Page 1

Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice

Cone Penetration Testing in Geotechnical Practice

Tom Lunne

Peter K. Robertson

John J.M. Powell

Spon Press

Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

First published 1997

by E & FN Spon

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY10017

Spon Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 1997 T. Lunne, P.K. Robertson, John J.J.M. Powell

Typeset in 10/12 Times

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any

form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,

including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,

without permission in writing from the publishers,

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available form the British Library

ISBN 10: 0419 23750 X

ISBN 13:978041923750 1

Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJI Digital, Padstow, Cornwall

LIST OF CONTENTS

LIST OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

SYMBOL LIST

CONVERSION FACTORS

GLOSSARY

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose and scope

1.2 General description of CPT and CPTU

1.3 Role of CPT in site investigation

1.4 Historical background

1.4.1 Mechanical cone penetrometers

1.4.2 Electric cone penetrometers

1.4.3 Thepiezocone

2. EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURES

2.1 Cone penetrometer and piezocone

2.2 Pushing equipment

2.2.1 On land

2.2.2 Over water

2.2.3 Depth of penetration

2.3 Test procedures

2.3.1 Pre-drilling, on land testing

V

ix

xi

xii

xvi

xxii

1

1

1

2

4

4

6

7

8

10

10L \J

13A *J

14

16

16

2.3.2 Vertically

2.3.3 Reference measurements

2.3.4 Rate of penetration

2.3.5 Interval of readings

2.3.6 Depth measurements

2.3.7 Saturation of piezocones

2.3.8 Dissipation test

2.4 Data acquisition

2.5 Calibration of sensors

2.6 Maintenance

2.7 Choice of capacity of load cells

2.8 Precision and accuracy

2.9 Summary of performance checks and

maintenance requirements

3. CHECKS, CORRECTIONS AND

PRESENTATION OF DATA

3.1 Factors affecting measurements and

corrections

3.1.1 Pore water pressure effects on qc and

fs

3.1.2 Filter location

3.1.3 Effect of axial load on pore water

pressure readings

3.1.4 Temperature effects

3.1.5 Inclination

3.1.6 Calibration and resolution of errors

3.1.7 Effect of wear

16

17

17

17

18

18

19

20

20

22

22

23

24

25

25

25

28

31

31

32

32

33

vi

LIST OF CONTENTS

3.1.8 Correction for CPTU zeroed at the

bottom of a borehole

33

3.2 Presentation of results

34

3.2.1 Measured parameters

34

3.2.2 Derived parameters

36

3.2.3 Additional information

38

3.3 Checks on data quality

38

4. STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS

39

4.1 ISSMFE International Reference Test

Procedure for Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

39

4.2 Swedish Geotechnical Society (SGF):

Recommended Standard for Cone Penetration

Tests (1993)

39

4.3 Norwegian Geotechnical Society (NGF):

Guidelines for Cone Penetration Tests (1994) 43

4.4 ASTM: Standard Test Method for Performing

Electronic Friction Cone and Piezocone

Penetration Testing of Soils (1995)

43

4.5 Dutch Standard: Determination of the Cone

Resistance and Sleeve Friction of Soil.

NEN5140 (1996)

43

4.6 Recommendations

44

5. INTERPRETATION OF CPT/PIEZOCONE

DATA

45

5.1 General factors affecting interpretation

45

5.1.1 Equipment design

46

5.1.2 In situ stresses

46

5.1.3 Compressibility, cementation and

particle size

46

5.1.4 Stratigraphy

46

5.1.5 Rate of penetration

47

5.1.6 Pore pressure element location

48

5.2 Soil stratigraphy

50

5.3 Soil classification

51

5.4 Interpretation in fine-grained soils

55

5.4.1 State characteristics

56

5.4.1.1 Soil unit weight

56

5.4.1.2 Overconsolidation ratio

56

5.4.1.3 In situ horizontal stress

61

5.4.2 Strength characteristics

63

5.4.2.1 Undrained shear strength

63

5.4.2.2 Sensitivity

68

5.4.2.3 Effective stress strength

parameters

69

5.4.3 Deformation characteristics

71

5.4.3.1 Constrained modulus

71

5.4.3.2 Undrained Young's modulus 73

5.4.3.3 Small strain shear modulus

74

5.4.4 Flow and consolidation characteristics 74

5.4.4.1 Coefficient of consolidation

75

5.4.4.2 Coefficient of permeability

(hydraulic conductivity)

80

5.5 Interpretation in coarse-grained soils

81

5.5.1 State characteristics

81

5.5.1.1 Relative density (density

index)

81

5.5.1.2 State parameter

85

5.5.1.3 Overconsolidation ratio

88

5.5.1.4 In situ horizontal stress

8 8

5.5.2 Strength characteristics

89

5.5.2.1 Effective stress strength

parameters

89

5.5.3 Deformation characteristics

93

5.5.3.1 Young's modulus

93

5.5.3.2 Constrained modulus

93

5.5.3.3 Small strain shear modulus

94

5.6 Available experience and interpretation in

other material

94

5.6.1 Intermediate soils (clayey sands to

silts)

