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THE TRANSFORMATION

OF TRADITIONAL SPORTS

IN THE MING AND QING

DYNASTIES (1368–1840)

Liu Hui and Qu Yingjie

Introduction

The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) was the last era of China’s feudal society, which reached its peak and

began to gradually decline. During that period, while feudal production arrangements changed, new forms

of capitalist production began to sprout. The feudal culture that thrived also peaked then began to

gradually decline.

In terms of sports culture, competitive sports were on the decline, while folk sports began gaining

popularity. The Manchus dominated the Central Plains (中原)1 and declared the establishment of a

unified Qing government in 1644. The Qing government ruled for more than 200 years, but with the

outbreak of the Opium War in 1840, the Chinese feudal society came to its end.

It was during the Ming and Qing Dynasties the unification of a multi-ethnic nation and the expansion

of China’s territory laid the foundation for the development of Chinese civilization. The social, economic,

and cultural trends provided conditions for the development of ancient sports. Traditional martial arts

activities gradually became more systematic, wrestling, and skating activities began gaining wide popu-

larity, various ballgame activities were carried out based on the old system of the Song and Yuan

Dynasties, chess activities were held in different technical styles, and workout and healthcare attracted

more attention from the public. Folk sports activities showed a trend of vibrant development. Chinese

traditional national sports have continuously developed and adjusted in terms of form and rules during the

long history of the Ming and Qing Dynasty.

Shaping the Martial Arts System

Folk martial arts activities in the Ming Dynasty were relatively popular. Education that emphasized both

civil and martial arts were practiced by scholars, and clandestine religions and associations all promoted the

spread of martial arts. The martial arts in the Ming Dynasty developed fast with the emergence of routine

forms and martial arts systems. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the peasant uprisings and the entry

of Qing troops made class and ethnic contradictions increasingly complicated, thus spurring social tur-

bulence. Secret associations began to spread amongst the people, and many anti-Qing supporters gathered

during that period to practice martial arts and accumulate weapons. Moreover, many old weapons that had

DOI: 10.4324/9781003204015-8

49

lost their value in the army flowed into the hands of common people, which also promoted the devel-

opment of folk martial arts. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Chinese traditional martial arts became

increasingly powerful, shown in the following aspects.

Preliminary Formation of the Framework of the Basic Theories of Martial Arts

First, the martial ethics has “benevolence”(仁)at its core. The so-called martial ethics refers to the codes of

conduct regarding the transmission, practice, and use of martial arts. This was consciously recognized by the

martial arts community under the long-term influence of Chinese moral and ethical culture.2 Traditional

Chinese martial arts have long been associated with morality. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, all schools of

martial arts emphasized martial ethics as the most basic requirement. For example, the Changjia boxing(苌家拳

in the early Qing Dynasty stipulated Beginner’s Entry3(初学条目) that “virtue matters in boxing”.

Secondly, the core of martial arts was based on “qi” (气), regarded as the origin of the universe in the

Ming and Qing Dynasties. Chang Naizhou of the Qing Dynasty published the Twenty-Four Qi Quan Book

(苌乃周先生二十四气拳谱), which contained: “Tai Chi(太极,also known as taijiquan) has the

ancestor of two qi’s, … a good martial artist must first learn Tai Chi in his chest, and then open and close,

and then they can dance and deify unpredictably.” In Shaolin Patriarchal Clan4(少林宗法), he states that:

“qi is the king of power”. Many factions of boxing use “qi” as their core, and they have achieved the

technical structure of “internal power and external fist”( 内功外拳) in traditional martial arts.

Thirdly, the principles of martial arts skills are opposite to each other. In the pre-Qin period, some

people explained the theory of swordsmanship with the statements of an “extremes meet” and “two

opposites are complimentary to each other”. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, this theory further became

the principle of martial arts. Yu Dayou remarked in Sword Classics: “The key to martial arts is nothing

more than the statement ‘the posterity starts, and the predecessor reacts simultaneously.’” On this basis,

some schools and styles of martial arts further adopted the Five Elements (Wu Xing, 五行),5 Eight

Diagrams (Ba Gua, 八卦),6 Yin and Yang (阴阳)7 to construct their own theoretical systems.

