THC Science

During the aftermath of World War I, the Armenian–Azerbaijani war and Russian Civil War, there were mutual massacres committed by Armenians and Azerbaijanis.^[1]

Turkish-German historian Taner Akçam criticized Azerbaijani/Turkish efforts to equate incidences of revenge killings with the previous Armenian genocide. He also criticzed the death figures in primary sources for often being "freely invented by the authors" and exaggerations of "destroyed villages" referring to settlements of 4-5 inhabitants.^[2]

Background

Following the Russian annexation of Iranian Armenia, tens of thousands of Armenians repatriated to Russian Armenia in 1828–1831, thereby regaining an ethnic majority in their homeland for the first time in "several hundred years".^[3] Despite this, the 1897 Russian Empire Census indicated there to be over 240 thousand Muslims on the territory of present-day Armenia, mostly ethnic Azerbaijanis as indicated by previous censuses (forming over 30 percent of the population).^[4] As a result of rising nationalism in the South Caucasus, ethnic clashes erupted between Armenians and Azerbaijanis in the Russian Empire between 1905 and 1907, resulting in massacres of thousands^[5] and the destruction of 128 and 158 Armenian and Tatar villages, respectively.^[6]

Tensions rose after both Armenia and Azerbaijan became briefly independent from Russia in 1918 as both quarrelled over where their common borders lay.^[7]^[1]^[8] Expert on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict Thomas de Waal wrote that Azerbaijanis in Armenia became the "collateral victims" of the Armenian genocide carried out by the Ottoman Empire years prior; also adding that despite Azerbaijanis being represented by three delegates in an eighty-seat Armenian parliament, they were universally targeted as "Turkish fifth columnists".^[9]

In the Erivan Governorate and Kars Oblast

Historian Richard Hovannisian wrote that nearly a third of the 350 thousand Muslims of the Erivan Governorate were displaced from their villages in 1918–1919 and living in the outskirts of Yerevan or along the former Russo-Turkish border in emptied Armenian homes. In 1919, the Armenian government declared the right of return of all refugees, however, this was unimplemented in emptied Muslim settlements occupied by Armenian refugees.^[11] During his tenure as minister of war, Rouben Ter Minassian transferred many Armenian refugees to replace evicted Muslims and also homogenize certain areas,^[12] such regions included Erivan and Daralayaz (present-day Ararat and Vayots Dzor provinces, respectively).^[13] Ter Minassian, displeased with the fact that Azerbaijanis in Armenia lived on fertile lands, waged at least three campaigns aimed at cleansing Azerbaijanis from 20 villages outside Erivan, as well as in the south of the country. According to French historian (and Ter Minassian's daughter-in-law) Anahide Ter Minassian, to achieve his goals, he used intimidation and negotiations, but above all, "fire and steel" and "the most violent methods to 'encourage' Muslims in Armenia" to leave.^[9] Historian Benjamin Lieberman wrote in his book Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe that "[f]or some 20 miles (32 kilometres) along Lake Sevan … deserted houses lay 'in ruins from internecine conflicts between Armenians and Tatars.'"^[14]

In October 1919, Muslim authorities in Kars appealed to Azerbaijan for means to transport 25 thousand refugees.^[15]

In Zangezur

Throughout 1918–1921, Armenian commanders Andranik Ozanian^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20] and Garegin Nzhdeh brought about a "re-Armenianization" of Zangezur^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24] through the expulsion of tens of thousands^[25] (40^[26]–50 thousand,^[27] most fleeing into the adjacent Jebrail and Jevanshir counties, particularly in the Barkushat–Geghvadzor valleys and southeast of Goris where nine villages and forty hamlets were "wiped out" in January 1920.^[28] A message dated 12 September from the local county chief indicated that the villages of Rut, Darabas, Agadu, Vagudu were destroyed, and Arikly, Shukyur, Melikly, Pulkend, Shaki, Kiziljig, the Muslim part of Karakilisa, Irlik, Pakhlilu, Darabas, Kyurtlyar, Khotanan, Sisian, and Zabazdur were set aflame, resulting in the deaths of 500 men, women, and children.^[29]

The number of Muslim settlements in Zangezur destroyed by Andranik and Nzhdeh is given by different authors as 24,^[26] 49 (9 villages and 40 hamlets),^[28] or 115.^[27]^[30] The destruction of these settlements and the restriction imposed by local Armenians on Muslim shepherds taking their flocks into Zangezur served as the casus belli for Azerbaijan's campaign against Zangezur in late-1919.^[26] During the 1921 anti-Soviet revolt known as the Republic of Mountainous Armenia, Nzhdeh in taking control of Zangezur drove "out the last of its Azerbaijani population".^[22]

Statistics

According to the 1897 Russian Empire Census, the territory of Armenian-controlled Zangezur was 68 percent (59,207) Armenian and 31 percent (27,031) Muslim with a total population of 87,252.^[4] According to the Armenian agricultural census of 1922, the first census after the brief independence of Armenia, it was revealed that Zangezur's population had declined to 75,994, 89 percent (67,587) of whom were Armenians and 11 percent (8,224) were Azerbaijanis.^[31] Thus, the Armenian population had increased by 14 percent whilst the Azerbaijani Muslim population decreased by 70 percent.