95

5.6.1.1 Penetration behaviour

95

5.6.1.2 Typical results and

classification

95

5.6.1.3 Undrained shear strength

96

5.6.1.4 Effective stress strength

parameters

96

5.6.1.5 Constrained modulus

96

5.6.1.6 Small strain shear modulus

97

5.6.1.7 Coefficient of consolidation

98

5.6.1.8 General experience

98

5.6.2 Peat/organic silt

98

5.6.3 Underconsolidated clay

100

5.6.4 Chalk

100

5.6.5 Calcareous soils

101

5.6.5.1 Soil classification

102

5.6.5.2 Undrained shear strength

102

5.6.5.3 Relative density

103

5.6.5.4 Effective stress strength

parameters

103

5.6.5.5 Pile side friction

103

5.6.6 Cemented sands

103

5.6.7 Snow

107

5.6.8 Permafrost and ice

107

5.6.8.1 Identification of permafrost/

ice layers

107

5.6.8.2 Special procedures for

penetration tests in frozen

soil

108

5.6.8.3 Determination of creep

parameters

108

5.6.8.4 General comment

111

5.6.9 Gas hydrates

111

5.6.10 Residual soils

111

5.6.11 Mine tailings

112

5.6.12 Sawdust and wood choppings

114

5.6.13 Dutch cheese

116

5.6.14 Slurry walls

116

LIST OF CONTENTS

VII

5.6.15 Volcanic soils

5.6.16 Fuel ash

5.6.17 Loess soil

5.6.18 Lunar soil

5.7 Examples of unusual behaviour

117

117

119

120

120

5.7.1 Limiting negative pore pressures due

to cavitation

120

5.7.2 Negative pore pressure measurement

with filter on the cone

121

5.7.3 Effect of the weight of rig on shallow

test results

122

5.8 The use of non-standard equipment or

procedures

123

5.8.1 Cone size and scale effects

123

5.8.2 Cone penetrometer geometry

125

5.8.2.1 Length of the cylindrical

portion behind the cone

included in qc

125

5.8.2.2 Reduced area behind the cone 125

5.8.2.3 Non-standard position and

area of friction sleeve

126

5.8.2.4 Cone apex angle

127

5.8.3 Rate of penetration

127

5.8.4 Set-up tests

128

5.8.5 Applying water during penetration

132

5.8.6 Vibratory cone penetrometer

132

5.9 Statistical treatment of data

132

5.9.1 Definitions

133

5.9.2 Sources of uncertainty and variability

of soil properties

134

5.9.3 Statistical treatment

135

5.9.4 Site investigation strategy and

Bayesian updating techniques

143

5.9.5 Recommendation

144

5.10 Software application

145

6. DIRECT APPLICATION OF CPT/CPTU

RESULTS

149

6.1 Correlations with SPT

149

6.2 Deep foundations

151

6.2.1 Axial capacity

151

6.2.2 Factor of safey

155

6.2.3 Settlement

155

6.2.4 Skirt penetration resistance

156

6.3 Shallow foundations

157

6.3.1 Bearing capacity

157

6.3.2 Settlement

158

6.4 Ground improvement - quality control

159

6.5 Liquefaction

164

6.5.1 Liquefaction definitions

164

6.5.2 Application of CPT for liquefaction

assessment

166

6.5.2.1 Cyclic softening

166

6.5.2.2 Flow liquefaction

169

6.5.2.3 Minimum undrained shear

strength

171

6.5.3 Recommendations for liquefaction

evaluation

171

7. ADDITIONAL SENSORS THAT CAN BE

INCORPORATED

8. GEO-ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS

OF PENETRATION TESTING

172

7.1 Lateral stress measurements

172

7.1.1 Equipment

172

7.1.2 Typical results

173

7.1.3 Interpretation

174

7.2 Cone pressuremeter

175

7.2.1 Equipment

175

7.2.2 Testing procedure

177

7.2.3 Interpretation

178

7.3 Seismic measurements

179

7.3.1 Equipment and procedures

180

7.3.2 Typical results and interpretation

181

7.4 Electrical resistivity measurements

182

7.4.1 Principles for measurement

182

7.4.2 Equipment and procedures

183

7.4.3 Typical results and interpretation

184

7.5 Heat flow measurements

186

7.6 Radioisotope measurements

186

7.6.1 Equipment, measurement principles

and procedures

186

7.6.2 Typical results

189

7.6.3 Discussion on soil density measured

by NOT

189

7.7 Acoustic noise

190

192

8.1 Objectives of a geo-environmental site

investigation

192

8.2 CPT technology for site characterization

193

8.3 Geo-environmental penetrometer logging

devices

193

8.3.1 Temperature

193

8.3.2 Electrical resistivity and conductivity 193

8.3.3 Dielectric measurements

194

8.3.4 pH sensors

195

8.3.5 Redox potential

196

8.3.6 Gamma and neutron sensors

196

8.3.7 Laser induced

fluorescence

196

8.4 Geo-environmental penetrometer sampling

devices

199

8.4.1 Liquid samplers

199

8.4.2 Vapour samplers

201

8.4.3 Solid samplers

201

8.5 Sealing and decontamination procedures

201

8.6 Future trends

202

8.7 Summary

203

viii

LIST OF CONTENTS

9. EXAMPLES

204

9.2.4 Normally consolidated soft alluvial

clay, Bothkennar, UK

218

9.1 Example profiles

204

9.1.1 Marine, lightly overconsolidated clay,

Ons0y, Norway

204

9.1.2 Organic clay, lightly overconsolidated,

10. FUTURE TRENDS

223

Lilla Mellosa, Sweden

205

9.1.3 Overconsolidated Yoldia (Aalborg)

10.1 Recent developments

223

clay, Aalborg, Denmark

207

10.2 Future developments

223

9.1.4 Overconsolidated clay till, Cowden,

UK

208

REFERENCES

225

9.1.5 Sand over silty clay, McDonald's

Farm, Vancouver, BC

209

9.1.6 Overconsolidated dense sand,

APPENDICES

249

Dunkirk, France

210 ApPENDIXA: ISSMFE REFERENCE TEST

9.1.7 Normally consolidated very silty clay,

PROCEDURE

249

Pentre,UK

211

9.2 Worked examples

213 APPENDIX B: SWEDISH STANDARD FOR CONE

9.2.1 Loose to medium dense sand, Massey

TESTING

261

Tunnel site, Canada

213 APPENDIXC: CALIBRATION CHAMBER

9.2.2 Very dense overconsolidated sand,

TESTING OF SANDY SOILS

291

Sleipner, North Sea

216

9.2.3 Stiff overconsolidated Gault clay,

Madingley,UK

217 INDEX

305

PREFACE

The design and construction of foundations and earth struc-

tures require a good knowledge of the mechanical behaviour

of soils and of their spatial variability. Such information can

be best obtained from a properly planned programme of both

laboratory and in situ tests.

The two methodologies are very much complementary

rather than competitive. However, in situ tests can often be

preferable to laboratory tests because of important advan-

tages such as cost - time effectiveness, the ability to assess

the soil in its natural environment and the possibility to

estimate the spatial variability of the deposit.

Among the vast number of in situ devices, the static cone

penetrometer (CPT) and the piezocone (CPTU) represent

the most versatile tools currently available for soil explora-

tion. The cone penetration and piezocone tests provide

continuous sounding capability and good repeatability. They

can also be run very cost-effectively. However, until now,

there was a need to pull together the vast knowledge that has

been accumulating in the geotechnical community.