Increasingly Rich Content of Martial Arts

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, martial arts became richer in content as theories and styles began to

be developed.

Firstly, martial arts were becoming richer in content and practice. Before the Song Dynasty, there were

no clear categories of martial arts weapons and equipment. However, the “eighteen martial arts styles”

(十八般武艺)8 were gradually formed in long-term training practice. In fact, there were far more than 18

styles that emerged, especially in the Qing Dynasty. According to Xu Ke’s Qing Barnyard

Banknotes·Technical Bravery Class9(徐珂, 清稗类钞·技勇类), there are more than 60 kinds of martial arts

and swordsmanship at that time.

Secondly, the offensive and defensive fighting skills of martial arts in the Ming Dynasty developed

rapidly and became more effective. Several martial arts books recorded these trainings in pictures and

texts. The skills were described with pictures of poses, methods, tactics, images, and diagrams.

The Proliferation of Martial Arts Books

There were many folk martial artists in the Ming Dynasty. Most of them were excellent with extensive

experience from practicing martial arts since childhood. They compiled the essence of each style into

martial arts works, leaving valuable resources for subsequent generations. In the Qing Dynasty, martial arts

and traditional Chinese culture were extensively integrated. Martial artists paid attention to standardizing

techniques based on traditional Chinese culture, optimizing each style, improving on theories, and

Liu Hui and Qu Yingjie

50

compiling a series of martial arts classics, including the New Book of Ji Xiao, Sword Classics, Arm Records,10

and Chang’s Wushu Book11 to name a few. These works contain not only some theoretical explanations of

martial arts, but also records of martial arts skills that are of great importance to this day.

The Formation of a Martial Arts System

Among the various factions of boxing in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the most influential ones were the

schools of Shaolin(少林武术) and the Internal Quan (内家拳法). Shaolin became famous after the mid-

Ming Dynasty. Zheng Ruozeng(郑若曾), a figure in the Ming Dynasty, exclaimed that12: “Shaolin

ranks the top among today’s martial arts in the world.” In the early Qing Dynasty, the Shaolin temples

were burned down due to their monks’ participation in anti-Qing and pro-Ming stances, and were forced

to disperse all over the country. Then Shaolin school quickly spread, which promoted the development of

folk martial arts.

Chinese martial arts can be classified mainly as internal and external types with many styles in each. The

two divisions are conflicting yet complementary – the divisions inside and outside also repel and attract

each other. However, this kind of influence is always less than exclusion under the historical conditions at

that time. Although this situation was conducive to the inheritance and development of competition

between the internal and external martial arts and its various factions, sectarian disputes and opinions had

severely restricted the progress and development of Chinese martial arts.

The Decline of Traditional Ball Games

In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, ball games began to be taken up as a form of leisure and entertainment

rather than competitive sports. The nature of ball games had weakened, especially the traditional Cuju

(蹴鞠).13 Although Polo and Chuiwan(捶丸)14 were still favored by the upper class, they were occa-

sionally played in court rituals or folk festivals, but they were not widely adopted by the common people.

In contrast, many other regional ball games with ethnic characteristics developed to some extent.

Cuju was popular in the Ming Dynasty, played among royal nobles, court ladies, acrobats, children,

and scholars. As a form of recreational activity, its nature of competition had declined. Cuju at this time

still used the game with a goal while the game was played with no goal during the Song and Yuan

Dynasties. Later, ordinary players began playing without a goal, which gradually became the main form,

thus reducing the competitive edge of Cuju.

Cuju was also a form of entertainment frequently played in the court of the Ming Dynasty. The long

scroll Recreational Picture of Emperor Xuan of the Ming Dynasty (明宣宗行乐图) drawn by Shang Xi (商喜),

a Ming royal painter, depicts the scene of Zhu Zhanji of the Ming Dynasty (明宣宗朱瞻基) watching

Cuju. In addition, ball games such as Polo and Chuiwan could be seen in the painting as well.