Historical ethnic composition of Armenian Zangezur
Nationality	1897^[4]		1922^[31]
Nationality	Number	%	Number	%
Armenians	59,207	67.9	67,587	88.9
Azerbaijanis	27,031	31.0	8,224	10.8
Others	1,014	1.2	183	0.2
TOTAL	87,252	100.0	75,994	100.0

Aftermath

By time of Armenia's sovietisation, little more than 10 thousand Azerbaijanis remained within the borders of Armenia.^[32] By the time of 1922 agricultural census, some 60 thousand Azerbaijani refugees had been repatriated, thereby bringing their total up to 72,596.^[32] Muslims numbered 240,323 (30.1 percent of the population on the territory of present-day Armenia) in 1897,^[4] by 1922, Azerbaijanis fell to 77,767 (9.9 percent of the population).^[31]

In April 1920, the archbishop of Yerevan, Khoren I of Armenia, admitted that "a few Tatar villages under the Armenian Government have suffered" while also justifying it by stating that "they [Azerbaijanis] were the aggressors, either they actually attacked us, or they were being organised by the Azerbaijan agents and official representatives to rise against the Armenian Government."^[33]

International reaction

To assist the destitute 70–80 thousand Muslim refugees living south of Yerevan (50 thousand of whom were dependent on relief aid during the winter), the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic transferred large amounts of funds. It was reported in 1919–1920 that there were 13 thousand Muslims in Yerevan and another 50 thousand throughout Armenia. Muslims, in contrast with their coreligionists in the south of the country lived "acceptably" and with "generally cordial" interethnic relations in the north. The 40 thousand Muslims who had fled from Armenia to Azerbaijan were resettled through a 69 million ruble allocation by the Azerbaijani government.^[15]

Assessment

Turkish-German historian Taner Akçam posits that the massacres against the Muslim population of Armenia are exaggerated or even outright fabrications in order to "reinforce the image of the 'Armenian peril.'"^[2]

Casualties

Distribution of Azerbaijanis in modern borders of Armenia (1886–1890)

Distribution of Azerbaijanis in the Armenian SSR (1926)

Region	Villages destroyed	Population displaced
Surmalu uezd	24^[34]–38^[35]	40,000^[35]
Kars Oblast		10,000^[36]
Zangezur uezd	24^[26]–115^[30]	40,000^[26]–50,000^[30]
TOTAL	190–446	170,000–276,000

Notes

^ Azerbaijanis (along with other Turkic-speaking Muslims in the Caucasus) were referred to as Tatars by the Russian administration until the formation of independent Azerbaijan.^[10]

References

^ ^a ^b Kaufman 2001, p. 58.
^ ^a ^b Akçam 2007, p. 330.
^ Herzig & Kurkchiyan 2005, p. 66.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Korkotyan 1932, pp. 164–165.
^ Hovannisian 1967, p. 264.
^ Akouni 2011, p. 30.
^ de Waal 2003, pp. 127–128.
^ Ovsepyan 2001, p. 224.
^ ^a ^b de Waal 2015, p. 75.
^ Bournoutian 2015, p. 35.
^ Hovannisian 1982, p. 178.
^ Bloxham 2005, p. 103.
^ Leupold 2020, p. 25.
^ Lieberman 2013, p. 136.
^ ^a ^b Hovannisian 1982, p. 182.
^ de Waal 2003, pp. 127–129.
^ Arslanian 1980, p. 93.
^ Namig 2015, p. 240.
^ Gerwarth & Horne 2012, p. 179.
^ Hovannisian 1971, p. 87.
^ Broers 2019, p. 4.
^ ^a ^b de Waal 2003, p. 129.
^ Chorbajian 1994, p. 134.
^ Zakharov 2017, pp. 105–106.
^ de Waal 2003, p. 80.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Hovannisian 1982, p. 213.
^ ^a ^b Mammadov & Musayev 2008, p. 33.
^ ^a ^b Hovannisian 1982, p. 239.
^ Buldakov 2010, pp. 893–894.
^ ^a ^b ^c Balayev 1990, p. 43.
^ ^a ^b ^c Korkotyan 1932, p. 167.
^ ^a ^b Korkotyan 1932, p. 184.
^ Bloxham 2005, p. 105.
^ Hovannisian 1982, p. 106.
^ ^a ^b Chmaïvsky 1919, p. 8.
^ Hovannisian 1996a, p. 122.

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[Tatar-11] Azerbaijanis (along with other Turkic-speaking Muslims in the Caucasus) were referred to as Tatars by the Russian administration until the formation of independent Azerbaijan.^[10]

[FOOTNOTEKaufman200158-1] Kaufman 2001, p. 58.

[FOOTNOTEAkçam2007330-2] Akçam 2007, p. 330.

[FOOTNOTEHerzigKurkchiyan200566-3] Herzig & Kurkchiyan 2005, p. 66.

[FOOTNOTEKorkotyan1932164–165-4] Korkotyan 1932, pp. 164–165.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1967264-5] Hovannisian 1967, p. 264.

[FOOTNOTEAkouni201130-6] Akouni 2011, p. 30.

[FOOTNOTEde_Waal2003127–128-7] Waal 2003, pp. 127–128.

[FOOTNOTEOvsepyan2001224-8] Ovsepyan 2001, p. 224.

[FOOTNOTEde_Waal201575-9] Waal 2015, p. 75.

[FOOTNOTEBournoutian201535-10] Bournoutian 2015, p. 35.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1982178-12] Hovannisian 1982, p. 178.

[FOOTNOTEBloxham2005103-13] Bloxham 2005, p. 103.

[FOOTNOTELeupold202025-14] Leupold 2020, p. 25.

[FOOTNOTELieberman2013136-15] Lieberman 2013, p. 136.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1982182-16] Hovannisian 1982, p. 182.

[FOOTNOTEde_Waal2003127–129-17] Waal 2003, pp. 127–129.

[FOOTNOTEArslanian198093-18] Arslanian 1980, p. 93.

