THC Science

Shusha massacre
Shusha massacre
Part of the Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)
	Ruins of the Armenian half of Shusha after the city's destruction by the Azerbaijani army in March 1920. In the center: the defaced Armenian Ghazanchetsots Cathedral
Location	Nagorno-Karabakh (disputed between Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and First Republic of Armenia)
Date	March 1920
Target	Armenian civilians
Attack type	Massacre, pogrom
Deaths	500–20,000 Armenians
Perpetrators	Azerbaijani Army and Azerbaijani inhabitants of Shusha

The Shusha or Shushi massacre (Armenian: Շուշիի ջարդեր, romanized: Šušii ǰarder), also known as the Shusha pogrom,^[1] was the mass killing of the Armenian population of Shusha from 22–26 March 1920^[2] and the destruction and process of "cultural de-Armenianization" of Nagorno-Karabakh.^[3] The number of deaths vary across sources, with the most conservative estimate being 500, and the highest estimates reaching 20,000.

Background[edit]

At the end of the First World War, the ownership of the territory of Nagorno-Karabakh was disputed between the newly established republics of the Armenia and Azerbaijan. Shusha—the territory's largest settlement, its centre for social and cultural life, and with a mixed population consisting mostly of ethnic Armenians and Azerbaijanis—found itself at the heart of the dispute. The government of Azerbaijan proclaimed in Baku the annexation of the disputed territory and, on 15 January 1919, appointed Khosrov bek Sultanov,^[4] as governor-general of Karabakh. The United Kingdom had a small detachment of troops stationed in Shusha and acceded to Sultanov's appointment as provisional governor, but insisted that a final decision on the territory's ownership could only be decided at a future peace conference.^{[citation needed]}

In response to Sultanov's appointment, the General Assembly of the Armenians of Karabakh (Armenian National Council of Karabakh), meeting in Shusha from 10–21 February, issued a message stating that it "denies Azerbaijani authority in any form whatsoever."^[5] On 23 April 1919, the Karabakh Council convened in Shusha and again rejected Azerbaijan's claim of sovereignty, insisting on their right of self-determination. After this, a local Azerbaijani detachment encircled the Armenian quarters of Shusha and demanded that the inhabitants to surrender the fortress. Shots were fired, but by virtue of British mediation, the Armenians agreed to surrender to them instead.^[4] According to Colonel J.C. Rhea, acting Allied high commissioner, Sultanov "countenanced a polity of extermination of Armenians".^[6]

On 4 and 5 June 1919, armed clashes occurred in Shusha between the two communities and Sultanov began a blockade of the town's Armenian quarters. American nurses working in Shusha for Near East Relief wrote of a massacre "by Tartars of 700 of the Christian inhabitants of the town."^[7] A cease-fire was quickly organised after the Armenian side agreed to Sultanov's condition that members of the Armenian National Council leave the town. However, a new wave of violence then swept through neighbouring Armenian-populated villages: in mid-June Azerbaijani mounted "irregulars", about 2,000 strong, attacked, looted and burnt a large Armenian village, Khaibalikend, just outside Shusha, and approximately 600 Armenians lay dead.^[4]

The Seventh Congress of the Armenians of Karabakh was convened in Shusha on 13 August 1919. It concluded with the agreement of 22 August, according to which Nagorno-Karabakh would consider itself to be provisionally within the borders of the Republic of Azerbaijan until its final status was decided at the Peace Conference in Paris. As the historian Richard Hovhannisyan points out, the agreement concluded in August 1919 strictly limited the Azerbaijani administrative and military presence in the region and established the internal autonomy of Nagorno-Karabakh.^[8] Armenians remained divided on their response and a stock of arms was built up on both sides and the Armenians decided to deter a Tatar attack by staging an abortive uprising.^[9]

Persecutions and uprising[edit]

The August agreement for Armenian autonomy and Azerbaijani demilitarization was violated by the Azerbaijani authorities almost immediately. Sultanov received orders from Baku to annex both Karabakh and Syunik. The Azerbaijani garrison was reinforced and troops were deployed without the required two-thirds consent of the Karabakh administration council. Turkish general Halil Kut had a leading role in Azerbaijani militarization and recruiting Muslim partisans. The Armenian population was forcibly disarmed. Azerbaijan imposed an economic blockade on Karabakh, which Armenian PM Alexander Khatisian accused of being intended to starve the Armenian population into submission.^[10]

Several incidences of Armenian travelers outside of Shusha being beaten, robbed, or killed occurred. On 22 February, up to 400 Armenians (per Armenian sources) in Khankend and Aghdam were massacred after an unidentified body was discovered, believed to be that of an Azerbaijani soldier. Two weeks later, that soldier reportedly returned to his company, having been a deserter.^[10] In March 1920, Sultanov began prohibiting Armenians from leaving Shusha without special permission, forced Armenian residents to quarter Azerbaijani soldiers, and began dismissing Armenians who had served as officers in the Russian army.^[11]

Matters came to a head on the evening of 22 March, when "the Varanda militia entered Shusha...supposedly to receive its pay and to felicitate Governor-General Sultanov on the occasion of Novruz Bairam," writes historian Richard G. Hovannisian. "That same night, about 100 armed men led by Nerses Azbekian slipped into the city to disarm the Azerbaijani garrison in the Armenian quarter. But everything went wrong. The Varanda militiamen spent most of the night eating and drinking and were late in taking up their assigned positions, whereas Azbekian's detachment, failing to link up with the militia, began firing on the Azerbaijani fort from afar, awakening the troops and sending them scurrying to arms."^[12] This jolted the Varanda militiamen from their initial dormancy, as they "began seizing Azerbaijani officers quartered in Armenian homes. The confusion on both sides continued until dawn, when the Azerbaijanis learned that their garrison at Khankend had held and, heartened, began to spread out into the Armenian quarter. The fighting took the Armenians of Shusha by surprise."^[12]

Massacre[edit]

Immediately after the quelling of the uprising, Azerbaijani troops, along with city's Azerbaijani inhabitants, turned their wrath on Shusha' Armenian population.^[12] The city's churches were put to the flame, as were cultural institutions, schools, libraries, the business section, and the homes of wealthy Armenians. Bishop Vahan (Ter-Grigorian), who had sought a policy of accommodation with the Azerbaijani authorities, was murdered and beheaded, his "head paraded through the streets on a spike."^[12] Chief of police Avetis Ter-Ghukasian was "turned into a human torch," while hundreds of others were similarly murdered with impunity.^[12]

Aftermath[edit]

Five to six thousand Armenians managed to escape by way of Dashalty (Karintak) to Varanda and Dizak.^[13] By 11 April 1920, some thirty villages in Nagorno-Karabakh had been "devastated" by Azerbaijani forces as a result of the uprising, leaving 25,000 homeless (including nearly 6,000 refugees from Shusha).^[14]

Death toll[edit]

According to the 1917 edition of Kavkazskiy kalendar, there were 43,869 residents in Shusha on 14 January [O.S. 1 January] 1916—the city was composed of 23,396 Armenians who formed 53.3 percent of the population and 19,091 Shia Muslims (mainly Azerbaijanis) who formed 43.5 percent of the population.^[15]^[13]

The total death toll of the Shusha massacre is unknown, with figures ranging from several hundred,^[12] to 20,000.^[16]

Citing a contemporary Armenian government report, Hovannisian places the death toll of the massacre at 500 Armenians and the destruction of many buildings in Shusha.^[12]^[a] German historian Jörg Baberowski states that the Armenian quarter of Shusha was "wiped off the face of the earth", indicated by 25 of 1,700 homes surviving the pogrom; also adding that 8,000 Armenians were massacred during the pogrom.^[17] Soviet historian Marietta Shaginyan wrote that 3–4 thousand or more than 12 thousand Armenians were killed and 7,000 homes were destroyed in three-days.^[18] The Great Soviet Encyclopedia entry for Shusha writes that "up to 20 percent of the population [of Shusha] died" when the city was burned.^[19]

Retribution[edit]

Former minister of internal affairs of Azerbaijan Behbud Khan Javanshir was assassinated during Operation Nemesis by members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, who suspected him of involvement in the massacre.^[20]