During the Qing Dynasty, Cuju mainly became an entertaining activity for women and children, and

its competitive nature had further declined. This trend indicates that Cuju, which had been a popular

sport in China for thousands of years, had begun to decline.

Polo had extensive influence in China’s Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties. Though it was still played

during the Ming Dynasty, it was only occasionally seen as a court ritual system or in folk festivals.

However, after the Jiajing(嘉靖) Year of the Ming Dynasty, no written records about the development

of polo at that time were found again, which indicated that it too had begun to decline.

In the early Qing Dynasty, there are still a few records of polo being played. For example, in Yan Jiu

Zhu Zhi Ci(燕九竹枝词), Yuan Qixu(袁启旭) described the day of the Baiyun Temple Fair that the

princes, nobles, and citizens came to participate in archery, horse riding, football, polo, and other

activities. After the middle of the Qing Dynasty, there were few records of polo being played, but rather

depicting polo as a recreational activity in the society.

Traditional Sports in the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1840)

51

Chuiwan was a type of sport akin to modern golf that had been circulating in Chinese society for a

long time. It was an elegant leisure sport predominantly played by the upper class in the Ming Dynasty.

Recreational Picture of Emperor Xuan of the Ming Dynasty describes the situation in which Zhu Zhanji hits the

ball with the wooden baton. The picture describes the setting of the field, equipment, and characters,

which appeared to be very similar to modern golf. Because Chuiwan was not so physically demanding, it

also became popular amongst upper-class women. The long scroll Portrait of Ladies in the Ming Dynasty

depicts the scene of noble women batting the balls. However, Chuiwan gradually declined in the Qing

Dynasty.

The Evolution of Traditional Chess

The Ming and Qing Dynasties witnessed the development of Chinese traditional chess activities, par-

ticularly Weiqi (围棋). They were featured with the advancement of rules of different schools and the

publication of chess works. In the early Ming Dynasty, professional chess players and the administration

departments still existed, but their influence on society had been greatly weakened. Due to the vigorous

participation of the official class in Weiqi,15 the invitation of players to play games had further promoted

its popularity. Meanwhile, the entertainment needs of urban citizens also provided a market for Weiqi,

enabling players to earn a living with their skills without support from the royal family. This cultural

backdrop laid the foundation for the prosperity of Weiqi in the Ming Dynasty.

The game of Weiqi in the Qing Dynasty became more popular among the scholar-official class and the

common people. Rich and influential families often associated chess with the classic books and the four

treasures of the study(文房四宝)16 as a symbol of knowledge and status.17 The extensive social foundation

had created conditions for the cultivation of famous national players. For example, in the late Ming and early

Qing Dynasties, Guo Bailing(过百龄) from Wu Xi(无锡) was an outstanding chess player with a

profound theoretical knowledge at that time. He authored Guan Zi Chess Book(官子谱), San Zi Chess Book

(三子谱), and Four Zi Chess Book(四子谱). Later, Zhou Lanyu(周懒予) from Jiaxing(嘉兴) had

demonstrated outstanding chess skills and became the first Weiqi player in the early Qing Dynasty.

From the last year of Kangxi to the early years of Jiaqing, many good players appeared in the chess

world. Among them, Liang Weijin(梁魏今), Cheng Lanru(程兰如), Fan Xiping(范西屏), and Shi

Ding’an(施定庵) were known as the “Four Great Masters.” They were active during the late Kangxi

period to the Qianlong(乾隆) period, a period of political stability yet the rise in economic and cultural

development of the Qing Dynasty. With a relatively stable life, the chess players worked hard to master

the art, which catapulted the status of ancient Chinese Weiqi to its peak. Since then, some famous chess

players appeared one after another. However, by the end of the Qing Dynasty, due to political corruption,

economic backwardness, and the decline of national fortunes, Weiqi also began to decline.

Chess also entered a new stage of development after the mid-Ming Dynasty. The widespread

development of chess activities created conditions for many famous chess players at that time. Some

techniques and tactics had been studied in depth, and a comprehensive system was formed.