[FOOTNOTENamig2015240-19] Namig 2015, p. 240.

[FOOTNOTEGerwarthHorne2012179-20] Gerwarth & Horne 2012, p. 179.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian197187-21] Hovannisian 1971, p. 87.

[FOOTNOTEBroers20194-22] Broers 2019, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEde_Waal2003129-23] Waal 2003, p. 129.

[FOOTNOTEChorbajian1994134-24] Chorbajian 1994, p. 134.

[FOOTNOTEZakharov2017105–106-25] Zakharov 2017, pp. 105–106.

[FOOTNOTEde_Waal200380-26] Waal 2003, p. 80.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1982213-27] Hovannisian 1982, p. 213.

[FOOTNOTEMammadovMusayev200833-28] Mammadov & Musayev 2008, p. 33.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1982239-29] Hovannisian 1982, p. 239.

[FOOTNOTEBuldakov2010893–894-30] Buldakov 2010, pp. 893–894.

[FOOTNOTEBalayev199043-31] Balayev 1990, p. 43.

[FOOTNOTEKorkotyan1932167-32] Korkotyan 1932, p. 167.

[FOOTNOTEKorkotyan1932184-33] Korkotyan 1932, p. 184.

[FOOTNOTEBloxham2005105-34] Bloxham 2005, p. 105.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1982106-35] Hovannisian 1982, p. 106.

[FOOTNOTEChmaïvsky19198-36] Chmaïvsky 1919, p. 8.