This book, CPT in Geotechnical Practice, comes timely.

In the nearly 30 years since the publication of Sanglerat's

book on the cone penetrometer, interest in the device has

spread all over the world, finding applications both on-land

and offshore. This development is reflected in the impres-

sive growth of the theoretical and experimental knowledge

on the cone penetrometer and piezocone as well as in the

several applications of the test to highly specialized meas-

urements, such as seismic, environmental and electrical

resistivity measurements.

The book is written by three prominent researchers in this

specific field whose respective countries have devoted con-

siderable efforts in developing both the database of experi-

mental results and the framework for a rational

interpretation of the results. The many chapters and exam-

ples present the knowledge and experience that have been

acquired on the cone penetrometer and piezocone and the

application of their results for design of geotechnical engi-

neered constructions.

Two design approaches, the first a direct approach in

which the response of a given foundation system is directly

correlated to the test results and the second an indirect one in

which the test results are interpreted to obtain the mechan-

ical properties of the ground, are critically reviewed. Sour-

ces of error, non-typical behaviour and especially how to

obtain the relevant soil parameters in an optimum manner

are also considered.

As typical for geotechnics, engineering judgement com-

bined with experience are the key to safe and economical

design. It is therefore important to know the merits and

limitations of the measuring methods.

This book tells us how much confidence we can have in

the derived engineering parameters. In particular, the chap-

ter on the interpretation of the cone penetration data as a

function of the soil type, including the factors influencing

the test results and problem soils, is noteworthy.

The book presents independent treatment of the inter-

pretation for all important aspects of cone penetration and

piezocone testing: equipment and test procedures, test

PREFACE

specifications, checklists for evaluation of data, interpreta-

tion methods and examples, empirical design approaches,

and newer applications. The avid reader will find in this

definitive book comprehensive treatment of all of these,

each with ample references to earlier work.

The authors have rendered a valuable service by sharing

with the rest of the geotechnical community their vast

knowledge and experience accumulated over many years of

hard work. We warmly recommend this book to students,

teachers, professors, practising engineers and researchers.

Michele Jamiolkowski

President

International Society of

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Suzanne Lacasse

Director

Norwegian Geotechnical Institute

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work on this book has extended over several years and

the authors are grateful for the support and help of numerous

individuals and organizations.

Firstly we thank our employers, the Norwegian Geotech-

nical Institute (NGI), the University of Alberta (UoA) and

the Building Research Establishment (BRE) for moral sup-

port and for permission to publish work we have done as

employees of these organizations. We thank Dr Su/anne

Lacasse for reviewing the whole manuscript and giving

valuable advice, as well as her substantial help in preparing

section 5.9. We gratefully acknowledge the valuable com-

ments on various sections of the manuscript from Dr David

Might, Professor Branko Ladanyi, Dr Zbigniew Mlynarek,

Dr Rolf Sandven and Hermann Zuidberg. We also thank Dr

Stan Boyle, Dr Fernando Danziger, Dr Bernadete Danziger,

Dr Jonathan Fannin, Dr Don Gillespie, the late Dr Joe

Keaveny, Dr Nigel Nutt, Robin Quarterman, Hilary Shields

and Hilary Skinner for their assistance with various sub

sections and proof-reading. In addition, we thank the many

colleagues and friends who have helped in various ways.

Many thanks are given to Lillian Nore, Gre Jordan, Irene

Sugg and Denise who willingly typed parts of the manu-

script; and to Kari Helene Bergersen and Gro Bothn who

computerized most of the figures. Others have helped with

the references, review of examples, etc., and we thank Arild

Andresen, Wenche Enersen and Helena Comoulos.

The authors also thank the many authors and publishers

who gave permission for us to reproduce material, as well as

the following organizations for their support: Alluvial

Mining, UK; AP van den Berg, Holland; Cambridge Insitu,

UK; Cone Tech Investigations, Canada; Delft Geotechnics,

Holland; Envi, Sweden; Fugro, world-wide; Geocean,

France; Geotech, Sweden; Hebo, Poland; Hogentogler,

USA; ISMES, Italy; Key Systems, UK; Statoil, Norway;

Soil and Rock Engineering, Japan; TL Geotechnics, Singa-

pore; Vertek, USA and Unicone, Latvia.

Many of the recommendations presented in this book

have been developed during research and consulting pro-

jects that the authors and their organizations have been

involved in. The authors would therefore like to especially

acknowledge Statoil, Norsk Hydro, Saga Petroleum, Shell,

Norwegian Research Council, Department of the Environ-

ment UK and ConeTec Investigations Ltd.

Finally the authors would like to express their apprecia-

tion to their wives (Mai Liss, Linda and Denise) and children

(Rasmus, Kelly, Simon and Rebecca) for patiently putting

up with us during the years we have been working on this

book.

SYMBOL LIST

Whilst every effort has been made throughout the book to avoid duplication in the use of symbols, this has not always been

possible when the same symbol is used to mean different things in common usage.

ENGLISH

a

= attraction (= c'cot^', in terms of effective

stress).

a

= area ratio of the cone (= AnIAc)

«max = maximum horizontal acceleration of ground

surface, due to earthquake

A

= pore pressure parameter

A — area

Ac

= projected area of the cone

An

= cross-sectional area of load cell or shaft

Ap

= pile end area

As

= pile shaft area

As

= area of friction sleeve

Ash

= bottom end area of friction sleeve

Ast

= top end area of friction sleeve

Aw

= skirt wall area

b

= area ratio of friction sleeve

B

= Skempton'spore pressure parameter

B

= width of footing

Bc

= cone diameter

Bq

= pore pressure parameter ( = (u2 — u0)l(q, — <juo))

c'

= cohesion (in terms of effective stress)

c

= coefficient of consolidation

c/, = horizontal coefficient of consolidation

ca

= vertical coefficient of consolidation

Cc

= compression index

c,

D

D

D

Dr

Ao

£>50

£>60

E

Er

ERf

Es

Et

Eu

f

/

fP

f,

ft

stress normalization factor

diameter

damping ratio

dilatancy parameter

relative density \Dr = •

\

'

100%)

the size such that 10, 50, 60 or 90% (by weight)

of the sample consists of particles having a

smaller nominal diameter.