In the Qing Dynasty, chess became more prevalent with the social and economic recovery and

prosperity period under the reign of Kangxi (康熙). As chess began to flourish during the Qianlong (乾隆)

period, nine major schools appeared. Among the major schools, the strongest, most famous, and with the

best records were the “Piling school” (毗陵派) of Zhou Tingmei (周廷梅) and Liu Zhihuan (刘之环).

Zhou Tingmei, who knew poems and books well and was especially good at chess, became famous at the

age of 20.

Enormous works on chess appeared in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and their representative

works include the Ming Dynasty’s Juzhong Secret (橘中秘)18 and the Qing Dynasty’s Plum Blossom Book

(梅花谱).19 These two books revealed the basic laws of Chinese chess and discussed various opening

strategies and tactics based on iterative experiences.

Liu Hui and Qu Yingjie

52

The Perfection and Systematization of Traditional Healthcare Sports

Traditional healthcare sports were prevalent during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. With the development

of medicine, healthcare became closely integrated with medical practices of that time. Practices such as

meditation led to the widespread promotion of many specific healthcare methods. These then laid the

foundation for the systemization of traditional Chinese healthcare sports.

In healthcare sports, Qigong (气功) is one of the most distinctive forms of fitness. Since the Ming

Dynasty, Qigong became a widespread therapeutical practice therapy that increasingly played an important

role in society. In the 29th year of Jiajing of the Ming Dynasty (1550), Wang Wenlu’s (王文禄) Medical First

(医先) was published, and the book highlighted that “healthcare goes first before medicine”. This coin-

cides with the concept of “exercise cures disease” and is still a popular mantra today. Through the practice

and advocacy of insightful people over the course of many years, the mass had gained a deeper understanding

of the relationship between medicine and healthcare. The unique role of Qigong in medicine received much

attention from the society at that time, which promoted its practice widely.

The Neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming Dynasties (宋明理学)20 paid special attention to the

practice and understanding of meditation for “maintaining tranquility” (主静), which had a profound

influence on the most famous Confucianists in the early Ming Dynasty. This led to the publication of

books on meditation and healthcare, including Pranayama’s The Key to Meditation (静坐要诀), and Shou

Shi Bao Yuan (寿世保元), to name a few. These books were a summary of the past meditation regimen,

and indicated that the meditation in Chinese healthcare sports was being perfected in the Ming Dynasty.

In the Ming and Qing healthcare system, traditional Qigong had gradually become refined. The most

representative Qigong style was the Baduanjin (八段锦), characterized as a routine-guided fitness method

refined through selected ancient healing and guiding movements. In traditional Chinese healthcare exercises,

Yijin Gong (易筋功) was also valued by people as much as Wuqinxi (五禽戏) and Baduanjin. Yi Jin Gong

gradually took shape and was also compiled, based on ancient Chinese guiding techniques (导引术). During

the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the theoretical works on guiding fitness (导引术) came out in succession.

Numerous healthcare literature was collected and sorted out, followed by substantial materials written on

fitness and healthcare, some with illustrations and diagrams. For example, the famous Eight Notes of Zunsheng21

(遵生八笺) and Yimen Guangshu22 (夷门广牍) presented a variety of detailed methods for guidance.

The publication of numerous books and the emergence of practical methods on healthcare marked a

new era in Chinese traditional healthcare. The participation of a vast number of practitioners had also led

to the maturation and refinement of China’s healthcare techniques.

Colorful Folk Traditional Sports

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, sports activities closely related to the daily life of the people became

more diversified and widely popularized, including wrestling, dragon boat racing, weightlifting and

training, swinging, kite flying, shuttlecock kicking, and other folk activities.

Wrestling, which developed from Jiaoli (角力), Jiaodi (角抵), and Xiangpu (相扑), became more

popular in the Ming Dynasty. Wrestling was a common activity not only for the gentry but also for the

army and royal court. In fact, an illustration of wrestling in the Ming Dynasty can be found in The

Complete Collection (万法宝全) published during the Wanli (万历) period of the Ming Dynasty. At that

time, wrestling was also listed as one of the “Six Imperial Guards”(六御), which was an important form of

military combat training. Zhang Dai’s (张岱) Tao An Dream Recollection23 (陶庵梦忆) recants that every

year during the Qingming Festival, there were various sports activities outside Yangzhou (扬州),

including wrestling and sumo performances.