Memory[edit]

The prominent Russian poet Osip Mandelstam, who visited Shusha in 1930, wrote the poem "The Phaeton Driver" (1931) in memory of the massacre and burning:

So in Nagorno-Karabakh
These were my fears
Forty thousand dead windows
Are visible there from all directions,
The cocoon of soulless work
Buried in the mountains.^[21]^[22]^[23]

Visiting Shusha with Osip, Nadezhda Mandelstam wrote, "in this town, which formerly, of course, was healthy and endowed with every amenity, the picture of catastrophe and massacres was terribly vivid ... They say after the massacres all the wells were full of corpses.... We didn't see anyone in the streets or on the mountain. Only in the centre of town, in the market-square, there were a lot of people, but there wasn't any Armenian among them, they were all Muslims."^[24] Numerous other communist officials recalled the destruction of the town, including, Sergo Ordzhonikidze,^[25] Olga Shatunovskaya,^[26] and Anastas Mikoyan and Marietta Shaginyan,^[27] Russian-Georgian writer Anaida Bestavashvili drew a comparison between the burning of Shusha to the destruction of Pompeii in her The People and the Monuments.^[28]

On 20 March 2000, a memorial stone was laid in Shusha on the site of the planned monument to the victims of the pogrom. The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic government introduced a proposal to the National Assembly to establish 23 March as a day of memorial for the victims of the pogrom.^[29]

Notes[edit]

^ Hovannisian also writes of a "Melkumian report" that claims that 5,000–6,000 were "left behind" during the massacre whilst 8,000 escaped.

References[edit]

^ "Глава 3. Шуша. Рассказ о соседях". bbc.co.uk. 2005-07-06. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
^ Herzig & Kurkchiyan 2005, p. 105.
^ Geldenhuys 2009, pp. 96–97 [1].
^ ^a ^b ^c Walker, Christopher J. Armenia: The Survival of a Nation, revised 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 270.
^ Hovannisian 1971, p. 164.
^ Lieberman 2013, p. 56.
^ "Nurses Stuck to Post Archived 2021-08-15 at the Wayback Machine," The New York Times, 4 September 1919.
^ Hovannisian R. G. The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. — Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. — Vol. II. Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. — P. 318. — 493 p. — ISBN 0312101686, ISBN 9780312101688. "Finally, in August 1919, the Karabagh National Assembly yielded to provisional and conditional Azerbaijani jurisdiction. The twenty-six conditions strictly limited the Azerbaijani administrative and military presence in the region and underscored the internal autonomy of Mountainous Karabagh. Violations of those conditions by Azerbaijan culminated in an abortive rebellion in March 1920."
^ Wright 2003, p. 98.
^ ^a ^b Hovannisian 1996a, pp. 137–143.
^ Hovannisian 1996a, p. 147.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Hovannisian 1996a, p. 152.
^ ^a ^b Bagdasaryan 2015.
^ Hovannisian 1996a, pp. 157–158.
^ Кавказский календарь на 1917 год, pp. 190–192.
^ Smele 2015, p. 137.
^ Baberovski 2010, p. 171.
^ 1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը.
^ Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
^ "Помимо лидеров младотурок руководство операции "Немезис" приняло решение о ликвидации некоторых деятелей мусаватистского правительства Азербайджана, виновных, по их мнению, в организации резни армян в Баку в сентябре 1918 г. – бывшего премьер-министра Фатали хана Хойского (июнь 1920 г.), а также бывшего министра Бехбуд хана Дживаншира (июль 1921 г.), организатора резни армян в Шуши (Карабах)." I. P. Dobaev, V. I. Nemchina: И.П.Добаев, В.И.Немчина. Новый терроризм в мире и на Юге России: сущность, эволюция, опыт противодействия (Ростов н/Д., 2005)
^ Osip Mandelstam, "Faetonshchik," "Мандельштам Осип | Классика.ру – электронная библиотека классической литературы". Archived from the original on 2007-08-13. Retrieved 2007-08-29. Archived 2007-08-13 at the Wayback Machine
^ Osip Mandelstam. Sochineniia. 2 vols. (Moscow, 1990) 1: pp. 517–519.
^ Baines, Jennifer. Mandelstam: The Later Poetry. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 41–42.
^ (in Russian) N. Ya. Mandelstam. Kniga tretia. Paris: YMCA-Ргess, 1987, pp. 162–164.
^ Partizdat TsK VKP (b), 1936, pp. 60–63.
^ (in Russian) Шатуновская О. Г . Об ушедшем веке. Рассказывает Ольга Шатуновская / сост.: Д. Кутьина, А. Бройдо, А. Кутьин. – La Jolla (Calif.) : DAA Books, 2001. – 470 с., c. 71
^ "Here during the 3 days in March 1920, 7000 houses were destroyed and burnt, and the people are marking different numbers of that who were massacred...". (in Russian) Marietta Shaginyan, "Soviet Transcaucasus", Armgiz, 1947, p. 254
^ Anaida Bestavashvili, Lyudi i pamyatniki (in Russian) Archived 2022-11-29 at the Wayback Machine // Армянский вестник, # 1–2, 2000
^ Nagornyy Karabakh marks 80th anniversary of 1920 Armenian pogroms, Noyan Tapan, 24 Mar. 2000

Bibliography[edit]

"1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը" [The Shushi Massacre of 1920]. Republic.Mediamax.am (in Armenian). Archived from the original on 19 July 2022. Retrieved 19 November 2022. Archived 19 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine

Baberovski, Yorg (2010). Враг есть везде. Сталинизм на Кавказе [The enemy is everywhere. Stalinism in the Caucasus] (in Russian). Moscow: Rossiyskaya politicheskaya entsiklopediya (ROSSPEN) Fond «Prezidentskiy tsentr B. N. Yeltsina». p. 171. ISBN 978-5-8243-1435-9. Archived from the original on 8 October 2022. Archived 8 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine

Bagdasaryan, Gegam (March 2015). "Три нераскрытых обстоятельства резни армян в Шуши" [Three unsolved circumstances of the massacre of Armenians in Shushi]. theanalyticon.com (in Russian). Stepanakert. Archived from the original on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022. Archived 14 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine

Geldenhuys, Deon (2009). Contested States in World Politics. Vol. 3. Berkeley: Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 9780230234185.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Vol. 17. New York: Macmillan. 1973. p. 301.

Herzig, Edmund; Kurkchiyan, Marina (2005). The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-203-00493-0. OCLC 229988654.

Hovannisian, Richard G. (1971). The Republic of Armenia: The First Year, 1918–1919. Vol. 1. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520019843.

Hovannisian, Richard G. (1996a). The Republic of Armenia: From London to Sèvres, February–August 1920. Vol. 3. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520088030.

Кавказский календарь на 1917 год [Caucasian calendar for 1917] (in Russian) (72nd ed.). Tiflis: Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom. 1917. Archived from the original on 4 November 2021.

"Letter from Avetis Aharonian, president of the delegation of the Republic of Armenia, addressed to the presidents of the delegations of Italy, France, England, and the U.S." Archived from the original on 2007-09-14. Retrieved 2008-01-24. Archived 2007-09-14 at the Wayback Machine

Lieberman, Benjamin (2013). Terrible Fate Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 9781442230385.

Mkrtchʻyan, Shahen (2008). Shoushi: The City of Tragic Fate. Yerevan: Gasprint.

Smele, Jonathan D. (2015). Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926. Lanham, Maryland. ISBN 978-1-4422-5281-3. OCLC 923010906.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Welt, Cory D. (2004). Explaining ethnic conflict in the South Caucasus: Mountainous Karabagh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia.

Wright, John (2003). Transcaucasian Boundaries. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0805079326.

Ziemer, Ulrike (2014). Ethnic Belonging, Gender, and Cultural Practices Youth Identities in Contemporary Russia. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9783838261522.

[17] Hovannisian also writes of a "Melkumian report" that claims that 5,000–6,000 were "left behind" during the massacre whilst 8,000 escaped.

[1] "Глава 3. Шуша. Рассказ о соседях". bbc.co.uk. 2005-07-06. Retrieved 2024-05-10.