void ratio

initial void ratio

maximum void ratio

minimum void ratio

Young's modulus

secant Young's modulus in strain softening

material

rod energy ratio in standard penetration test (SPT)

secant modulus at 50% of maximum stress

initial tangent Young's modulus

undrained Young's modulus

unit skin friction resistance

degree of mobilization

pile unit side friction

unit sleeve friction resistance

sleeve friction corrected for pore pressure effects

SYMBOL LIST

XIII

formation factor

total force acting on friction sleeve

factor of safety

normalized friction ratio (=fj(qt

— GOO))

fines content

acceleration due to gravity

shear modulus

specific weight

initial or maximum shear modulus, shear

stiffness

shear modulus during unload-reload of

pressuremetre test

layer thickness

electrical current

soil behaviour type index

density index

rigidity index = G/su

plasticity index

strain influence factor

coefficient of permeability, hydraulic conductivity

bearing capacity factor

coefficient of permeability in horizontal direction

coefficient of permeability in vertical direction

constant; calibration factor

correction factor; ratio of the pore pressure

measured immediately behind the cone and the

measured pore pressure on the cone

correction factor, as function of layer thickness

horizontal stress index from dilatometer

empirical coefficient relating skirt side friction

F

=

Fs

=

Fs

=

Fr

=

FC =

g

=

G =

G =

G0

=

Gur

=

H =

/

=

Ic

=

ID

=

Ir

=

IP

=

Iz

=

k

=

kc

=

kh

=

k0

=

K =

K

=

Kc

=

K0

= coefficient of earth pressure at rest ( = a'hJa'vo)

K, = empirical coefficient relating skirt tip resistance to

9c

L

= length

L/D = pile length/pile diameter

LI

= liquidity index = (w — wp)/(wL — wp)

m = dimensionless deformation modulus number

m = measured gradient of initial linear dissipation

mu

= coefficient of volume change

6 sin <]>'

M = Camclay constant = - , slope of the

*

3 - sin <t>'

V

critical state line

M = earthquake magnitude

M = constrained deformation modulus

M = pore pressure gradient corresponding to

theoretical curve for given probe geometry

Mt

= compression modulus - over consolidated clays

Mn

= compression modulus - normally consolidated

clays

M0

= reference constrained modulus corresponding to

the in situ vertical effective stress, a'00

n

= creep exponent

n

= porosity

maximum porosity

minimum porosity

no. of blows in the SPT

number of cycles

bearing capacity factor

cone factors

Nm

=

N, =

Nu

=

Nu

=

Nw =

Pa

AP

=

PL =

P'r

=

p-y =

PPD =

qca

qcn

=

qe

qn

N g - l

+ NU-B,_

q,(D) =

Q

Sail

Qb

Qt

=

Quit =

r

=

rn

=

cone resistance number I =

constant = St • R/

pore pressure factor

bearing capacity factor — 6 tan <j>' (1 - tan </>')

pore pressure factor

SPT energy ratio

reference stress =100 kPa

effective preconsolidation pressure

change in effective vertical stress

net foundation pressure

pressuremeter limit pressure

reference pressure for modulus number concept

curves representing lateral soil reaction versus

relative displacement between pile and soil

normalized pore pressure difference = (u\ — u2)lu0

measured cone resistance

average cone resistance

equivalent average cone resistance

dynamic cone resistance measured with vibratory

cone

equivalent average cone resistance

cone resistance in vibratory cone

normalized cone resistance

cone resistance at depth z

effective cone resistance = (qt — u2)

net cone resistance = (q, — crvo)

reference cone resistance in Ladanyi's creep

equation

pile unit end resistance

corrected cone resistance =qc + (1 - d)u2

uniaxial compression strength

tip bearing capacity of piles

unit skirt tip resistance at depth D

unit skirt skin friction at depth D

unit wall friction

estimated pile bearing capacity

allowable pile axial load

pile end bearing capacity

total force acting on the cone

pile shaft friction capacity

normalized cone resistance = (q, - oDO)la'DO

ultimate pile axial capacity

radial distance

radius of cavity

XIV

SYMBOL LIST

rp

= radius of plastic zone

rs

= resistance number

R

= electrical resistance

RDS ~ static ratio of cone penetration = qcd/qc

Rf = friction ratio (=fjqt' 100% or alternatively

/,/?,• 100%)

Ri = initial radius of spherical cavity

Rk

= footing shape factor

Rp

= radius of plastic zone around spherical cavity

Ru

= ultimate radius of spherical cavity

RR = recompression ratio

su

= undrained shear strength

sur

= remoulded undrained shear strength

scu

= su from triaxial compression test

su

= su from direct simple shear test

su

= su from triaxial extension test

S

= settlement

Sr

= degree of saturation

5, = sensitivity

t

= time

t

= vertical pile displacement

t$o

= time for 50% dissipation of excess pore water

pressure

T = time factor

T = reference time

r50

= time factor at U =50%

r* = modified time factor

M

= pore water pressure

u0

= in situ pore pressure

MI = pore pressure measured on the cone

M2 = pore pressure measured behind cone

MS = pore pressure measured behind friction sleeve

M, = pore pressure at time t = 0

u, = pore pressure at time = t

AM = excess pore water pressure

U

= normalized excess pore pressure

u

= rate of flow

V = voltage

Vs

= shear wave velocity

w

= water content

wp

= plastic limit

WL

= liquid limit

Y

= normalizing parameter for shear wave velocity

z

= depth

Az = thickness of sublayer

GREEK

ex

a

a

a

a,-

= angle describing curvature of failure line

= "constant"

= cone roughness

= coefficient converting undrained shear

strength to wall friction, qw,or unit skin

friction,/

= factor for finding Mt = ex, • qc

an

= factor for finding Mn —«„ • qc

ft

= angle of plastification

ft

= "constant"

/?