[FOOTNOTEHovannisian1996a122-37] Hovannisian 1996a, p. 122.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Merge|Deportation of Azerbaijanis from Armenia|date=January 2023}}
+{{Multiple issues|
-[[Azerbaijanis in Armenia]] were [[ethnically cleansed]] on a large scale throughout 1917–1921 following the [[October Revolution]] and ending with the [[Red Army invasion of Armenia|sovietisation of Armenia]]. The deportations and massacres involved the destructions of hundreds of villages—initially by [[Russian army|Russian soldiers]] and [[Armenian volunteers]] and later by [[Armenian soldier|Armenian soldiers]] and [[Armenian fedayi|partisans]] under the [[Dashnak]] (ARF) government of [[First Republic of Armenia|Armenia]].
+{{POV|date=December 2022}}
+{{Hoax|date=December 2022}}
-In the [[Kars Oblast]], now mostly part of the [[Kars Province]] of [[Turkey]], 82 villages were destroyed and 10–36 thousand were displaced; in the [[Erivan Governorate]], mostly corresponding to central [[Armenia]] and the [[Iğdır Province]] of Turkey, 60–211 villages were destroyed, 4 thousand Tatars{{efn|name=Tatar|[[Azerbaijanis]] (along with other [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking Muslims in the Caucasus) were referred to as Tatars by the [[Russian Empire|Russian administration]] until the formation of independent [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]].{{sfn|Bournoutian|2015|p=35}}}} were killed, and 80–150 thousand [[Muslims]]{{Efn|Although not mentioned as Azerbaijanis (an [[ethnonym]] coined in 1918), censuses in 1831 and 1897 indicate Muslims to be the largest minority in [[Armenia]]; censuses in 1873 and 1886 suggest that most of these Muslims were Tatars{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|pp=164–167}} (the Russian Empire's designation of Turkic-speaking Muslims). The Tatars living in the southeastern Caucasus later became identified as Azerbaijanis.{{sfn|Bournoutian|2015|p=35}}}} were displaced; in Zangezur, mostly corresponding to the [[Syunik Province]] of Armenia, 24–115 villages were destroyed, 7,729–10,000 Muslims were killed, and 40–50 thousand displaced.
+}}
+During the aftermath of [[World War I]], the [[Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)|Armenian–Azerbaijani war]] and [[Russian Civil War]], there were mutual massacres committed by [[Armenians]] and [[Azerbaijanis]].{{sfn|Kaufman|2001|p=58}}
+[[Turkish German|Turkish-German]] historian [[Taner Akçam]] criticized Azerbaijani/Turkish efforts to equate incidences of revenge killings with the previous [[Armenian genocide]]. He also criticzed the death figures in primary sources for often being "freely invented by the authors" and exaggerations of "destroyed villages" referring to settlements of 4-5 inhabitants.{{sfn|Akçam|2007|p=330}}
-According to [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] historiography, it's estimated that hundreds of thousands of [[Azerbaijanis]] and [[Kurds]] were "driven" from Armenia in an attempt to "cleanse the country from outsiders". It wasn't until the sovietisation of Armenia, by which time barely 10 thousand Turks remained in the country, that exiled Azerbaijanis were allowed to repatriate.
 == Background ==
 Following the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay|Russian annexation of Iranian Armenia]], tens of thousands of Armenians repatriated to [[Russian Armenia]] in 1828–1831, thereby regaining an [[ethnic majority]] in their homeland for the first time in "several hundred years".{{sfn|Herzig|Kurkchiyan|2005|p=66}} Despite this, the 1897 [[Russian Empire Census]] indicated there to be over 240 thousand Muslims on the territory of present-day Armenia, mostly ethnic Azerbaijanis as indicated by previous censuses (forming over 30 percent of the population).{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|pp=164–165}} As a result of rising nationalism in the [[South Caucasus]], [[Armenian–Tatar massacres of 1905–1907|ethnic clashes]] erupted between Armenians and Azerbaijanis in the [[Russian Empire]] between 1905 and 1907, resulting in massacres of thousands{{sfn|Hovannisian|1967|p=264}} and the destruction of 128 and 158 Armenian and Tatar villages, respectively.{{sfn|Akouni|2011|p=30}}
-Tensions rose after both Armenia and [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]] became briefly independent from [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]] in 1918 as both quarrelled over where their common borders lay.{{sfn|de Waal|2003|pp=127–128}} Warfare coupled with the influx of Ottoman Armenian refugees (who had fled from the [[Armenian genocide]]) resulted in massacres of Azerbaijanis in Armenia.{{sfn|Kaufman|2001|p=58}}{{sfn|Ovsepyan|2001|p=224}} Expert on the [[Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]] [[Thomas de Waal]] wrote that Azerbaijanis in Armenia became the "collateral victims" of the Armenian genocide carried out by the [[Ottoman Empire]] years prior; also adding that despite Azerbaijanis being represented by three delegates in an eighty-seat [[Armenian parliament]], they were universally targeted as "Turkish [[fifth columnists]]".{{sfn|de Waal|2015|p=75}}
+Tensions rose after both Armenia and [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]] became briefly independent from [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]] in 1918 as both quarrelled over where their common borders lay.{{sfn|de Waal|2003|pp=127–128}}{{sfn|Kaufman|2001|p=58}}{{sfn|Ovsepyan|2001|p=224}} Expert on the [[Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]] [[Thomas de Waal]] wrote that Azerbaijanis in Armenia became the "collateral victims" of the Armenian genocide carried out by the [[Ottoman Empire]] years prior; also adding that despite Azerbaijanis being represented by three delegates in an eighty-seat [[Armenian parliament]], they were universally targeted as "Turkish [[fifth columnists]]".{{sfn|de Waal|2015|p=75}}
 == In the Erivan Governorate and Kars Oblast ==
-[[Image:Azerbaijanis in Erivan bazaar.jpg|thumb|225px|Azerbaijanis{{efn|name=Tatar}} in Erivan (present-day [[Yerevan]])]]
+[[Image:Azerbaijanis in Erivan bazaar.jpg|thumb|225px|Azerbaijanis{{efn|name=Tatar|[[Azerbaijanis]] (along with other [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking Muslims in the Caucasus) were referred to as Tatars by the [[Russian Empire|Russian administration]] until the formation of independent [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]].{{sfn|Bournoutian|2015|p=35}}}} in Erivan (present-day [[Yerevan]])]]