[FOOTNOTEHerzigKurkchiyan2005105-2] Herzig & Kurkchiyan 2005, p. 105.

[FOOTNOTEGeldenhuys200996–97_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidSa2HDAAAQBAJvqpgPA97redir_escyvonepageqffalse-3] Geldenhuys 2009, pp. 96–97 [1].

[Armenia_1990,_page_270-4] Walker, Christopher J. Armenia: The Survival of a Nation, revised 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 270.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1971164-5] Hovannisian 1971, p. 164.

[FOOTNOTELieberman201356-6] Lieberman 2013, p. 56.

[7] "Nurses Stuck to Post Archived 2021-08-15 at the Wayback Machine," The New York Times, 4 September 1919.

[:0-8] Hovannisian R. G. The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. — Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. — Vol. II. Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. — P. 318. — 493 p. — ISBN 0312101686, ISBN 9780312101688. "Finally, in August 1919, the Karabagh National Assembly yielded to provisional and conditional Azerbaijani jurisdiction. The twenty-six conditions strictly limited the Azerbaijani administrative and military presence in the region and underscored the internal autonomy of Mountainous Karabagh. Violations of those conditions by Azerbaijan culminated in an abortive rebellion in March 1920."

[FOOTNOTEWright200398-9] Wright 2003, p. 98.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1996a137–143-10] Hovannisian 1996a, pp. 137–143.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1996a147-11] Hovannisian 1996a, p. 147.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1996a152-12] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Hovannisian 1996a, p. 152.

[FOOTNOTEBagdasaryan2015-13] Bagdasaryan 2015.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1996a157–158-14] Hovannisian 1996a, pp. 157–158.

[FOOTNOTEКавказский_календарь_на_1917_год190–192-15] Кавказский календарь на 1917 год, pp. 190–192.

[FOOTNOTESmele2015137-16] Smele 2015, p. 137.

[FOOTNOTEBaberovski2010171-18] Baberovski 2010, p. 171.

[FOOTNOTE1920_թվականի_Շուշիի_կոտորածը-19] 1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը.

[FOOTNOTEGreat_Soviet_Encyclopedia-20] Great Soviet Encyclopedia.

[21] "Помимо лидеров младотурок руководство операции "Немезис" приняло решение о ликвидации некоторых деятелей мусаватистского правительства Азербайджана, виновных, по их мнению, в организации резни армян в Баку в сентябре 1918 г. – бывшего премьер-министра Фатали хана Хойского (июнь 1920 г.), а также бывшего министра Бехбуд хана Дживаншира (июль 1921 г.), организатора резни армян в Шуши (Карабах)." I. P. Dobaev, V. I. Nemchina: И.П.Добаев, В.И.Немчина. Новый терроризм в мире и на Юге России: сущность, эволюция, опыт противодействия (Ростов н/Д., 2005)

[22] Osip Mandelstam, "Faetonshchik," "Мандельштам Осип | Классика.ру – электронная библиотека классической литературы". Archived from the original on 2007-08-13. Retrieved 2007-08-29. Archived 2007-08-13 at the Wayback Machine

[23] Osip Mandelstam. Sochineniia. 2 vols. (Moscow, 1990) 1: pp. 517–519.

[24] Baines, Jennifer. Mandelstam: The Later Poetry. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 41–42.

[25] (in Russian) N. Ya. Mandelstam. Kniga tretia. Paris: YMCA-Ргess, 1987, pp. 162–164.

[26] Partizdat TsK VKP (b), 1936, pp. 60–63.

[27] (in Russian) Шатуновская О. Г . Об ушедшем веке. Рассказывает Ольга Шатуновская / сост.: Д. Кутьина, А. Бройдо, А. Кутьин. – La Jolla (Calif.) : DAA Books, 2001. – 470 с., c. 71

[28] "Here during the 3 days in March 1920, 7000 houses were destroyed and burnt, and the people are marking different numbers of that who were massacred...". (in Russian) Marietta Shaginyan, "Soviet Transcaucasus", Armgiz, 1947, p. 254

[29] Anaida Bestavashvili, Lyudi i pamyatniki (in Russian) Archived 2022-11-29 at the Wayback Machine // Армянский вестник, # 1–2, 2000

[30] Nagornyy Karabakh marks 80th anniversary of 1920 Armenian pogroms, Noyan Tapan, 24 Mar. 2000

