, R.W.; Liu, K.M.; Rigby, C.L.; Romanov, E. (2020). "Mobula mobular". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T110847130A176550858. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T110847130A176550858.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.[dead link]
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Mobula mobular" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Valenti, S.V. & Kyne, P.M. (2009). "Mobula rochebrunei". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009. Retrieved 10 March 2013.[dead link]
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- ^ de Carvalho, M.R.; McCord, M.E. (2006). "Narcine brevilabiata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2006: e.T61406A12472583. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T61406A12472583.en. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
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- ^ Carvalho, M.R. de.; McCord, M.E. (2009). "Narke japonica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161665A5475983. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161665A5475983.en. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Narke japonica" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Moore, A.; Weigmann, S. (2017). "Raja pita". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T161723A109916678. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T161723A109916678.en. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Okamejei pita" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Fahmi; White, W.; Manjaji, B.M.; Vidthayanon, C.; Badi, S.; Capuli, E. (2009). "Pastinachus solocirostris". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161465A5430340. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161465A5430340.en. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
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- ^ Ishihara, H.; Wang, Y.; Tanaka, S.; Nakaya, K. (2009). "Platyrhina sinensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161589A5458790. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161589A5458790.en. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
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- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Rigby, C.; Simpfendorfer, C. (2019) [errata version of 2013 assessment]. "Pristis clavata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T39390A141790455. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T39390A141790455.en. Retrieved 19 January 2020.
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- ^ Carlson, J.; Wiley, T.; Smith, K. (2019) [errata version of 2013 assessment]. "Pristis pectinata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T18175A141791261. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T18175A141791261.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
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- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Carlson, J.; Smith, K. (2019) [errata version of 2013 assessment]. "Pristis pristis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T18584848A141788242. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T18584848A141788242.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
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- ^ Simpfendorfer, C. (2019) [errata version of 2013 assessment]. "Pristis zijsron". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T39393A141792003. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T39393A141792003.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Pristis zijsron" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Ishihara, H.; Wang, Y.; Tanaka, S.; Nakaya, K.; Jeong, C-H. (2009). "Beringraja pulchra". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161669A5476757. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161669A5476757.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Raja pulchra" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Coelho, R.; Bertozzi, M.; Ungaro, N.; Ellis, J. (2009). "Raja undulata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161425A5420694. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161425A5420694.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
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- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Rigby, C.L.; Dharmadi.; Jabado, R.W. (2019). "Rhina ancylostoma". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T41848A124421912. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T41848A124421912.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Rhina ancylostoma" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Séret, B.; Valenti, S.V. (2009). "Rhinobatos albomaculatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161320A5397463. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161320A5397463.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Rhinobatos albomaculatus" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Notarbartolo di Sciara, G.; Bradai, M.N.; Morey, G.; Brahim, K.; Camara L.; Litvinov; F., Dulvy; N. Doumbouya, F.; Ducrocq, M.; Heenan, A.; et al. (2007). "Rhinobatos cemiculus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2007. Retrieved 10 March 2013.[dead link]
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- ^ Compagno, L.J.V.; Ishihara, H. & Marshall, A.D. (2006). "Rhinobatos formosensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2006. Retrieved 10 March 2013.[dead link]
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- ^ Lessa, R.; Vooren, C.M. (2016). "Pseudobatos horkelii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T41064A103933918. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T41064A103933918.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Rhinobatos horkelii" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Séret, B.; Valenti, S.V. (2009). "Rhinobatos irvinei". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161409A5417520. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161409A5417520.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Rhinobatos irvinei" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ White, W.T. (2006). "Rhinobatos jimbaranensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2006: e.T63167A12625681. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T63167A12625681.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
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- ^ Compagno, L.J.V.; Marshall, A.D. (2019). "Glaucostegus obtusus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T60170A124447244. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T60170A124447244.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Rhinobatos obtusus" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ White, W.T. (2006). "Rhinobatos penggali". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2006: e.T63166A12625552. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T63166A12625552.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Notarbartolo di Sciara, G.; Bradai, M.N.; Morey, G.; Marshall, A.D.; Compagno, L.J.V.; Mouni, A.; Hicham, M.; Bucal, D.; Dulvy, N.; Heenan, A.; Rui Coelho. (2007). "Rhinobatos rhinobatos". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2007: e.T63131A12620901. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2007.RLTS.T63131A12620901.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Vooren, C.M.; Lamónaca, A.F. (2004). "Rhinoptera brasiliensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004: e.T44595A10912274. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T44595A10912274.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
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- ^ Dudley, S.F.J.; Kyne, P.M.; White, W.T. (2006). "Rhinoptera javanica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2006: e.T60129A12310446. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T60129A12310446.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
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- ^ McCormack, C.; Lamilla, J.; San Martín, M.J.; Stehmann, M.F.W. (2018) [amended version of 2007 assessment]. "Bathyraja albomaculata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T63102A136602064. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T63102A136602064.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