= correction factor

y'

= effective unit weight

yd

= dry unit weight

ys

= unit weight of solid particles

yw

= unit weight of water

yav

= average soil unit weight

y

= shear strain

6

= settlement

6

= displacement

6

= rate of settlement

A

= change, e.g. ACT

AM

= excess pore pressure = u — u0

s

= strain

ec

= reference strain rate in Ladanyi's creep

equation

if

= strain rate (see def. of <re/)

£„

= vertical strain

ez

= settlement of loess due to wetting

K

= constants for state parameter

Ac

= rate factor

Ain

= slope of ultimate steady state line in

e-lnp' state

!„

= slope of steady state line

H

= Poisson's ratio

fi

= coefficient of variation

o

= penetration rate

Dg

= reference penetration rate in Ladanyi's creep

equation

p

= specific resistivity

p

= density

pb

= bulk resistivity of soil

Pf

= resistivity of pore fluid

ps

= density of solid particles

y

= state parameter

a'om

= maximum vertical stress

a'uc

= vertical consolidation stress

CT,CT' = normal stress (total, effective)

a\,a[

= major principal stress (total, effective)

CT2, CT2 = intermediate principal stress (total, effective)

<73,03

= minor principal stress (total, effective)

<jh, a'h

= horizontal stress (total, effective)

0A<»Ofco

= initial horizontal stress (total, effective)

ahc

= lateral stress on friction sleeve

"'mean, ^mean = octahedral stress (total, effective)

am a'a

= vertical stress (total, effective)

GOO, GOO ~ overburden stress (total, effective)

OCQ

= reference stress in Ladanyi's creep equation

Oef

= stress where "e" denotes the von Mises

equivalent stress and/denotes failure in

Ladanyi's creep equation

2

= sum

T

= shear stress

SYMBOL LIST

xv

cy

Pmob

Pd

<t>u

= average cyclic shear stress

= cyclic shear stress

= total friction angle

= effective friction angle

= mobilized effective friction angle

= drained friction angle

= peak friction angle

= undrained friction angle

ABBREVIATIONS

ASCE

= American Society of Civil Engineers

ASTM = American Society for Testing and Materials

BRE

= Building Research Establishment

CAD

= Consolidated Anisotropic Drained

CAUC = Anisotropic Consolidated Undrained Triaxial

Test Sheared in Compression

CID

= Consolidated Isotropic Drained

CIU

= Consolidated Isotropic Undrained

CPM

= Cone Pressuremeter

CPT

= Cone Penetration Test

CPTU

= Cone Penetration Test with Pore Pressure

Measurement (Piezocone Test)

CRR

= Cyclic Resistance Ratio

CRSC

= Constant Rate of Strain Consolidation

CSR

= Cyclic Stress Ratio

DC

= Dynamic Compaction

DSS

= Direct Simple Shear

ECSMFE = European Conference on Soil Mechanics and

Foundation Engineering

ERT

= Electrical Resistivity Test

ESOPT = European Symposium on Penetration Testing

FC

= Fines Content

GSD

= Grain Size Distribution

GWT

= Ground Water Table

HIM

= High Frequency Impedance Measuring

ICSMFE = International Conference of Soil Mechanics

and Foundation Engineering

INCR

= Incremental Loading

IRTP

= International Reference Test Procedure

ISSMFE = International Society of Soil Mechanics and

Foundation Engineering

JGED

= Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering

Division

LCPC

= Laboratoire Central des Fonts et Chaussees

LIF

= Laser Induced Fluorescence

NAPL = non-aqueous-phase-liquid

NC

= Normally Consolidated

ND

= Nuclear Density (Probe)

NDT

= Nuclear Density Test

NGI

= Norwegian Geotechnical Institute

NM

= Neutron Moisture (Probe)

OC

= Overconsolidated

OCR

= Overconsolidation Ratio

OED

= Oedometer Test

PPD

= Normalized pore pressure

difference = (u\ - M2)/«o

PL

= Limit pressure

RCPTU = Piezocone with Resistivity Module

SBP

= Self Boring Pressuremeter

SCAPS = Site Characterization and Analysis

Penetrometer System

SCPTU = Seismic CPTU

SH

= strain hardening

SPT

= Standard Penetration Test

SS

= strain softening

SSL

= Steady State Line

TC

= Triaxial Compression

TE

= Triaxial Extension

UBC

= University of British Columbia

UCB

= University of California - Berkeley

UCT

= Unconfmed Compression Test

USSL

= Ultimate Steady (critical) State Line

UU

= Unconsolidated Undrained

UV

= Ultra Violet

USSL

= ultimate stready (vertical) state line

CONVERSION FACTORS

The following units have been used in this book:

LENGTH

To convert from

Inches (in)

Feet (ft)

Metres (m)

To

feet

microns

millimetres

centimetres

metres

inches

angstrom units

microns

millimetres

centimetres

metres

inches

feet

angstrom units

microns

millimetres

centimetres

Multiply by

0.083333

25400

25.4

2.54

0.0254

12.0

3.048 X 109

304800

304.80

30.48

0.3048

39.370079

3.2808399

1 X 10

1 X 106

1 X 103

1 X 102

10

CONVERSION FACTORS

xvii

AREA

To convert from

Square metres (m )

Square feet (ft2)

Square centimetres (cm2)

Square inches (in )

To

square feet

square centimetres

square inches

square metres

square centimetres

square inches

square metres

square feet

square inches

square metres

square feet

square centimetres

Multiply by

10.76387

1 X 104

1550.0031

9.290304 X 10

929.0304

144

1 X 10~4

1.076387X10"

0.1550031

6.4516 X 10~4

6.9444 X 10~3

6.4516

-2

VOLUME

To convert from

Cubic centimetres (cm )

Cubic metres (m )

Cubic inches (in )

Cubic feet (ft3)

To

cubic metres

cubic feet

cubic inches

cubic feet

cubic centimetres

cubic inches

cubic metres

cubic feet

cubic centimetres

cubic metres

cubic centimetres

cubic inches

Multiply by

1 X 10~6

3.53 14667 X

0.061023744

35.314667

1 X 106

61023.74

1. 6387064 X

5.7870370 X

16.387064

0.028316847

28316.847

1728

KT5

KT5

io-4

xviii

CONVERSION FACTORS

FORCE

To convert from

Pounds (avdp) (Ib)

Kips

Tons (short) (T)

Kilograms (kg)

Tons (metric) (t)

Kilonewtons (kN)