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@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{Infobox civilian attack
 | title            = Shusha massacre
-| partof           = [[Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)]]
+| partof           = the [[Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)]]
 | image            = Ruins of the Armenian part of the city of Shusha after the March 1920 pogrom by Azerbaijani armed units. In the center - church of the Holy Savior.jpg
 | image_size       = 300px
-| caption          = Ruins of the Armenian half of [[Shusha]] after the city's destruction by Azerbaijani army in March 1920. In the center: defaced Armenian [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]]
+| caption          = Ruins of the Armenian half of [[Shusha]] after the city's destruction by the Azerbaijani army in March 1920. In the center: the defaced Armenian [[Ghazanchetsots Cathedral]]
 | location         = [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] (disputed between [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]] and [[First Republic of Armenia]])
 | target           = [[Armenians|Armenian]] civilians
 | date             = March 1920
-| type             = [[Massacre]], [[riots]], [[pogrom]]
+| type             = [[Massacre]], [[pogrom]]
-| perpetrators     = Ottoman Army and Azerbaijanis{{sfn|Geldenhuys|2009|p=97}}
+| perpetrators     = [[Azerbaijani Army]] and Azerbaijani inhabitants of Shusha
+| fatalities       = 500–20,000 Armenians
-| fatalities       = 500{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} up to 20,000 Armenians<ref>{{cite book|author-last= Smele|author-first= Jonathan|editor-last= Woronoff|editor-first= Jon|editor-link= Jon Woronoff|title= Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916-1926|year= 2015|location= Lanham|publisher= [[Rowman & Littlefield]]|page= 137|isbn= 9781442252813|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QwquCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA137|quote= …local Azeris attacked the Armenian community at Shusha, the number of deaths resulting remaining a matter of bitter dispute (with estimates ranging from 500 to 20,000).|access-date= 2022-11-08|archive-date= 2022-11-08|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221108030032/https://books.google.com/books?id=QwquCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA137|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last= Tölölyan|author-link= Khachig Tölölyan|first= Khachig|title= National self‐determination and the limits of sovereignty: Armenia, Azerbaijan and the secession of Nagorno‐Karabagh|journal= Nationalisim and Ethnic Politics|url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13537119508428422|volume= 1|issue= 1|year= 1995|location= United Kingdom|publisher= [[Taylor & Francis]]|pages= 86–110|doi= 10.1080/13537119508428422|quote= …the Azeri burning of Shushi/a and the massacre of some 20,000 Armenians on 23 March 1920.|access-date= 6 November 2022|archive-date= 6 November 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221106143715/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13537119508428422|url-status= live}}</ref>}}
+}}
+The '''Shusha''' or '''Shushi massacre''' ({{lang-hy|Շուշիի ջարդեր|translit=Šušii ǰarder}}), also known as the '''Shusha pogrom''',<ref>{{Cite news |date=2005-07-06 |title=Глава 3. Шуша. Рассказ о соседях |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/in_depth/newsid_4655000/4655249.stm |access-date=2024-05-10 |work=bbc.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> was the mass killing of the [[Armenians|Armenian]] population of [[Shusha]] from 22–26 March 1920{{sfn|Herzig|Kurkchiyan|2005|p=105}} and the destruction and process of "cultural de-Armenianization" of [[Nagorno-Karabakh]].{{sfn|Geldenhuys|2009|pp=96–97 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Sa2HDAAAQBAJ&vq=&pg=PA97&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false]}} The number of deaths vary across sources, with the most conservative estimate being 500, and the highest estimates reaching 20,000.
-The '''Shusha massacre''' or '''Shushi massacre''' ({{lang-hy|Շուշիի ջարդեր|translit=Shushii jarder}}), also known as the '''Shusha pogrom''', was the mass killing of the [[Armenians|Armenian]] population of [[Shusha]] and the destruction of the Armenian half of the city in 1920.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} A. Zubov, [http://magazines.russ.ru/znamia/2000/4/zubov.html Политическое будущее Кавказа: опыт ретроспективно-сравнительного анализа (Political future of the Caucasus)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325165846/http://magazines.russ.ru/znamia/2000/4/zubov.html |date=2019-03-25 }},"Znamiya" journal, 2000, #4 "Британская администрация почему-то передала населенные армянами уезды Елизаветпольской губернии под юрисдикцию Азербайджана. Британский администратор Карабаха полковник Шательворт не препятствовал притеснениям армян, чинимым татарской администрацией губернатора Салтанова. Межнациональные трения завершились страшной резней, в которой погибла большая часть армян города Шуши. Бакинский парламент отказался даже осудить свершителей Шушинской резни, и в Карабахе вспыхнула война." <br /> "The British administrator of Karabakh, Colonel D.I. Shuttleworth did not interfere with the discrimination of Armenians by [[Tatar]]ian administration of governor Saltanov. The national clashes ended by the terrible massacres in which the most of Armenians in Shusha town perished. The Parliament in [[Baku]] refused even condemn the accomplishers of the massacres in Shusha and the war was started in Karabakh."</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Chorbajian|first=Levon|title=The Caucasian Knot: The History & Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh|year=1994|publisher=Zed Books|location=London|isbn=9781856492881|page=141|quote=The city of Shushi, formerly the third largest city in Transcaucasia, saw its Armenian population decimated by the massacre of March 1920.}}</ref> Starting in 1920, Azerbaijani and Ottoman armies killed thousands of Armenian civilians and started the process of “cultural de-Armenianization” in the region.{{sfn|Geldenhuys|2009|p=97}}
-After the collapse of the [[Russian Empire]], the ownership of [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] with its largest city of Shusha became hotly contested between the newly founded [[First Republic of Armenia]] and the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]. The mediator's role was endorsed by the British who started to support the newly formed republics in an attempt to halt the [[Soviet]] advance in Caucasus.<ref name="kommersant">{{cite web|url=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/4566206|title="Сорок тысяч мертвых окон…"|work=[[Kommersant]]|author=Амиран Урушадзе|language=Russian|accessdate=8 November 2022|archive-date=3 January 2021|archive-url=https://archive.today/20210103221227/https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/4566206|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the authority of the British-appointed Azerbaijani governor general of Karabakh [[Khosrov bey Sultanov]] was undermined and a new armed struggle between Armenians and Azerbaijanis ensued. Sultanov managed to achieve a brief military and political advantage, but in late March 1920 fightings with Armenians resumed.<ref name="kommersant"/> The massacre in Shusha itself took place between 22 and 26 March 1920. According to Colonel J.C. Rhea, acting allied high commissioner, Sultanov, "countenanced a polity of extermination of Armenians".{{sfn|Lieberman|2013|p=56}} The number of deaths varies depending on source, with the lowest estimate being 500 and the highest estimate being 20,000.
 ==Background==
 [[File:Armenian boroughs of city of Shusha destroyed by Azerbaijani armed forces in 1920 with defiled cathedral of Holy Savior on background.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Shusha's Armenian quarters in the aftermath of their destruction by Azerbaijani army in March 1920. In the background: defiled Cathedral of the Holy Savior and Aguletsots church.]]
+At the end of the [[First World War]], the ownership of the territory of Nagorno-Karabakh was disputed between the newly established republics of the [[Democratic Republic of Armenia|Armenia]] and [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]]. Shusha—the territory's largest settlement, its centre for social and cultural life, and with a mixed population consisting mostly of ethnic Armenians and Azerbaijanis—found itself at the heart of the dispute. The government of Azerbaijan proclaimed in [[Baku]] the [[annexation]] of the disputed territory and, on 15 January 1919, appointed [[Khosrov bek Sultanov]],<ref name="Armenia 1990, page 270">Walker, Christopher J. ''Armenia: The Survival of a Nation'', revised 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 270.</ref> as governor-general of Karabakh. The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] had a small detachment of troops stationed in Shusha and acceded to Sultanov's appointment as provisional governor, but insisted that a final decision on the territory's ownership could only be decided at a future peace conference.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}
-[[File:Ruins of Armenian part of Shusha after 1920 pogrom 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Ruins of the Armenian part of Shusha after the 1920 pogrom. In back is the church of the Holy Mother of God (Kanach Zham).]]
-[[File:Armenian quarters of city of Shusha destroyed by Azerbaijani armed forces in 1920 with defiled cathedral of Holy Savior on background 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|The Armenian quarter of Shusha after the massacre, with the Holy Saviour cathedral in the back.]]