+Historian [[Richard Hovannisian]] wrote that nearly a third of the 350 thousand Muslims of the Erivan Governorate were displaced from their villages in 1918–1919 and living in the outskirts of Yerevan or along the former Russo-Turkish border in emptied Armenian homes. In 1919, the [[Armenian government]] declared the right of return of all refugees, however, this was unimplemented in emptied Muslim settlements occupied by Armenian refugees.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=178}} During his tenure as [[Ministry of Defence of Armenia|minister of war]], [[Rouben Ter Minassian]] transferred many Armenian refugees to replace evicted Muslims and also homogenize certain areas,{{sfn|Bloxham|2005|p=103}} such regions included Erivan and Daralayaz (present-day [[Ararat Province|Ararat]] and [[Vayots Dzor]] [[Administrative divisions of Armenia|provinces]], respectively).{{sfn|Leupold|2020|p=25}} Ter Minassian, displeased with the fact that Azerbaijanis in Armenia lived on fertile lands, waged at least three campaigns aimed at cleansing Azerbaijanis from 20 villages outside Erivan, as well as in the south of the country. According to [[French people|French]] historian (and Ter Minassian's daughter-in-law) [[Anahide Ter Minassian]], to achieve his goals, he used intimidation and negotiations, but above all, "fire and steel" and "the most violent methods to 'encourage' Muslims in Armenia" to leave.{{sfn|de Waal|2015|p=75}} Historian Benjamin Lieberman wrote in his book ''Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe'' that "[f]or some {{Convert|20|mi|km|abbr=off}} along [[Lake Sevan]] … deserted houses lay 'in ruins from internecine conflicts between Armenians and Tatars.'"{{sfn|Lieberman|2013|p=136}}
-According to German historian [[Jörg Baberowski]], in August 1917, [[Cossacks]] and [[Armenian volunteer units|Armenian volunteers]] in an attempt to drive Muslims out of the region carried out "horrific atrocities" in [[Doğubayazıt]] and [[Şahtaxtı]] (part of the [[Ağrı Province]] of Turkey and the [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic]], respectively). Until March 1918, 100 thousand Muslims throughout the Erivan Governorate were killed or fled to territories controlled by the Ottoman army due to destruction of 199 of their villages—the pogroms continued in September 1918 and May 1919.{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=163}} Historian [[Jamil Hasanli]] supports this by writing that 211 villages had been destroyed in the [[Erivan Governorate]] and the populations either driven out or killed—the number of refugees "exceeded 80,000".{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=40}} He also mentions Vladimir Stankevich's 1921 book titled ''The Fate of the Peoples of Russia'' ({{Lang|ru|Судьба народов России}}) whereby Stankevich wrote that the "angry and defeated" Russian army was "robbing and pillaging the Muslim population" and that as a result, 200 Muslim villages had been destroyed. Hasanli also wrote of a 1922 memoir by Boris Baykov who wrote that Muslim villages were exclusively targeted during these events.{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=19}} [[Mustafa Kemal]], the leader of the [[Turkish National Movement]], in justifying an [[Turkish–Armenian War|invasion of Armenia]], stated that reportedly nearly 200 villages were burned by Armenians and most of their 135 thousand inhabitants were "eliminated".{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996b|p=247}} In the southern part of the Erivan Governorate, "hundreds of Muslim villages were destroyed and 150 thousand Muslim refugees who had been ousted to Azerbaijan were left homeless and without food".{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|pp=240–241}} The [[British Empire|British]] Chief Commissioner of Transcaucasia, [[Oliver Wardrop]], while in Baku, wrote that "Azerbaijanis have reported that with help of Bolsheviks, local Armenians have killed a great number of the Muslim population" and added "Armenians had destroyed sixty Muslim villages in [[Nor Bayazet uezd|New Bayazit]], [[Alexandropol uezd|Alexandropol]], and [[Erivan uezd|Erivan]] provinces".{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=268}} In a report dated 22 April 1919 to the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Azerbaijan)|Azerbaijani minister of foreign affairs]], it was stated that "certain Tatar{{efn|name=Tatar}} villages of such provinces as Erivan, [[Etchmiadzin uezd|Echmiadzin]] and [[Surmalu uezd|Surmeli]] … have been exposed to robberies and executions and 'are being cleansed' of their Tatar population".{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=241}}
+In October 1919, Muslim authorities in [[Kars]] appealed to Azerbaijan for means to transport 25 thousand refugees.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=182}}
-Historian [[Richard Hovannisian]] wrote that nearly a third of the 350 thousand Muslims of the Erivan Governorate were displaced from their villages in 1918–1919 and living in the outskirts of Yerevan or along the former Russo-Turkish border in emptied Armenian homes. In 1919, the [[Armenian government]] declared the right of return of all refugees, however, this was unimplemented in emptied Muslim settlements occupied by Armenian refugees.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=178}} During his tenure as [[Ministry of Defence of Armenia|minister of war]], [[Rouben Ter Minassian]] played a role in the destruction of Muslim settlements and in the planned ethnic homogenisation of regions with Armenian refugees,{{sfn|Bloxham|2005|p=103}} such regions included Erivan and Daralayaz (present-day [[Ararat Province|Ararat]] and [[Vayots Dzor]] [[Administrative divisions of Armenia|provinces]], respectively).{{sfn|Leupold|2020|p=25}} Ter Minassian, displeased with the fact that Azerbaijanis in Armenia lived on fertile lands, waged at least three campaigns aimed at cleansing Azerbaijanis from 20 villages outside Erivan, as well as in the south of the country. According to [[French people|French]] historian (and Ter Minassian's daughter-in-law) [[Anahide Ter Minassian]], to achieve his goals, he used intimidation and negotiations, but above all, "fire and steel" and "the most violent methods to 'encourage' Muslims in Armenia" to leave.{{sfn|de Waal|2015|p=75}} In dealing with "troublesome" Muslim bands in Etchmiadzin, Armenian militias looted Muslim villages along the railway, forcing their inhabitants to flee across the [[Aras (river)|Aras river]]—in an instance of this, the men of six Muslim villages were massacred and the women distributed to the "Armenian warriors".{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=180}} In Daralayaz, 300 Muslims were killed following a [[Agreement between Armenia and Azerbaijan respecting the District of Zanghezour|peace agreement]] concluded between Armenia and Azerbaijan in late-1919.{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=287}} In 1918–1919, Muslim villages in the Nor Bayazet district were "pillaged and ravaged",{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=99}} the district was eventually "cleared of Muslims" through the destruction of 100 villages,{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=169}} however, the ethnic-clashes were provoked by [[sedition|seditious]] envoys of Azerbaijan.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=216}} Historian Benjamin Lieberman wrote in his book ''Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe'' that "[f]or some {{Convert|20|mi|km|abbr=off}} along [[Lake Sevan]] … deserted houses lay 'in ruins from internecine conflicts between Armenians and Tatars.'"{{sfn|Lieberman|2013|p=136}}