To

grams

kilograms

tons (long)

tons (short)

kips

tons (metric)

newtons

pounds

tons (short)

kilograms

tons (metric)

kilograms

pounds

kips

tons (metric)

grams

pounds

tons (long)

tons (short)

kips

tons (metric)

newtons

grams

kilograms

pounds

kips

tons (short)

kilonewtons

pounds

tons (short)

kips

tons (metric)

kilograms

Multiply by

453.59243

0.45359243

4.464286 X 10~4

5X 10~4

1 X 10~3

4.5359243 X 10~4

4.44822

1000

0.500

453.59243

0.45359243

907.18474

2000

2

0.907185

1000

2.2046223

9.8420653 X 10~4

11.023113 X10~4

2.2046223 X 10~3

0.001

9.806650

1 X 106

1000

2204.6223

2.2046223

1.1023112

9.806650

224.81

0.1124

0.22481

0.102

101.97

CONVERSION FACTORS

XIX

STRESS AND PRESSURE

To convert from

Pounds/square foot (lb/ft2)

Pounds/square inch (lb/in2)

Tons (short)/square foot (T/ft )

Kips/square foot (ksf)

Kilograms/square centimetre (kg/cm )

Tons (metric)/square metre (t/m2)

Atmospheres

To

pounds/square inch

kips/square foot

kilograms/square centimetre

tons/square metre

atmospheres

kilonewtons/square metre (kilopascals)

pounds/square foot

kips/square foot

kilograms/square centimetre

tons/square metre

atmospheres

kilonewtons/square metre

atmospheres

kilograms/square metre

tons (metric)/square metre

pounds/square inch

pounds/square foot

kips/square foot

kilonewtons/square metre

pounds/square inch

pounds/square foot

tons (short)/square foot

kilograms/square centimetre

tons (metric)/square metre

kilonewtons/square metre

pounds/square inch

pounds/square foot

feet of water (4°C)

kips/square foot

tons/square metre

atmospheres

kilonewtons/square metre

kilograms/square centimetre

pounds/square foot

kips/square foot

tons (short)/square foot

kilonewtons/square metre

bars

kilograms/square centimetre

grams/square centimetre

kilograms/square metre

tons (metric)/square metre

pounds/square foot

pounds/square inch

tons (short) square foot

kilonewtons/square metre

Multiply by

0.0069445

1 X10~3

0.000488243

0.004882

4.72541 X 10

0.04788

144

0.144

0.070307

0.70307

0.068046

6.895

0.945082

9764.86

9.76487

13.8888

2000

2.0

95.76

6.94445

1000

0.5000

0.488244

4.88244

47.88

14.223

2048.1614

32.8093

2.0481614

10

0.96784

98.067

0.10

204.81614

0.20481614

0.102408

9.806650

1.0133

1.03323

1033.23

10332.3

10.3323

2116.22

14.696

1.0581

101.325

-4

XX

CONVERSION FACTORS

Kilonewtons/square metre (kPa)

pounds/square foot

pounds/square inch

tons (short)/square foot

metres of water

kips/square foot

kilograms/square centimetre

tons (Metric)/square metre

atmospheres

20.886

0.145

0.01044

0.1020

0.02089

0.01020

0.1020

0.00987

UNIT WEIGHT

To convert from

Grams/cubic centimetre (g/cm )

Tons (metric)/cubic metre (t/m3)

Kilograms/cubic metre (kg/m3)

Pounds/cubic inch (Ib/in )

Pounds/cubic foot (Ib/ft)

Kilonewtons/cubic metre (kN/m3)

To

tons (metric)/cubic metre

kilograms/cubic metre

pounds/cubic inch

pounds/cubic foot

kilonewtons/cubic metre

grams/cubic centimetre

kilograms/cubic metre

pounds/cubic inch

pounds/cubic foot

kilonewtons/cubic metre

grams/cubic centimetre

tons (metric)/cubic metre

pounds/cubic inch

pounds/cubic foot

kilonewtons/cubic metre

grams/cubic centimetre

tons (metric)/cubic metre

kilograms/cubic metre

pounds/cubic foot

kilonewtons/cubic metre

grams/cubic centimetre

tons (metric)/cubic metre

kilograms/cubic metre

pounds/cubic inch

kilonewtons/cubic metre

grams/cubic centimetre

tons (metric)/cubic metre

kilograms/cubic metre

pounds/cubic inch

pounds/cubic foot

Multiply by

1.00

1000.00

0.036127292

62.427961

9.8039

1.00

1000.00

0.036127292

62.427961

9.8039

0.001

0.001

3.6127292 X 10

0.062427961

9.80584 X 10

27.679905

27.679905

27679.905

1728

271.37

0.016018463

0.016018463

16.018463

5.78703704 X 10

0.157099

0.1020

0.1020

101.98

0.003685

6.3654

-5

1-3

CONVERSION FACTORS

xxi

VELOCITY

To convert from

Centimetres/second

Microns/second

Feet/minute

Feet/year

To

microns/second

metres/minute

feet/minute

miles/hour

feet/year

kilometre/hour

centimetres/second

metres/minute

feet/minute

miles/hour

feet/year

centimetres/second

microns/second

metres/minute

miles/hour

feet/year

microns/second

centimetres/second

metres/minute

feet/minute

miles/hour

Multiply by

10,000

0.600

1,9685

0.022369

1034643.6

0.036

0.0001

0.000060

0.00019685

0.0000022369

103.46436

0.508001

5080.01

0.3048

0.01136363

525600

0.009665164

0.0000009665164

5.79882 X 10~7

1.9025 X 10~6

2.16203 X 10~8

COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION

To convert from

1. Square centimetres/second

2. Square inches/second

To

square centimetres/month

square centimetres/year

square metres/month

square metres/year

square inches/second

square inches/month

square inches/year

square feet/month

square feet/year

square inches/month

square inches/year

square feet/month

square feet/year

square centimetres/second

square centimetres/month

square centimetres/year

square metres/month

square metres/year

Multiply by

2.6280 X 106

3.1536 X 107

2.6280 X 102

3.1536 X 103

0.155

4.1516 X 105

4.8881 X 106

2.882998 X 103

3.39447 x 104

2.6280 X 106

3.1536X107

1.8250X104

2.1900 X 105

6.4516

1.6955 X 107

2.0346 X 108

1.6955 X 103

2.0346 X 104

GLOSSARY

This glossary contains the most frequently used terms

related to CPT/CPTU. They are presented in alphabetical

order. The exact definitions of these and a large number of

other terms are given in the list of symbols. Each term is also

defined in full the first time it appears in the text.