-At the end of the [[First World War]], the ownership of the territory of [[Nagorno-Karabagh]] was disputed between the newly founded states of the [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]] and the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]. Shusha&nbsp;– the territory's largest settlement, its capital, and with a mixed population consisting mostly of ethnic Armenians and Azerbaijanis&nbsp;– found themselves at the centre of the dispute.
+In response to Sultanov's appointment, the General Assembly of the Armenians of Karabakh ([[Armenian National Council of Karabagh|Armenian National Council of Karabakh]]), meeting in Shusha from 10–21 February, issued a message stating that it "denies Azerbaijani authority in any form whatsoever."{{sfn|Hovannisian|1971|p=164}} On 23 April 1919, the [[Karabakh Council]] convened in Shusha and again rejected Azerbaijan's claim of [[sovereignty]], insisting on their right of [[self-determination]]. After this, a local [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] detachment encircled the [[Armenians|Armenian]] quarters of Shusha and demanded that the inhabitants to surrender the fortress. Shots were fired, but by virtue of British mediation, the Armenians agreed to surrender to them instead.<ref name="Armenia 1990, page 270"/> According to Colonel J.C. Rhea, acting Allied high commissioner, Sultanov "countenanced a polity of extermination of Armenians".{{sfn|Lieberman|2013|p=56}}
-The government of Azerbaijan proclaimed in [[Baku]] the [[annexation]] of the disputed territory and, on January 15, 1919, appointed [[Khosrov bek Sultanov]],<ref name="Armenia 1990, page 270">"Armenia: The Survival of a Nation", revised second edition, 1990, by Christopher J. Walker, page 270</ref> as governor-general of Karabagh. The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] had a small detachment of troops stationed in Shusha and acceded to Sultanov's appointment as provisional governor, but insisted that a final decision on the territory's ownership should be decided only at a future peace conference.
+On 4 and 5 June 1919, armed clashes occurred in Shusha between the two communities and Sultanov began a blockade of the town's Armenian quarters. American nurses working in Shusha for [[American Committee for Relief in the Near East|Near East Relief]] wrote of a massacre "by [[Tartars]] of 700 of the Christian inhabitants of the town."<ref>"[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times/Nurses_stuck_to_post Nurses Stuck to Post] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815211921/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times/Nurses_stuck_to_post |date=2021-08-15 }}," ''[[The New York Times]]'', 4 September 1919.</ref> A cease-fire was quickly organised after the Armenian side agreed to Sultanov's condition that members of the [[Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians|Armenian National Council]] leave the town. However, a new wave of violence then swept through neighbouring Armenian-populated villages: in mid-June [[Azerbaijanis|Azerbaijani]] mounted "irregulars", about 2,000 strong, [[Khaibalikend Massacre|attacked, looted and burnt]] a large Armenian village, [[Qeybalı|Khaibalikend]], just outside Shusha, and approximately 600 Armenians lay dead.<ref name="Armenia 1990, page 270"/>
-In response to Sultanov's appointment, the General Assembly of the Armenians of Karabagh ([[Armenian National Council of Karabagh]]), meeting in Shusha on February 19, "rejected with legitimate indignation all pretence of Azerbaijan with regard to Armenian Karabagh, which said Assembly has declared an integral part of Armenia".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk_file/article/11.html |title="letter from Avetis Aharonian, president of the delegation of the Republic of Armenia, addressed to the presidents of the delegations of Italy, France, England, and the U.S." |access-date=2008-01-24 |archive-date=2007-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914134425/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk_file/article/11.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
+The Seventh Congress of the Armenians of Karabakh was convened in Shusha on 13 August 1919. It concluded with the agreement of 22 August, according to which Nagorno-Karabakh would consider itself to be provisionally within the borders of the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]] until its final status was decided at the Peace Conference in Paris. As the historian Richard Hovhannisyan points out, the agreement concluded in August 1919 strictly limited the Azerbaijani administrative and military presence in the region and established the internal autonomy of Nagorno-Karabakh.<ref name=":0">''Hovannisian R. G.'' The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. — Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. — Vol. II. Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. — P. 318. — 493 p. — <nowiki>ISBN 0312101686</nowiki>, <nowiki>ISBN 9780312101688</nowiki>. "Finally, in August 1919, the Karabagh National Assembly yielded to provisional and conditional Azerbaijani jurisdiction. The twenty-six conditions strictly limited the Azerbaijani administrative and military presence in the region and underscored the internal autonomy of Mountainous Karabagh. Violations of those conditions by Azerbaijan culminated in an abortive rebellion in March 1920."</ref> Armenians remained divided on their response and a stock of arms was built up on both sides and the Armenians decided to deter a Tatar attack by staging an abortive uprising.{{sfn|Wright|2003|p=98}}
-On April 23, 1919, the [[Karabakh Council]] convened in Shusha and again rejected Azerbaijan's claim of [[sovereignty]], insisting on their right of [[self-determination]]. After this, a local [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] detachment encircled the [[Armenians|Armenian]] quarters of Shusha and demanded that the inhabitants to surrender the fortress. Shots were fired, but by virtue of British mediation, the Armenians agreed to surrender to them instead.<ref name="Armenia 1990, page 270"/>
+==Persecutions and uprising==
-On the 4 and 5 June 1919, armed clashes occurred in Shusha between the two communities and Sultanov began a blockade of the town's Armenian quarters. American nurses working in Shusha for [[American Committee for Relief in the Near East|Near East Relief]] wrote of a massacre "by [[Tartars]] of 700 of the Christian inhabitants of the town".<ref>"[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times/Nurses_stuck_to_post Nurses Stuck to Post] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815211921/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times/Nurses_stuck_to_post |date=2021-08-15 }}," ''[[The New York Times]]'', 4 September 1919.</ref> A cease-fire was quickly organised after the Armenian side agreed to Sultanov's condition that members of the [[Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians|Armenian National Council]] leave the town. However, a new wave of violence then swept through neighbouring Armenian-populated villages: in mid-June [[Azeri|Azerbaijani]] mounted "irregulars", about 2,000 strong, [[Khaibalikend Massacre|attacked, looted and burnt]] a large Armenian village, [[Qeybalı|Khaibalikend]], just outside Shusha, and approximately 600 Armenians lay dead.<ref name="Armenia 1990, page 270"/>
+[[File:Ruins of Armenian part of Shusha after 1920 pogrom 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Ruins of the Armenian part of Shusha after the 1920 pogrom. In back is the church of the Holy Mother of God (Kanach Zham).]]
+The August agreement for Armenian autonomy and Azerbaijani demilitarization was violated by the Azerbaijani authorities almost immediately. Sultanov received orders from Baku to annex both Karabakh and Syunik. The Azerbaijani garrison was reinforced and troops were deployed without the required two-thirds consent of the Karabakh administration council. Turkish general [[Halil Kut]] had a leading role in Azerbaijani militarization and recruiting Muslim partisans. The Armenian population was forcibly disarmed. Azerbaijan imposed an economic blockade on Karabakh, which Armenian PM [[Alexander Khatisian]] accused of being intended to starve the Armenian population into submission.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|pp=137–143}}
+Several incidences of Armenian travelers outside of Shusha being beaten, robbed, or killed occurred. On 22 February, up to 400 Armenians (per Armenian sources) in [[Stepanakert|Khankend]] and [[Aghdam]] were massacred after an unidentified body was discovered, believed to be that of an Azerbaijani soldier. Two weeks later, that soldier reportedly returned to his company, having been a deserter.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|pp=137–143}} In March 1920, Sultanov began prohibiting Armenians from leaving Shusha without special permission, forced Armenian residents to quarter Azerbaijani soldiers, and began dismissing Armenians who had served as officers in the Russian army.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=147}}
-The seventh Congress of the Armenians of Karabagh was convened in Shusha on 13 August 1919. It concluded with the agreement of 22 August, according to which Nagorno-Karabagh would consider itself to be provisionally within the borders of the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]] until its final status was decided at the Peace Conference in Paris.