-In 1919, Ottoman commander [[Halil Bey]] in a letter to [[Turkish National Movement|Turkish revolutionary]] [[Kâzım Karabekir]] wrote that 24 villages in Surmalu had been razed.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=106}} Hasanli wrote that 82 Muslim villages were burned in the [[Kars Oblast]], as described not only by Armenians, but also [[Caucasus Greeks|Greeks]] who had also fled Kars during the Ottoman advance.{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=40}} In October 1919, Muslim authorities in [[Kars]] appealed to Azerbaijan for means to transport 25 thousand refugees.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=182}} The Central Muslim National Committee of the South-West Caucasus in Kars in August 1919 reported that Armenian forces put to fire 38 villages in Surmalu, affecting 3,500 people and leaving 40 thousand homeless.{{sfn|Chmaïvsky|1919|p=8}} The source also adds that 70 villages in [[Kars Okrug|Kars]], 50 in [[Kagizman Okrug|Kagizman]], and 20 in [[Göle]] were destroyed, causing the killed and wounded to number in the tens of thousands. Thereby, 150 thousand Muslims were rendered homeless, causing many to die from typhus and other diseases, many taking refuge in [[Erzurum]], [[Batumi]], and Azerbaijan.{{sfn|Chmaïvsky|1919|p=9}}
 == In Zangezur ==
 [[Image:Andranik Zangezur 1918.png|thumb|300px|[[Andranik]] and his partisans]]
-Throughout 1918–1921, Armenian partisan commanders [[Andranik Ozanian]]{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=166}}{{sfn|de Waal|2003|pp=127–129}}{{sfn|Arslanian|1980|p=93}}{{sfn|Namig|2015|p=240}}{{sfn|Gerwarth|Horne|2012|p=179}}{{sfn|Hovannisian|1971|p=87}} and [[Garegin Nzhdeh]] brought about a "re-Armenianization" of [[Zangezur uezd|Zangezur]]{{sfn|Broers|2019|p=4}}{{sfn|de Waal|2003|p=129}}{{sfn|Chorbajian|1994|p=134}}{{sfn|Zakharov|2017|pp=105–106}} through the massacre of 7,729{{sfn|Mammadov|Musayev|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Balayev|1990|p=43}}–10,000{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=166}}{{sfn|Coyle|2021|p=49}} Azerbaijani Muslims and expulsion of tens of thousands{{sfn|de Waal|2003|p=80}} (40{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=213}}–50 thousand,{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=166}}{{sfn|Mammadov|Musayev|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Balayev|1990|p=43}} most fleeing into the adjacent [[Jebrail uezd|Jebrail]] and [[Jevanshir uezd|Jevanshir]] counties{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=166}}), particularly in the Barkushat–Geghvadzor valleys and southeast of [[Goris]] where nine villages and forty [[hamlets]] were "wiped out" in January 1920.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=239}} In September 1918, Andranik's partisans destroyed 18 Muslim villages and killed 500 women—according to a report by local chief of police, the massacre was requested by local Armenians who sought the exiled and killed peoples' property.{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=166}} A message dated 12 September from the local county chief indicated that the villages of [[Vorotan, Sisian|Rut]], [[Darbas|Darabas]], [[Aghitu|Agadu]], [[Vaghatin|Vagudu]] were destroyed, and Arikly, Shukyur, Melikly, Pulkend, [[Shaki, Armenia|Shaki]], [[Ishkhanasar|Kiziljig]], the Muslim part of [[Sisian|Karakilisa]], Irlik, Pakhlilu, Darabas, Kyurtlyar, [[Khot, Armenia|Khotanan]], [[Hatsavan, Syunik|Sisian]], and Zabazdur were set aflame, resulting in the deaths of 500 men, women, and children.{{sfn|Buldakov|2010|pp=893–894}}
+Throughout 1918–1921, Armenian commanders [[Andranik Ozanian]]{{sfn|de Waal|2003|pp=127–129}}{{sfn|Arslanian|1980|p=93}}{{sfn|Namig|2015|p=240}}{{sfn|Gerwarth|Horne|2012|p=179}}{{sfn|Hovannisian|1971|p=87}} and [[Garegin Nzhdeh]] brought about a "re-Armenianization" of [[Zangezur uezd|Zangezur]]{{sfn|Broers|2019|p=4}}{{sfn|de Waal|2003|p=129}}{{sfn|Chorbajian|1994|p=134}}{{sfn|Zakharov|2017|pp=105–106}} through the expulsion of tens of thousands{{sfn|de Waal|2003|p=80}} (40{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=213}}–50 thousand,{{sfn|Mammadov|Musayev|2008|p=33}} most fleeing into the adjacent [[Jebrail uezd|Jebrail]] and [[Jevanshir uezd|Jevanshir]] counties, particularly in the Barkushat–Geghvadzor valleys and southeast of [[Goris]] where nine villages and forty [[hamlets]] were "wiped out" in January 1920.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=239}} A message dated 12 September from the local county chief indicated that the villages of [[Vorotan, Sisian|Rut]], [[Darbas|Darabas]], [[Aghitu|Agadu]], [[Vaghatin|Vagudu]] were destroyed, and Arikly, Shukyur, Melikly, Pulkend, [[Shaki, Armenia|Shaki]], [[Ishkhanasar|Kiziljig]], the Muslim part of [[Sisian|Karakilisa]], Irlik, Pakhlilu, Darabas, Kyurtlyar, [[Khot, Armenia|Khotanan]], [[Hatsavan, Syunik|Sisian]], and Zabazdur were set aflame, resulting in the deaths of 500 men, women, and children.{{sfn|Buldakov|2010|pp=893–894}}
-The number of Muslim settlements in Zangezur destroyed by Andranik and Nzhdeh is given by different authors as 24,{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=213}} 49 (9 villages and 40 hamlets),{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=239}} 100,{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=166}} or 115.{{sfn|Mammadov|Musayev|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Balayev|1990|p=43}} The destruction of these settlements and the restriction imposed by local Armenians on Muslim [[shepherd]]s taking their flocks into Zangezur served as the ''[[casus belli]]'' for Azerbaijan's [[Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)#Fight for Zangezur, November 1919|campaign against Zangezur]] in late-1919.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=213}} On 23 November 1919, a peace agreement to end the fighting in Zangezur was signed by Armenia and Azerbaijan, the latter of whom honoured the agreement by withdrawing its forces, however, the Armenian army continued to destroy and plunder Muslim villages.{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=287}} During the 1921 anti-Soviet revolt known as the [[Republic of Mountainous Armenia]], Nzhdeh in taking control of Zangezur drove "out the last of its Azerbaijani population".{{sfn|de Waal|2003|p=129}}