CRT

Cone Penetration Test.

CPTU

Cone Penetration Test with pore water pressure measure-

ment - apiezocone test.

Cone

The part of the Cone penetrometer on which the end bearing

is developed.

Cone penetrometer

The assembly containing the cone, friction sleeve, any other

sensors and measuring systems, as well as the connections to

tbepush rods.

Cone resistance, qc

The total force acting on the cone, Qc, divided by the

projected area of the cone, Ac\ (qc = QJAC).

Corrected cone resistance, qt

The cone resistance qc corrected for pore water pressure

effects.

Corrected sleeve friction, ft

The sleeve friction corrected for pore water pressure effects

on the ends of the friction sleeve.

Data acquisition system

The system used to measure and record the measurements

made by the cone penetrometer.

Dissipation test

A test when the decay of the pore water pressure is mon-

itored during a pause in penetration.

Filter element

The porous element inserted into the cone penetrometer to

allow transmission of the pore water pressure to the pore

pressure sensor, while maintaining the correct profile of the

cone penetrometer.

Friction ratio, R,

The ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the sleeve friction,

fs, to the cone resistance, qc, both measured at the same

depth;

[Rf=(f,/qc)-lW\.

GLOSSARY

xxiii

Friction reducer

A local enlargement on the push-rod surface, placed at a

distance above the cone penetrometer, and provided to

reduce the friction on the push rods.

Friction sleeve

The section of the cone penetrometer upon which the sleeve

friction is measured.

Normalized cone resistance, Qc, or Qt

The cone resistance expressed in a non dimensional form

and taking account of stress changes in situ, Qc = (qc - aDO)l

a'vo, or when the corrected cone resistance is used

Q, = (q, - OoJ/a'ao . Where aao and a'ao are the total and

effective vertical stress respectively.

Net cone resistance qn

The corrected cone resistance minus the vertical total stress.

Net pore pressure, Au

The measured pore pressure less the equilibrium pore

pressure. Aw = u — u0 .

Normalized friction ratio, Fr

The sleeve friction normalized by the net cone resistance.

Piezocone

A cone penetrometer containing a pore pressure sensor.

Pore pressure, u

The pore pressure generated during penetration and meas-

ured by a pore pressure sensor. u\ when measured on the

cone, u2 when measured just behind the cone and M3 when

measured just behind the friction sleeve.

Pore pressure ratio, Bq

The net pore pressure normalized with respect to the net

cone resistance.

Push rods

The thick-walled rubes or rods used for advancing the cone

penetrometer.

Thrust machine (rig)

The equipment which pushes the cone penetrometer and

rods into the ground.

Sleeve friction, fs

The total frictional force acting on the friction sleeve, Fs,

divided by its surface area, As.fs = F,/AS.

NTRODUCTION

1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE

The purpose of this book is to provide guidance on the

specification, performance, use and interpretation of the

Electric Cone Penetration Test (CPT), and in particular the

Cone Penetration Test with pore pressure measurement

(CPTU) commonly referred to as the "piezocone test". The

authors provide their recommended guidelines to interpret a

full range of geotechnical parameters from cone penetration

data. The use of these data in geotechnical design is complex

and often project specific. However, some design guidelines

have been given (Chapter 6) to assist in their use. Some

relevant examples and case histories are given throughout

the text.

This book is applicable primarily to standard electronic

cones with a 60 degree apex angle and a diameter of

35.7 mm (10 cm2 cross-sectional area). Details are given in

Chapter 2. Details of pushing equipment are also given in

Chapter 2, while details on specification and performance

are given in Chapters 3 and 4.

Recommendations on mapping and stratigraphy, material

identification and evaluation of geotechnical parameters are

given in Chapter 5, and information on direct applications

for geotechnical design are given in Chapter 6.

Information on additional sensors that have been added to

CPT systems is included in Chapter 7, while environmental

applications of cone penetrometer technology are briefly

described in Chapter 8.

Summaries are provided at the end of some of the sections

in Chapter 5 on interpretation. These are intended to guide

the user, and should be used in conjunction with the main

text.

To the conscientious reader the book will appear to have

some areas of repetition. This has been done purposely to

ensure that readers who only read certain sections are made

aware of the important points.

1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF CPT AND CPTU

In the Cone Penetration Test (CPT), a cone on the end of a

series of rods is pushed into the ground at a constant rate and

continuous or intermittent measurements are made of the

resistance to penetration of the cone. Measurements are also

made of either the combined resistance to penetration of the

cone and outer surface of a sleeve or the resistance of a

surface sleeve. Figure 1.1 illustrates the main terminology

regarding cone penetrometers.

The total force acting on the cone, Qc, divided by

the projected area of the cone, Ac, produces the cone

resistance, qc. The total force acting on the friction sleeve,

Fs, divided by the surface area of the friction sleeve As,

produces the sleeve friction, fs . In the piezocone

penetrometer, pore pressure is measured typically at one,

two or three locations as shown in Figure 1.1. These pore

pressures are known as: on the cone (MI), behind the cone

(u-i) and behind the friction sleeve (u^). Figure 2.1 includes

more detailed terminology for the piezocone penetrometer.

Probing with rods through weak ground to locate a firmer

INTRODUCTION

Pore pressure

filter location

Friction

sleeve

Cone

penetrometer

Cone

Figure 1.1 Terminology for cone penetrometers.

stratum has been practised since about 1917. It was in the

Netherlands in about 1932 that the CPT was introduced in a

form recognizable today. The method has earlier been

referred to as the static penetration test, quasi-static penetra-

tion test and Dutch sounding test.

Existing CPT systems can be divided into three main

groups: mechanical cone penetrometers, electric cone

penetrometers and piezocone penetrometers. A cone

penetrometer with a 10 cm base area cone with an apex

angle of 60 degrees is accepted as the reference and has been

specified in the International Reference Test Procedure

(ISSMFE, 1989), a copy of which is given in Appendix A.

1.3 ROLE OF CPT IN SITE INVESTIGATION

The objective of any subsurface exploration programme is to

determine the following:

• nature and sequence of the subsurface strata (geological

regime)

• groundwater conditions (hydrogeological regime)

• physical and mechanical properties of the subsurface

strata.

For geo-environmental site investigations where contami-

nants are possible, the above objectives have the additional

requirement to determine:

• distribution and composition of contaminants.