+Matters came to a head on the evening of 22 March, when "the [[Martuni Region|Varanda]] militia entered Shusha...supposedly to receive its pay and to felicitate Governor-General Sultanov on the occasion of [[Novruz Bairam]]," writes historian [[Richard G. Hovannisian]]. "That same night, about 100 armed men led by Nerses Azbekian slipped into the city to disarm the Azerbaijani garrison in the Armenian quarter. But everything went wrong. The Varanda militiamen spent most of the night eating and drinking and were late in taking up their assigned positions, whereas Azbekian's detachment, failing to link up with the militia, began firing on the Azerbaijani fort from afar, awakening the troops and sending them scurrying to arms."{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} This jolted the Varanda militiamen from their initial dormancy, as they "began seizing Azerbaijani officers quartered in Armenian homes. The confusion on both sides continued until dawn, when the Azerbaijanis learned that their garrison at Khankend had held and, heartened, began to spread out into the Armenian quarter. The fighting took the Armenians of Shusha by surprise."{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}}
-Conflicts erupted again in Karabakh in early 1919 and 1920 due to the disputes between Armenians and the Sultanov, whose rule was characterized by violence and lawlessness.{{sfn|Wright|2003|p=98}} Armenians remained divided on their response and a stock of arms was built up on both sides and the Armenians decided to deter a Tatar attack by staging a rising which was mismanaged. <ref name="Ован">The Armenian People from ancient to modern times, ed. by Richard G. Hovannisian, USA, 1997, Vol. II, p. 318.</ref>{{sfn|Wright|2003|p=98}}
-===Revolt===
+==Massacre==
+Immediately after the quelling of the uprising, Azerbaijani troops, along with city's Azerbaijani inhabitants, turned their wrath on Shusha' Armenian population.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} The city's churches were put to the flame, as were cultural institutions, schools, libraries, the business section, and the homes of wealthy Armenians. Bishop Vahan (Ter-Grigorian), who had sought a policy of accommodation with the Azerbaijani authorities, was murdered and beheaded, his "head paraded through the streets on a spike."{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} Chief of police Avetis Ter-Ghukasian was "turned into a human torch," while hundreds of others were similarly murdered with impunity.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}}
-According to [[UCLA]] historian [[Richard G. Hovannisian]], the failure at Khankendy (present-day [[Stepanakert]]) sealed the doom of [[Shusha]]. "As planned, the [[Martuni Region|Varanda]] militia entered Shusha on the evening of March 22, supposedly to receive its pay and to felicitate Governor-General Sultanov on the occasion of [[Novruz Bairam]]. That same night, about 100 armed men led by Nerses Azbekian slipped into the city to disarm the Azerbaijani garrison in the Armenian quarter. But everything went wrong. The Varanda militiamen spent most of the night eating and drinking and were late in taking up their assigned positions, whereas Azbekian's detachment, failing to link up with the militia, began firing on the Azerbaijani fort from afar, awakening the troops and sending them scurrying to arms. It was only then that the Varanda militiamen were roused and began seizing Azerbaijani officers quartered in Armenian homes. The confusion on both sides continued until dawn, when the Azerbaijanis learned that their garrison at Khankend had held and, heartened, began to spread out into the Armenian quarter. The fighting took the Armenians of Shusha by surprise. Several thousand fled under cover of the dense fog by way of [[Karintak]] into the Varanda countryside."{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}}
+==Aftermath==
-Historian Audrey L. Altstadt writes, in reference to a British correspondent in [[Baku]], that representatives of [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] in the region decided that the police of Karabakh should be made up of equal numbers of Armenians and Azerbaijanis; however, in late March 1920, the Armenian half of the police murdered the Azerbaijani half during the latter's traditional [[Novruz Bayram]] holiday celebrations.<ref>Audrey L. Altstadt. Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity Under Russian Rule. Hoover Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-8179-9182-4}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8179-9182-1}}, p. 103</ref>
+Five to six thousand Armenians managed to escape by way of [[Dashalty]] (Karintak) to [[Varanda Region|Varanda]] and [[Dizak]].{{sfn|Bagdasaryan|2015}} By 11 April 1920, some thirty villages in Nagorno-Karabakh had been "devastated" by Azerbaijani forces as a result of the uprising, leaving 25,000 homeless (including nearly 6,000 refugees from Shusha).{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|pp=157–158}}
-==Massacre==
+=== Death toll ===
+[[File:Armenian quarters of city of Shusha destroyed by Azerbaijani armed forces in 1920 with defiled cathedral of Holy Savior on background 2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|The Armenian quarter of Shusha after the massacre, with the Holy Saviour cathedral in the background.]]
-According to Hovannisian, "Azerbaijani troops, joined by the city's Azerbaijani inhabitants, turned Armenian [[Shusha]] into an [[Conflagration|inferno]]. From March 23 to 26, some 2,000 structures were consumed in the flames, including the churches and [[wikt:consistory|consistory]], cultural institutions, schools, libraries, the business section and the grand homes of the merchant class. Bishop Vahan (Ter-Grigorian), long an advocate of accommodation with the Azerbaijani authorities, paid the price of retribution, as his tongue was torn out before his head was cut off and paraded through the streets on a spike. The chief of police, Avetis Ter-Ghukasian, was turned into a human torch, and many intellectuals were among the 500 Armenian victims."{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}}
+According to the 1917 edition of ''[[Kavkazskiy kalendar]]'', there were 43,869 residents in Shusha on {{OldStyleDate|14 January|1916|1 January}}—the city was composed of 23,396 [[Armenians]] who formed 53.3 percent of the population and 19,091 [[Shia Muslims]] (mainly [[Azerbaijanis]]) who formed 43.5 percent of the population.{{sfn|Кавказский календарь на 1917 год|pp=190–192}}{{sfn|Bagdasaryan|2015}}
+The total death toll of the Shusha massacre is unknown, with figures ranging from several hundred,{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} to 20,000.{{sfn|Smele|2015|p=137}}
+Citing a contemporary Armenian government report, Hovannisian places the death toll of the massacre at 500 Armenians and the destruction of many buildings in Shusha.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}}{{efn|Hovannisian also writes of a "Melkumian report" that claims that 5,000–6,000 were "left behind" during the massacre whilst 8,000 escaped.}} German historian [[Jörg Baberowski]] states that the Armenian quarter of Shusha was "wiped off the face of the earth", indicated by 25 of 1,700 homes surviving the pogrom; also adding that 8,000 Armenians were massacred during the pogrom.{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=171}} Soviet historian [[Marietta Shaginyan]] wrote that 3–4 thousand or more than 12 thousand Armenians were killed and 7,000 homes were destroyed in three-days.{{sfn|1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը}} The ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'' entry for Shusha writes that "up to 20 percent of the population [of Shusha] died" when the city was burned.{{sfn|Great Soviet Encyclopedia}}
-The former Minister of Internal Affairs of the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]], [[Behbud Khan Javanshir]], was assassinated during [[Operation Nemesis]] of the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]] as they suspected that he was involved in Shusha massacre.<ref>"Помимо лидеров младотурок руководство операции "Немезис" приняло решение о ликвидации некоторых деятелей мусаватистского правительства Азербайджана, виновных, по их мнению, в организации резни армян в Баку в сентябре 1918 г. – бывшего премьер-министра Фатали хана Хойского (июнь 1920 г.), а также бывшего министра Бехбуд хана Дживаншира (июль 1921 г.), организатора резни армян в Шуши (Карабах)." [https://web.archive.org/web/20071013235656/http://i-r-p.ru/page/stream-library/index-615.html I. P. Dobaev, V. I. Nemchina: И.П.Добаев, В.И.Немчина. Новый терроризм в мире и на Юге России: сущность, эволюция, опыт противодействия] (Ростов н/Д., 2005)</ref>
-==Human toll==
+== Retribution ==
+Former minister of internal affairs of Azerbaijan [[Behbud Khan Javanshir]] was assassinated during [[Operation Nemesis]] by members of the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]], who suspected him of involvement in the massacre.<ref>"Помимо лидеров младотурок руководство операции "Немезис" приняло решение о ликвидации некоторых деятелей мусаватистского правительства Азербайджана, виновных, по их мнению, в организации резни армян в Баку в сентябре 1918 г. – бывшего премьер-министра Фатали хана Хойского (июнь 1920 г.), а также бывшего министра Бехбуд хана Дживаншира (июль 1921 г.), организатора резни армян в Шуши (Карабах)." [https://web.archive.org/web/20071013235656/http://i-r-p.ru/page/stream-library/index-615.html I. P. Dobaev, V. I. Nemchina: И.П.Добаев, В.И.Немчина. Новый терроризм в мире и на Юге России: сущность, эволюция, опыт противодействия] (Ростов н/Д., 2005)</ref>