+The number of Muslim settlements in Zangezur destroyed by Andranik and Nzhdeh is given by different authors as 24,{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=213}} 49 (9 villages and 40 hamlets),{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=239}} or 115.{{sfn|Mammadov|Musayev|2008|p=33}}{{sfn|Balayev|1990|p=43}} The destruction of these settlements and the restriction imposed by local Armenians on Muslim [[shepherd]]s taking their flocks into Zangezur served as the ''[[casus belli]]'' for Azerbaijan's [[Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)#Fight for Zangezur, November 1919|campaign against Zangezur]] in late-1919.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=213}} During the 1921 anti-Soviet revolt known as the [[Republic of Mountainous Armenia]], Nzhdeh in taking control of Zangezur drove "out the last of its Azerbaijani population".{{sfn|de Waal|2003|p=129}}
 === Statistics ===
@@ Line 65: / Line 65: @@
 == Aftermath ==
 [[Image:Khoren I of Armenia.jpg|thumb|160px|[[Khoren I of Armenia]], the [[Araratian Pontifical Diocese|archbishop of Yerevan]] in 1910–1924]]
-According to British reports, 250 Muslim villages had been burnt in the eastern [[Caucasus]] by May 1918—as a result of a killing spree initiated by Armenian units led by Andranik.{{sfn|Levene|2013|p=217}} By time of Armenia's [[sovietisation]], little more than 10 thousand Azerbaijanis remained within the borders of Armenia.{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|p=184}} By the time of 1922 agricultural census, some 60 thousand Azerbaijani refugees had been repatriated, thereby bringing their total up to 72,596.{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|p=184}} Muslims numbered 240,323 (30.1 percent of the population on the territory of present-day Armenia) in 1897,{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|pp=164–165}} by 1922, Azerbaijanis fell to 77,767 (9.9 percent of the population).{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|p=167}} Nakhchivan, where the [[Armenians in Nakhchivan|Armenian population]] was also subjected to ethnic cleansing,{{sfn|Broers|2019|p=4}} was "literally depopulated and turned into a desert" and "almost a third of the Muslim population" fled to Iran.{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=165}}
+By time of Armenia's [[sovietisation]], little more than 10 thousand Azerbaijanis remained within the borders of Armenia.{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|p=184}} By the time of 1922 agricultural census, some 60 thousand Azerbaijani refugees had been repatriated, thereby bringing their total up to 72,596.{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|p=184}} Muslims numbered 240,323 (30.1 percent of the population on the territory of present-day Armenia) in 1897,{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|pp=164–165}} by 1922, Azerbaijanis fell to 77,767 (9.9 percent of the population).{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|p=167}}
 In April 1920, the [[Araratian Pontifical Diocese|archbishop of Yerevan]], [[Khoren I of Armenia]], admitted that "a few Tatar villages under the Armenian Government have suffered" while also justifying it by stating that "they [Azerbaijanis] were the aggressors, either they actually attacked us, or they were being organised by the Azerbaijan agents and official representatives to [[Muslim uprisings in Kars and Sharur–Nakhichevan|rise against the Armenian Government]]."{{sfn|Bloxham|2005|p=105}}
 === International reaction ===
-On 8 April 1920, [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]] at the [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference]] warned the Armenian delegation that the actions of the "three chiefs" (referring to the destruction of Tatar villages and massacres by [[Drastamat Kanayan|Dro]], [[Hamazasp Srvandztyan|Hamazasp]] and [[Abraham Gyulkhandanyan|Gyulkhandanyan]]) was doing "great harm" to their cause—Curzon also referred to an "official Tartar communique" forwarded by Wardrop attesting to the destruction of 300 villages.{{sfn|Aharonian|1963|p=52}} The newspaper ''[[Le Temps]]'' also wrote that "several dozens of thousands Muslims had been killed in Armenia during the months of June and July 1920".{{sfn|Les musulmans en Arménie|p=4}}
 To assist the destitute 70–80 thousand Muslim refugees living south of [[Yerevan]] (50 thousand of whom were dependent on relief aid during the winter), the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic transferred large amounts of funds. It was reported in 1919–1920 that there were 13 thousand Muslims in Yerevan and another 50 thousand throughout Armenia. Muslims, in contrast with their coreligionists in the south of the country lived "acceptably" and with "generally cordial" interethnic relations in the north. The 40 thousand Muslims who had fled from Armenia to Azerbaijan were resettled through a 69 million ruble allocation by the Azerbaijani government.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=182}}
+==Assessment==
-=== Soviet historiography ===
+[[Turkish German|Turkish-German]] historian [[Taner Akçam]] posits that the massacres against the Muslim population of Armenia are exaggerated or even outright fabrications in order to "reinforce the image of the 'Armenian peril.'"{{sfn|Akçam|2007|p=330}}
-In his June 1919 report, [[Anastas Mikoyan]] stated that "the organised extermination of the Muslim population in Armenia threatened to result in Azerbaijan declaring a war [against Armenia] any minute".{{sfn|Tarasov|2014}} According to the ''Caucasian ethnographic collection'' ({{lang|ru|Кавказский этнографический сборник}}), "the settlements of Azerbaijani population in Armenia had become empty." Soviet ethnographer Nataliya Volkova wrote that the ruling party of Armenia, the ARF, followed a policy of "cleansing the country from outsiders" which "targeted the Muslim population", especially those who had been driven out from Nor Bayazet, Erivan, Etchmiadzin, and [[Sharur-Daralayaz uezd|Sharur-Daralayaz]] counties.{{sfn|Volkova|1969|p=13}} A [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Armenian]] source wrote that at least 200 thousand [[Turkish people|Turks]] and [[Kurds]] were driven from Armenia in 1919 as a result of the ARF government.{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|p=184}} Another Soviet Armenian historian, Bagrat Boryan, charged that the ARF had not established state authority for the administrative needs of Armenia, but for the "extermination of the Muslim population and looting of their property".{{sfn|Kazemzadeh|1951|pp=214–215}}