Due to the traditional wrestling customs of the Manchus who dominated the Central Plains, wrestling

activities that began to decline at the end of the Ming flourished again during the Qing Dynasty. Wrestling

Traditional Sports in the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1840)

53

even became a common activity practiced by the Qing army. The Qing government also set up a “Shanpu

Camp” (善扑营) for the army, and the wrestlers at that camp were called Puhu (扑户). There were strict

standards and statutory procedures for the selection of Puhu. The wrestlers of the Shanpu Camp were ranked

according to their skill levels, and then money and food were distributed in accordance with their ranks.

They usually practiced their skills in the camp, studied tactics, and fought each other.

The traditional dragon boat races in the Ming Dynasty were still quite popular, having spread from the

south to the north, and finally across the whole country. The grand dragon boat races in the Ming

Dynasty were recorded in the literature. The Chongzhen Chronicles (崇祯记闻录), which reported current

events in the last years of the Ming Dynasty, reported that: “In early May of this year, there was rain for

several days, and dragon boat races were hindered”; “In the Dragon Boat Festival this year, there were

more dragon boats than last year, mainly because this event is not officially banned, and it is also

incentivized with rewards.” Competitive dragon boat races became influential all over the country,

especially during the Dragon Boat Festival, which became an important festival in both the north and the

south. In the late Qing Dynasty, dragon boat races were still thriving everywhere.

In addition to the folk sports activities described above, other popular activities and games played

during the Ming and Qing Dynasties included skating, swinging, kite flying, shuttlecock kicking, rope

skipping, weightlifting, diabolo shaking (抖空竹), top spinning (陀螺), tug-of-war, and so on. After

thousands of years of development, folk sports activities in the Ming and Qing Dynasties had taken various

forms. While many folk sports activities have been closely integrated with festivals, they also continue to

become traditional sports in other countries. Due to the wide adaptability and strong popularity of folk

sports, this form of sports culture had gradually become more enriched and diversified, and served as an

important aspect of traditional Chinese sports culture.

Concluding Remarks

The Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1911) were the last two feudal Dynasties in Chinese history; the

feudal economy was highly developed and the authoritarian centralization was further strengthened and

went into downfall. A series of measures in favor of economic development in the early Ming Dynasty

caused a boom in the prosperity of agriculture, handicraft industry, commerce, and towns. Therefore, the

feudal economy recovered and developed in the early Qing Dynasty. The Ming and Qing Dynasties were

in the alternation period between ancient and modern times, which was an important stage for the

development of traditional sports in ancient China. From the early Ming Dynasty to the mid-Qing

Dynasty, sports activities were still developing continuously. After the mid-Qing Dynasty, traditional

sports were in decline. The folk sports activities in this period retained the traditional sports culture and

provided precious resources for the development of modern sports. From the early Ming Dynasty to the

middle Qing Dynasty, the entertainment and fitness of ancient sports were attached great importance to,

such as martial arts, wrestling, ice play, Weiqi, guiding(导引), and other sports activities. After the

Jiaqing period of the Qing Dynasty, with the increasing corruption of the Qing Dynasty, Chinese sports

gradually recessed. Throughout history, the Ming and Qing Dynasties are still regarded as one of the most

prosperous periods of folk sports in ancient China.

Notes

1 The Central Plains refers to the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River from Luoyang to Kaifeng. In a

narrow sense, it refers to today’s Henan Province of China. When it corresponds to foreigners, the Central Plains

refers to China in general.

2 Weiliang Zhou and Jianying Yang, ‘Lun Wude de Lishi Yu Dangdai Jiazhi [On the historical development and

contemporary value of Wushu morality]’, Zhongguo Wushu [Chinese Wushu] 3, no.2 (2014): 5–19.