-According to the 1917 publication of ''[[Kavkazskiy kalendar]]'', there were 43,869 residents in Shusha on {{OldStyleDate|14 January|1916|1 January}}—the city was composed of 23,396 [[Armenians]] who formed 53.3 percent of the population and 19,091 [[Shia Muslims]] (mainly [[Azerbaijanis]]) who formed 43.5 percent of the population.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.prlib.ru/item/417322 |title=Кавказский календарь на 1917 год |publisher=Tipografiya kantselyarii Ye.I.V. na Kavkaze, kazenny dom |year=1917 |edition=72nd |location= |publication-place=Tiflis |pages=190–192 |language=Russian |trans-title=Caucasian calendar for 1917 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104233151/https://www.prlib.ru/item/417322 |archive-date=4 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="bagdasaryan">{{Cite web |last=Bagdasaryan |first=Gegam |date=March 2015 |title=Три нераскрытых обстоятельства резни армян в Шуши |trans-title=Three unsolved circumstances of the massacre of Armenians in Shushi |url=https://theanalyticon.com/ru/%d0%bd%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%be%d1%81%d1%82%d0%b8/%d1%82%d1%80%d0%b8-%d0%bd%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b0%d1%81%d0%ba%d1%80%d1%8b%d1%82%d1%8b%d1%85-%d0%be%d0%b1%d1%81%d1%82%d0%be%d1%8f%d1%82%d0%b5%d0%bb%d1%8c%d1%81%d1%82%d0%b2%d0%b0-%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b7%d0%bd/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114224058/https://theanalyticon.com/ru/%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8/%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%85-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD/ |archive-date=14 November 2022 |access-date=15 November 2022 |website=theanalyticon.com |location=Stepanakert |language=ru}}</ref> A conservative estimate by Hovannisian places the death toll of the massacre at 500 Armenians and the destruction of many buildings in Shusha.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}} German historian [[Jörg Baberowski]] states that the Armenian quarter of Shusha was "wiped off the face of the earth" as indicated by only 25 of 1,700 homes surviving the pogrom.<ref name="baberovski">{{Cite book |last=Baberovski |first=Yorg |url=http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |title=Враг есть везде. Сталинизм на Кавказе |publisher=Rossiyskaya politicheskaya entsiklopediya (ROSSPEN) Fond «Prezidentskiy tsentr B. N. Yeltsina» |year=2010 |isbn=978-5-8243-1435-9 |location=Moscow |pages=171 |language=ru |trans-title=The enemy is everywhere. Stalinism in the Caucasus |author-link=Jörg Baberowski |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008172127/http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |archive-date=8 October 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Marieta Shahinyan writes that 3–4 thousand or more than 12 thousand Armenians were killed and 7,000 homes were destroyed in three-days.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last= |title=1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը |trans-title=The Shushi Massacre of 1920 |url=https://republic.mediamax.am/story/100 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719045023/https://republic.mediamax.am/story/100/ |archive-date=19 July 2022 |access-date=19 November 2022 |website=Republic.Mediamax.am |language=hy}}</ref> At least several hundred,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cory D. |first=Welt |url=https://home.gwu.edu/~cwelt/ExplainingEthnicConflict_Welt.pdf |title=Explaining ethnic conflict in the South Caucasus: Mountainous Karabagh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia |date=2004 |publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |year=2004 |pages=77 |language=en |oclc=59823134 |quote=Out of a population of approximately 20,000, at least several hundred were killed; the rest were forced to flee. In the fighting that followed, several nearby villages were also razed. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911110408/https://home.gwu.edu/~cwelt/ExplainingEthnicConflict_Welt.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> 500,{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=152}}{{efn|Hovannisian also writes of a "Melkumian report" that claims that 5,000–6,000 were "left behind" during the massacre whilst 8,000 escaped.}} 3,000–4,000,<ref name="lazarevsky">{{Cite web |date=13 March 2020 |title=Шушинская резня 1920 года |trans-title=Shusha massacre of 1920 |url=https://lazarevsky.club/aktualno/shushinskaya-reznya-1920-goda/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114221124/https://lazarevsky.club/aktualno/shushinskaya-reznya-1920-goda/ |archive-date=14 November 2022 |access-date=15 November 2022 |website=lazarevsky.club}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> 8,000,<ref name="baberovski" /> 8,000–12,000,<ref name="bagdasaryan" />{{Efn|2,200 of this number included women and girls.<ref name="bagdasaryan"/>}} or more than 12,000<ref name="lazarevsky" /><ref name=":0" /> Armenians of Shusha were massacred in one night<ref name="baberovski" /> or three-days.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saparov |first=Arsène |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1124532887 |title=From conflict to autonomy in the Caucasus: the Soviet Union and the making of Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Nagorno Karabakh |isbn=978-1-317-63783-7 |pages=94 |oclc=1124532887}}</ref> According to the ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'', "up to 20 percent of the population [of Shusha] died" when the city was burned.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/greatsovietencyc0017unse |title=Great Soviet Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |year=1973 |volume=17 |location=New York |pages=301 |language=en}}</ref> 5,000–6,000 Armenians managed to escape by way of [[Karintak]] to [[Varanda Region|Varanda]] and [[Dizak]].<ref name="bagdasaryan"/> By 11 April 1920, some thirty villages in Nagorno-Karabakh had been "devastated" by Azerbaijani forces as a result of the uprising, leaving 25,000 homeless (including nearly 6,000 refugees from Shusha).{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|pp=157–158}} Another source writes that "20 percent of the [Nagorno-Karabakh] region's residents perished as a result of Turkish-Azerbaijani aggression."<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/497573622 |title=The Pursuit of International Criminal Justice A World Study on Conflicts, Victimization, and Post-conflict Justice |date=2010 |publisher=Intersentia |isbn=978-94-000-0017-9 |editor-last=Bassiouni |editor-first=M. Cherif |volume=2 |location=Antwerp |pages=839 |oclc=497573622 |access-date=2022-11-15 |archive-date=2023-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230113132242/https://worldcat.org/title/497573622 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 ===Memory===
-The prominent [[Russians|Russian]] [[poet]] [[Osip Mandelstam]] who was in Shusha in 1931 wrote a [[poem]] ("The Phaeton Driver") dedicated to the Shusha massacres:
+The prominent [[Russians|Russian]] [[poet]] [[Osip Mandelstam]], who visited Shusha in 1930, wrote the poem "The Phaeton Driver" (1931) in memory of the massacre and burning:
 <poem style="margin-left: 20px">
@@ Line 57: / Line 60: @@
 Are visible there from all directions,
 The cocoon of soulless work
-Buried in the mountains.<ref>Osip Mandelstam, "Faetonshchik," {{cite web |url=http://www.klassika.ru/stihi/mandelshtam/mandel107.html |title=Мандельштам Осип &#124; Классика.ру - электронная библиотека классической литературы |access-date=2007-08-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813154250/http://www.klassika.ru/stihi/mandelshtam/mandel107.html |archive-date=2007-08-13 }}</ref><ref>Osip Mandelstam. ''Sochineniia''. 2 vols. (Moscow, 1990) 1: pp. 517–519.</ref>
+Buried in the mountains.<ref>Osip Mandelstam, "Faetonshchik," {{cite web |url=http://www.klassika.ru/stihi/mandelshtam/mandel107.html |title=Мандельштам Осип &#124; Классика.ру – электронная библиотека классической литературы |access-date=2007-08-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813154250/http://www.klassika.ru/stihi/mandelshtam/mandel107.html |archive-date=2007-08-13 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813154250/http://www.klassika.ru/stihi/mandelshtam/mandel107.html |date=2007-08-13 }}</ref><ref>Osip Mandelstam. ''Sochineniia''. 2 vols. (Moscow, 1990) 1: pp. 517–519.</ref><ref>Baines, Jennifer. ''Mandelstam: The Later Poetry''. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 41–42.</ref>
 </poem>
-Visiting Shusha several years after its devastation together with Osip, [[Nadezhda Mandelstam]] wrote, "in this town, which formerly, of course, was healthy and endowed with every amenity, the picture of catastrophe and massacres was terribly vivid ... They say after the massacres all the wells were full of corpses.... We didn't see anyone in the streets or on the mountain. Only in the centre of town, in the market-square, there were a lot of people, but there wasn't any Armenian among them, they were all Muslims."<ref>(in Russian) N. Ya. Mandelstam. ''Kniga tretia''. Paris: YMCA-Ргess, 1987, pp. 162–164.</ref> Numerous other communist officials recalled the destruction of the town, including, [[Sergo Ordzhonikidze]],<ref>Partizdat TsK VKP (b), 1936, pp. 60–63.</ref> [[Olga Shatunovskaya]],<ref>(in Russian) Шатуновская О. Г . Об ушедшем веке. Рассказывает Ольга Шатуновская / сост.: Д. Кутьина, А. Бройдо, А. Кутьин.&nbsp;– La Jolla (Calif.) : DAA Books, 2001.&nbsp;– 470 с., c. 71</ref> and [[Anastas Mikoyan]] and [[Marietta Shaginyan]],<ref>"Here during the 3 days in March 1920, 7000 houses were destroyed and burnt, and the people are marking different numbers of that who were [[massacre]]d...". (in Russian) Marietta Shaginyan, "Soviet Transcaucasus", Armgiz, 1947, p. 254</ref> Russian-Georgian writer Anaida Bestavashvili drew a comparison between the burning of Shusha to the destruction of [[Pompeii]] in her ''The People and the Monuments''.<ref>[http://armenianhouse.org/raffi/also-ru/bestavashvili.html Anaida Bestavashvili, Lyudi i pamyatniki (in Russian)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129180207/http://armenianhouse.org/raffi/also-ru/bestavashvili.html |date=2022-11-29 }} // Армянский вестник, # 1–2, 2000</ref>