 == Casualties ==
@@ Line 86: / Line 84: @@
 | caption2          = Distribution of Azerbaijanis in the Armenian SSR (1926)
 }}
-According to Lord Curzon, 4 thousand Tatars, including women and children, near the [[Armenia–Turkey border]] had been massacred, and 36 thousand expelled by cannon shots.{{sfn|Aharonian|1963|p=52}} Historian [[Aydin Balayev]] wrote that of a commission that found that in the summer and autumn of 1918 alone, 7,729 Azerbaijanis in Zangezur were killed, including 3,257 men, 2,276 women, and 2,196 children.{{sfn|Balayev|1990|p=43}} Mustafa Kemal stated that the Armenians had reportedly burned nearly 200 Muslim villages "in the Erivan district alone" and "eliminated" most of their 135 thousand inhabitants.{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996b|p=247}} The summary of casualties are as follow:
 {| class="wikitable"
 !Region
 !Villages destroyed
-!Population massacred
 !Population displaced
-|-
-|[[Erivan Governorate]]
-|60{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=268}}–211{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=40}}
-| rowspan="2" |4,000{{sfn|Aharonian|1963|p=52}}
-|80,000{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=40}}–150,000{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|pp=240–241}}
 |-
 |[[Surmalu uezd]]
@@ Line 103: / Line 94: @@
 |-
 |[[Kars Oblast]]
-|82{{sfn|Hasanli|2015|p=40}}
 |
-|10,000{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=122}}–36,000{{sfn|Aharonian|1963|p=52}}
+|10,000{{sfn|Hovannisian|1996a|p=122}}
 |-
 |[[Zangezur uezd]]
 |24{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=213}}–115{{sfn|Balayev|1990|p=43}}
-|7,729{{sfn|Balayev|1990|p=43}}–10,000{{sfn|Baberovski|2010|p=166}}
 |40,000{{sfn|Hovannisian|1982|p=213}}–50,000{{sfn|Balayev|1990|p=43}}
 |-
 !TOTAL
 !190–446
-!11,729–14,000
 !170,000–276,000
 |}
@@ Line 134: / Line 122: @@
 {{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
 * {{Cite journal |last=Aharonian |first=Avetis |author-link=Avetis Aharonian |date=1963 |title=From Sardarapat to Sèvres and Lausanne (A Political Diary) (Part IV) |journal=[[The Armenian Review]] |volume=16 |issue=3}}
+* {{Cite book |last1=Akçam |first1=Taner |title=A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility |title-link=A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility |date=2007 |publisher=[[Metropolitan Books]] |isbn=978-0805079326 |location=New York |author-link=Taner Akçam}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Akouni |first=E. |title=Political Persecution: Armenian Prisoners Of The Caucasus (a Page Of The Tzar's Persecution) |publisher=Nabu Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1179951164}}
 * {{Cite journal |last=Arslanian |first=Artin H. |year=1980 |title=Britain and the question of Mountainous Karabagh |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00263208008700426 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=92–104 |doi=10.1080/00263208008700426 |issn=0026-3206}}
-* {{Cite book |last=Baberovski |first=Yorg |url=http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |title=Враг есть везде. Сталинизм на Кавказе |publisher=Rossiyskaya politicheskaya entsiklopediya (ROSSPEN) Fond «Prezidentskiy tsentr B. N. Yeltsina» |year=2010 |isbn=978-5-8243-1435-9 |location=Moscow |language=ru |trans-title=The enemy is everywhere. Stalinism in the Caucasus |author-link=Jörg Baberowski |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008172127/http://test8.dlibrary.org/ru/nodes/1045-vrag-est-vezde-stalinizm-na-kavkaze |archive-date=8 October 2022 |url-status=live}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Balayev |first=Aydyn |author-link=Aydin Balayev |url=http://web2.anl.az:81/read/page.php?bibid=vtls000359101 |title=Азербайджанское национально-демократическое движение 1917-1929 гг. |year=1990 |isbn=978-5-8066-0422-5 |location=Baku |language=ru |trans-title=The Azerbaijani national-democratic movement in 1917–1929 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221106235426/http://web2.anl.az:81/read/page.php?bibid=vtls000359101 |archive-date=7 November 2022 |url-status=live}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Bloxham |first=Donald |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/57483924 |title=The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians |date=2005 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0-19-927356-1 |location=Oxford |oclc=57483924 |author-link=Donald Bloxham}}
@@ Line 148: / Line 136: @@
 * {{Cite book |last=de Waal |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas de Waal |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/897378977 |title=Great Catastrophe: Armenians and Turks in the Shadow of Genocide |date=2015 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-935070-4 |location=Oxford |oclc=897378977}}
 * {{Cite book |editor-last1=Gerwarth |editor-first1=Robert |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/827777835 |title=War in Peace: Paramilitary Violence in Europe after the Great War |editor-last2=Horne |editor-first2=John |year=2012 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780191626531 |location=Oxford |oclc=827777835}}
-* {{cite book |last=Hasanli |first=Jamil |author-link=Jamil Hasanli |title=Foreign Policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan: The Difficult Road to Western Integration, 1918–1920 |date=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-317-36616-4}}
 * {{Cite book |last1=Herzig |first1=Edmund |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/229988654 |title=The Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity |last2=Kurkchiyan |first2=Marina |year=2005 |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |isbn=0-203-00493-0 |location=London |oclc=229988654}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Hovannisian |first=Richard G |author-link=Richard G. Hovannisian |title=Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918 |date=1967 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley |oclc=1028172352 |isbn=978-0520005747}}

Anti-Azerbaijanism
Events	Armenian–Tatar massacres (1905–1907) Massacres of Azerbaijanis in Armenia (1917–1921) March Days (1918) Deportation of Azerbaijanis from Armenia (1948–1992) Gugark pogrom (1988) Violence in Stepanakert (1988) Khojaly massacre (1992) Iran cockroach cartoon controversy (2006) Fitilieh programme controversy (2015)
See also	List of massacres of Azerbaijanis