Liu Hui and Qu Yingjie

54

3 Jizhou Chang, Changjiaquan Quanji [The Complete Works of Changjiaquan] (Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient

Books Publishing House, 2013).

4 Chen Tiesheng, Shaolin Zongfa [Shaolin Patriarchal Clan] (Beijing: Martial Arts Culture Press, 2009).

5 The Five Elements, also known as the Five Elements Theory, is the basic way for the ancient Chinese to

understand the world, and is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine, Kanyu, numerology, physiognomy, and

divination. The meaning of the five elements encompasses the five basic dynamics through the evolution of yin

and yang: metal (representing gathering), wood (representing growth), water (representing infiltration), fire

(representing destruction), and earth (representing fusion). Ancient Chinese philosophers used the Five Elements

Theory to explain the formation of all things in the world and their interrelationships. It emphasizes the whole and

aims to describe the movement form and transformation relationship of things.

6 Bagua is an esoteric concept of ancient Chinese culture, a set of metaphysical philosophical symbols composed of

three groups of yin and yang. Its profound philosophy explains natural and social phenomena.

7 Yin and Yang are the description of the fundamental factors behind the laws of nature in ancient Chinese civi-

lization and promote the development and changes of the laws of nature. elements.

8 They came into being in the Southern Song Dynasty and later became a common term for folk martial arts. In the

Ming Dynasty, the content of the eighteen martial arts styles continued to be adjusted and changed.

9 Ke Xu, Qingbai Leichao [Qing Barnyard Banknotes] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2017).

10 Shu Wu, ‘Shoubilu [Arm Records](Arm Records)’, In Ma Mingyuan马明远, eds., Zhongguo Gudai Wuyi Zhenben

Xuanbian [Selections of Ancient Chinese Martial Arts Rare Books (Volume 2)] (Jinan: Qilu Book Society, 2015),

3637–3679.

11 Naizhou Chang, ‘Changshi Wujishu [Chang-style Wushu Book]’, In Ma Mingyuan, eds., Zhongguo Gudai Wuyi

Zhenben Xuanbian [Selections of Ancient Chinese Martial Arts Rare Books] (Volume 7) (Jinan: Qilu Book Society,

2015), 4543–4600.

12 Ruozeng Zheng, Jiangnan Jinglue [Jiangnan Jing Lue] (Hefei:Huangshan Publishing House, 2017).

13 Ancient Chinese football.

14 Chuiwan is a sport in ancient China that uses a stick to hit the ball into the hole, and its shape is similar to modern

golf.

15 Weiqi, a strategic two-player chess game, was called ‘Yi’ in ancient China and ‘Go’ in the West. Popular in East

Asian countries, it is one of the four arts of qin, chess, calligraphy, and painting. Go originated in China, and it is

said that it was made by Emperor Yao. It was recorded in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States

Period. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, it was introduced to Japan through Korea and spread to Europe and

the United States.

16 The Four Treasures of the Study are unique Chinese calligraphy and painting tools, namely pen, ink, paper, and

inkstone (砚台).

17 Lequan Cui, Zhongguo Minzu Chuantong Tiyuxue [Chinese National Traditional Sports Science] (Beijing: Science

Press, 2018), 236.

18 Jinzhen Zhu, Juzhongmi [Juzhong Secret] (Tianjin: Tianjin Ancient Books Publishing House, 1987).

19 Zaiyue Wang, Meihua Pu [Plum Blossom Book] (Shanghai: Shanghai Culture Press, 1959).

20 Neo-Confucianism directly inherits the pre-Qin Confucianism from Confucius to Mencius, and at the same time

selectively absorbs and discards the ideas of Taoism, metaphysics, and some Buddhist ideas.

21 Lian Gao, Zunsheng Bajian[Eight Notes of Zunsheng] (Chongqing: Chongqing University Press, 1994).

22 Lujing Zhou, Yimen Guangdu[Yimen Guangdu] (Beijing: Bibliographic Literature Publishing House, 1990).

23 Huaiming Miao, Taoan Mengyi [TaoAn Dream Recollection] (Beijing: Zhonghua Bookstore, 2020).

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