+Visiting Shusha with Osip, [[Nadezhda Mandelstam]] wrote, "in this town, which formerly, of course, was healthy and endowed with every amenity, the picture of catastrophe and massacres was terribly vivid ... They say after the massacres all the wells were full of corpses.... We didn't see anyone in the streets or on the mountain. Only in the centre of town, in the market-square, there were a lot of people, but there wasn't any Armenian among them, they were all Muslims."<ref>(in Russian) N. Ya. Mandelstam. ''Kniga tretia''. Paris: YMCA-Ргess, 1987, pp. 162–164.</ref> Numerous other communist officials recalled the destruction of the town, including, [[Sergo Ordzhonikidze]],<ref>Partizdat TsK VKP (b), 1936, pp. 60–63.</ref> [[Olga Shatunovskaya]],<ref>(in Russian) Шатуновская О. Г . Об ушедшем веке. Рассказывает Ольга Шатуновская / сост.: Д. Кутьина, А. Бройдо, А. Кутьин.&nbsp;– La Jolla (Calif.) : DAA Books, 2001.&nbsp;– 470 с., c. 71</ref> and [[Anastas Mikoyan]] and [[Marietta Shaginyan]],<ref>"Here during the 3 days in March 1920, 7000 houses were destroyed and burnt, and the people are marking different numbers of that who were [[massacre]]d...". (in Russian) Marietta Shaginyan, "Soviet Transcaucasus", Armgiz, 1947, p. 254</ref> Russian-Georgian writer Anaida Bestavashvili drew a comparison between the burning of Shusha to the destruction of [[Pompeii]] in her ''The People and the Monuments''.<ref>[http://armenianhouse.org/raffi/also-ru/bestavashvili.html Anaida Bestavashvili, Lyudi i pamyatniki (in Russian)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129180207/http://armenianhouse.org/raffi/also-ru/bestavashvili.html |date=2022-11-29 }} // Армянский вестник, # 1–2, 2000</ref>
-On March 20, 2000, a memorial stone was laid in Shusha on the site of the planned monument to the victims of the pogrom. The [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic]] government introduced a proposal to the [[National Assembly of Nagorno-Karabakh|National Assembly]] to establish March 23 as a day of memorial of the victims of the Shusha pogroms.<ref>Nagornyy Karabakh marks 80th anniversary of 1920 Armenian pogroms, Noyan Tapan, 24 Mar. 2000</ref>
+On 20 March 2000, a memorial stone was laid in Shusha on the site of the planned monument to the victims of the pogrom. The [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic]] government introduced a proposal to the [[National Assembly of Nagorno-Karabakh|National Assembly]] to establish 23 March as a day of memorial for the victims of the pogrom.<ref>Nagornyy Karabakh marks 80th anniversary of 1920 Armenian pogroms, Noyan Tapan, 24 Mar. 2000</ref>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 74: / Line 77: @@
 == Bibliography ==
-{{Refbegin}}
+{{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
+*{{Cite web |title=1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը |trans-title=The Shushi Massacre of 1920 |url=https://republic.mediamax.am/story/100 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719045023/https://republic.mediamax.am/story/100/ |archive-date=19 July 2022 |access-date=19 November 2022 |website=Republic.Mediamax.am |language=hy |ref={{Harvid|1920 թվականի Շուշիի կոտորածը}} }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719045023/https://republic.mediamax.am/story/100/ |date=19 July 2022 }}
-*{{cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Benjamin|title= Terrible Fate Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2013 |isbn= 9781442230385 |volume=|location=}}
+*{{Cite book |last=Baberovski |first=Yorg |url=http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |title=Враг есть везде. Сталинизм на Кавказе |publisher=Rossiyskaya politicheskaya entsiklopediya (ROSSPEN) Fond «Prezidentskiy tsentr B. N. Yeltsina» |year=2010 |isbn=978-5-8243-1435-9 |location=Moscow |pages=171 |language=ru |trans-title=The enemy is everywhere. Stalinism in the Caucasus |author-link=Jörg Baberowski |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008172127/http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |archive-date=8 October 2022 |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008172127/http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |date=8 October 2022 }}
+*{{Cite web |last=Bagdasaryan |first=Gegam |date=March 2015 |title=Три нераскрытых обстоятельства резни армян в Шуши |trans-title=Three unsolved circumstances of the massacre of Armenians in Shushi |url=https://theanalyticon.com/ru/%d0%bd%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%be%d1%81%d1%82%d0%b8/%d1%82%d1%80%d0%b8-%d0%bd%d0%b5%d1%80%d0%b0%d1%81%d0%ba%d1%80%d1%8b%d1%82%d1%8b%d1%85-%d0%be%d0%b1%d1%81%d1%82%d0%be%d1%8f%d1%82%d0%b5%d0%bb%d1%8c%d1%81%d1%82%d0%b2%d0%b0-%d1%80%d0%b5%d0%b7%d0%bd/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114224058/https://theanalyticon.com/ru/%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8/%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%85-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD/ |archive-date=14 November 2022 |access-date=15 November 2022 |website=theanalyticon.com |location=Stepanakert |language=ru }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114224058/https://theanalyticon.com/ru/%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8/%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%85-%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD/ |date=14 November 2022 }}
 *{{cite book |last=Geldenhuys |first=Deon|title= Contested States in World Politics |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |year=2009 |isbn= 9780230234185 |volume=3 |location=Berkeley}}
+*{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/greatsovietencyc0017unse |title=Great Soviet Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]] |year=1973 |volume=17 |location=New York |pages=301 |ref={{harvid|Great Soviet Encyclopedia}} }}
-*{{Cite book |last1=Smith|first1=J.|title=The Bolsheviks and the Nation Quesstion 1917-23 |year=1999|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=9780230377370}}
+*{{Cite book |last1=Herzig |first1=Edmund |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/229988654 |title=The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity |last2=Kurkchiyan |first2=Marina |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |year=2005 |isbn=0-203-00493-0 |location=London |oclc=229988654 }}
-*{{Cite book |last=Wright |first=John |title=Transcaucasian Boundaries |year=2003 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-0805079326}}
+*{{Cite The Republic of Armenia Volume 1}}
 *{{Cite The Republic of Armenia Volume 3}}
+*{{Cite Kavkazskiy Kalendar 1917}}
-{{Refend}}
+*{{Cite web |url=http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk_file/article/11.html |title=Letter from Avetis Aharonian, president of the delegation of the Republic of Armenia, addressed to the presidents of the delegations of Italy, France, England, and the U.S. |access-date=2008-01-24 |archive-date=2007-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914134425/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk_file/article/11.html |url-status=live |ref={{harvid|"letter from Avetis Aharonian, president of the delegation of the Republic of Armenia, addressed to the presidents of the delegations of Italy, France, England, and the U.S."}} }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914134425/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/fr/nk/nk_file/article/11.html |date=2007-09-14 }}
-==Further reading==
-* Armenia, Armenia: about the country and the people from the Biblical times to our days, a reference-book, by V. Krivopuskov, V. Osipov, V. Alyoshkin and others, ed. V.V. Krivopuskov, Third ed., revised and expanded. Moscow, Golos-Press, 2007. pp. 30–31.
-* {{in lang|ru}} [http://pda.regnum.ru/news/611517.html В Нагорном Карабахе осудили погромы 1920 года в Шуши]
+*{{cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Benjamin|title= Terrible Fate Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2013 |isbn= 9781442230385 |volume=|location=}}
-==External links==
-*[https://www.un.org/documents/ga/docs/52/plenary/a52-85.htm United Nations document]
+*{{Cite book |last=Mkrtchʻyan |first=Shahen |title=Shoushi: The City of Tragic Fate |publisher=Gasprint |year=2008 |location=Yerevan}}
-*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070915152735/http://www.shushi.org/en/kotoratcner.php Shoushi Massacres of Armenians]
-*[http://www.usanogh.com/content/view/368/110/ Shushi- Armenian city of sorrow and triumph]
+*{{Cite book |last=Smele |first=Jonathan D. |title=Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916–1926 |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4422-5281-3 |location=Lanham, Maryland |oclc=923010906}}
+*{{Cite book |last=Welt |first=Cory D. |title=Explaining ethnic conflict in the South Caucasus: Mountainous Karabagh, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia |year=2004}}
+*{{Cite book |last=Wright |first=John |title=Transcaucasian Boundaries |year=2003 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-0805079326}}
+*{{Cite book |last=Ziemer |first=Ulrike |title=Ethnic Belonging, Gender, and Cultural Practices Youth Identities in Contemporary Russia |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=9783838261522}}
+{{Refend}}
 {{Anti-Armenianism}}
@@ Line 103: / Line 118: @@
 [[Category:1920 in Armenia]]
 [[Category:1920 in Azerbaijan]]
-[[Category:Massacres in Armenia]]
+[[Category:Massacres committed by Azerbaijan]]
 [[Category:History of the Republic of Artsakh]]
 [[Category:Persecution of Oriental Orthodox Christians]]
@@ Line 110: / Line 125: @@
 [[Category:Conflicts in 1920]]
 [[Category:March 1920 events]]
-[[Category:Mass murder in 1920]]
 [[Category:Massacres in 1920]]
-[[Category:Azerbaijani war crimes]]
-[[Category:War crimes in Azerbaijan]]
 [[Category:Military history of Shusha]]
-[[Category:Massacres of Armenians]]
+[[Category:Anti-Armenian pogroms]]
+[[Category:Massacres of the Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)]]

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