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- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Rigby, C.L.; Dharmadi; Jabado, R.W. (2019). "Rhynchobatus australiae". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T41853A68643043. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T41853A68643043.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Rhynchobatus australiae" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Gledhill, K.; Jabado, R.W. (2019). "Rhynchobatus djiddensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T39394A121035795. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T39394A121035795.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Rhynchobatus djiddensis" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Jabado, R.W. (2019). "Rhynchobatus laevis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T41854A124422344. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T41854A124422344.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Rhynchobatus laevis" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Jabado, R.W. (2019). "Rhynchobatus luebberti". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T60180A124448712. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T60180A124448712.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Rhynchobatus luebberti" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Rigby, C.L.; Last, P.R. (2019). "Rhynchobatus cooki". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T60181A151858712. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T60181A151858712.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Rhynchobatus palpebratus" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Kyne, P.M. (2019). "Rhynchobatus springeri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T60182A124448942. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T60182A124448942.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
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- ^ Kyne, P.M.; San Martín, J.; Stehmann, M.F.W. (2007). "Rioraja agassizii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2007: e.T63109A12607686. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2007.RLTS.T63109A12607686.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
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- ^ Dulvy, N.K.; Pasolini, P.; Notarbartolo di Sciara, G.; Serena, F.; Tinti, F.; Ungaro, N.; Mancusi, C.; Ellis, J.E. (2006). "Rostroraja alba". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2006: e.T61408A12473706. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T61408A12473706.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
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- ^ Treloar, M.A. (2009). "Spiniraja whitleyi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161496A5436892. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161496A5436892.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Massa, A.; Hozbor, N. (2004). "Sympterygia acuta". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004: e.T44642A10931230. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T44642A10931230.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
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- ^ Kyne, P.M.; White, W.T. (2015). "Taeniurops meyeni". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2015: e.T60162A68646736. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T60162A68646736.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Taeniurops meyeni" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ de Carvalho, M.R.; McCord, M.E.; Vidthayanon, C. (2009). "Temera hardwickii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161745A5493971. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161745A5493971.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Temera hardwickii" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Stevens, J.D. (2009). "Trygonorrhina melaleuca". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009. Retrieved 10 March 2013.[dead link]
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Trygonorrhina melaleuca" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Chin, A.; Compagno, L.J.V. (2016). "Urogymnus asperrimus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T39413A68648645. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T39413A68648645.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Urogymnus asperrimus" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Compagno, L.J.V. (2016). "Fontitrygon ukpam". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T39414A104173622. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T39414A104173622.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Urogymnus ukpam" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Last, P.R.; Marshall, L.J.; Trinnie, F. (2019). "Urolophus bucculentus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T60088A68649040. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T60088A68649040.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Urolophus bucculentus" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Last, P.R.; Marshall, L.J. (2019). "Urolophus orarius". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T60100A68649829. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T60100A68649829.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Urolophus orarius" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Last, P.R.; Marshall, L.J. (2019). "Urolophus sufflavus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T60104A68650134. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T60104A68650134.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Urolophus sufflavus" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Kyne, P.M.; Last, P.R.; Marshall, L.J. (2019). "Urolophus viridis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T60105A68650230. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T60105A68650230.en. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Urolophus viridis" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Robertson, R.; Valenti, S.V. (2009). "Urotrygon reticulata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161541A5447335. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161541A5447335.en. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Urotrygon reticulata" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Robertson, R.; Valenti, S.V. (2009). "Urotrygon simulatrix". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T161394A5413677. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009-2.RLTS.T161394A5413677.en. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Urotrygon simulatrix" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Vooren, C.M.; Lamónaca, A.F.; Massa, A.; Hozbor, N. (2006). "Zapteryx brevirostris". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2006: e.T61419A12478303. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2006.RLTS.T61419A12478303.en. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Zapteryx brevirostris" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Kyne ,P.M.; Lamilla, J.; Licandeo, R.R.; Jimena San Martín, M.; Stehmann, M.F.W.; McCormack, C. (2007). "Zearaja chilensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2007: e.T63147A12623314. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2007.RLTS.T63147A12623314.en. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Zearaja chilensis" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
- ^ Last, P.R.; Gledhill, D.C.; Sherman, C.S. (2016). "Zearaja maugeana". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T64442A68650404. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T64442A68650404.en. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
- ^ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Zearaja maugeana" in FishBase. March 2013 version.
Further reading
[edit]- Camhi, M.D; Valenti, S.V.; Fordham, S.V.; Fowler, S.L.; Gibson, C., eds. (February 2007). "The Conservation Status of Pelagic Sharks and Rays" (PDF). Pelagic Shark Red List Workshop. Oxford, England: IUCN Shark Specialist Group. ISBN 978-0-9561063-1-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2011. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
- Dulvy, N.K., Baum, J.K., Clarke, S., Compagno, L.J.V., Cortés, E., Domingo, A., Fordham, S., Fowler, S., Francis, M.P., Gibson, C., Martínez, J., Musick, J.A., Soldo, A., Stevens, J.D. and Valenti, S. (2008) "You can swim but you can’t hide: The global status and conservation of oceanic pelagic sharks and rays" Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 18 (5): 459–482.
- FAO (2000) Conservation and Management of Sharks Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries, Rome. ISBN 92-5-104514-3.
- Faria VV, McDavitt MT, Charvet P, Wiley TR, Simpfendorfer CA and Naylor GJP (2013) "Species delineation and global population structure of Critically Endangered sawfishes (Pristidae)" Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 167 (1): 136–164. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00872.x
- Fowler SL, Cavanagh RD, Camhi M, Burgess GH, Cailliet GM, Fordham SV, Simpfendorfer CA and Musick JA (comp. and ed.) (2005) Sharks, Rays and Chimaeras: The Status of the Chondrichthyan Fishes IUCN Shark Specialist Group, Status Survey. ISBN 2-8317-0700-5.
- Musick, John A and Bonfil, Ramón (2005) Management techniques for elasmobranch fisheries Fisheries Technical Paper 474, FAO, Rome.
- Teutscher, Frans (2004) "Sharks (Chondrichthyes)" In: World markets and industry of selected commercially-exploited aquatic species with an international conservation profile, Camillo Catarci. Fisheries Circular 990, FAO
- Endangered and Threatened Species Under NMFS’ Jurisdiction National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA. Updated: 28 February 28, 2013.
External links
[edit]- Protecting the fragile manta rays of the Maldives BBC, 5 March 2012.