The above requirements are a function of the proposed

project and the associated risks. The variety in geological

conditions and range in project requirements make the

subject complex. There are many techniques available to

meet the objectives of a site investigation and these include

both field and laboratory testing. Laboratory tests include

those that test elements of the ground, such as triaxial tests

and those that test prototype models, such as centrifuge tests.

Field tests include drilling, sampling, in situ testing, full-

scale testing and geophysical tests. An ideal site investiga-

tion programme should include a mix of field and laboratory

tests.

Table 1.1 presents a partial list of the major in situ tests

and their perceived applicability for use in different ground

conditions. Based on current experience, grades have been

assigned which represent qualitative evaluations of the con-

fidence levels assessed for each method. The perceived

applicabilities are approximate and given only as a guide.

Details of soil type and equipment type can influence the

perceived applicability. The ground type provides a guide to

the range of ground conditions applicable for the test. Most

of the main in situ tests are applicable to soils with an

average grain size finer than gravel size. Only a small

number of tests can be carried out in hard ground conditions,

such as gravel, glacial till, soft and hard rock. These methods

generally require a pre-bored hole or non-destructive seis-

mic techniques. However, high capacity CPT equipment has

increased the range of applicable ground conditions.

It is clear from Table 1.1 that the CPT, piezocone (CPTU)

and seismic CPTU (SCPTU - see section 7.3 for a descrip-

tion) have the highest applicability for soils. The pressure-

meter also has good applicability and the reader is

encouraged to refer to B.G. Clark's book, Pressuremeters in

Geotechnical Design. However, the CPTU/SCPTU provide

a near continuous profile and are much more cost-effective.

The CPT has three main applications in the site investiga-

tion process:

1. to determine sub-surface stratigraphy and identify mate-

rials present,

2. to estimate geotechnical parameters, and,

3. to provide results for direct geotechnical design.

For the above applications the CPT may be supplemented by

borings or other tests, either in situ or in the laboratory. The

CPT can provide guidance on the nature of such additional

tests and helps to determine critical areas or strata in which

in situ testing or sampling should be undertaken.

Where the geology is uniform and well understood and

where predictions based on CPT results have been locally

verified and correlated with structure performance, the CPT

can be used alone for design. However, even in these

circumstances the CPT should be accompanied by bore-

holes, sampling and testing for one or more of the following

reasons:

• to clarify identification of soil type

• to verify local correlations

• to provide complementary information where interpreta-

tion of CPT data is difficult due to partial drainage

conditions or problem soils

• to evaluate the effects of (future) changes in soil loading

which are not recorded by the CPT.

In soft soils, cone penetration from ground level to depths in

excess of 100 metres may be achieved provided verticality is

maintained. Gravel layers and boulders, heavily cemented

Table 1.1 The applicability and usefulness of in situ tests

Soil Parameters

Group

Penetrometers

Pressuremeters

Others

Device

Soil

type

Dynamic

C

Mechanical

B

Electric (CPT)

B

Piezocone (CPTU)

A

Seismic (SCPT/SCPTU)

A

Flat dilatometer (DMT)

B

Standard penetration test (SPT) A

Resistivity probe

Pre-bored (PBP)

Self boring (SBP)

Full displacement (FDP)

Vane

Plate load

Screw plate

Borehole permeability

Hydraulic fracture

Crosshole/downhole/

surface seismic

B

B

B

B

B

C

C

C

-

C

Profile

u *<!>'

B

- C

A/B - C

A

- C

A

A B

A

A B

A

C B

B

- C

B

- B

B

- C

B

A1

B

B

- C

C

- -

-

- C

c

p

v^

\_<

—

A —

B

-

C

-

Su

C

C

B

B

A/B

B

C

C

B

B

B

A

B

B

-

-

-

ID

C

B

A/B

A/B

A/B

C

B

A

C

B

C

-

B

B

-

-

-

mv

C

C

B

B

B

C

B

B

C

-

B

B

-

-

-

c.

A/B

A/B

-

C

A1

C

_

C

c

B

C

-

k

B

B

-

—

B

-

-

C

C

A

C

-

G0

c

c

B

B

A

B

C

-

B

A2

A2

-

A

A

-

-

A

a*

C

B/C

B/C

B

B

-

C

A/B

C

-

C

c

-

B

-

OCR

C

C

B

B

B

B

C

-

C

B

C

B/C

B

B

-

-

B

a-s

C

B

C

-

C

A/B2

C

B

B

-

-

-

-

Hard

rock

C

-

A

-

-

-

B

-

A

B

A

Ground Type

Soft

rock Gravel

C

B

C

C

C

C

c

c

c

C

B

C

A

B

B

C

-

-

A

B

-

A

A

B

A

A

Sand

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

B

B

B

-

B

A

A

-

A

Silt

B

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

B

B

B

-

A

A

A

C

A

Clay

B

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

Peat

B

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

B

B

A

B

A

A

B

C

A

Applicability: A = high; B = moderate; C = low; - = none.

*^' = Will depend on soil type; ' = Only when pore pressure sensor fitted; = Only when displacement sensor fitted.

Soil parameter definitions: u = in situ static pore pressure; </>' = effective internal friction angle; su = undrained shear strength; mv = constrained modulus; cr = coefficient of consolidation; k = coefficient

of permeability; G0 = shear modulus at small strains; <jh = horizontal stress; OCR = overconsolidation ratio; <j-s = stress-strain relationship; ID = density index.

INTRODUCTION

zones and dense sand layers can restrict the penetration

severely and deflect and damage cones and rods, especially

if the overlying soils are very soft and allow rod buckling.

Testing from the bottom of a borehole can overcome these

problems, provided support is given to the push rods. In this

manner CPT/CPTU data can be obtained to greater depths.

The CPT/CPTU has three main advantages over the

traditional combination of borings, sampling and other test-

ing. It provides:

1. continuous or near continuous data

2. repeatable and reliable penetration data

3. cost savings.

In environmental applications, cone penetration technology

also prevents direct human contact with potentially contami-

nated material.

1.4 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Comprehensive reviews of the history of penetration testing

in general have been given by Sanglerat (1972) and Broms

and Flodin (1988).

1.4.1 Mechanical cone penetrometers

The first Dutch cone penetrometer tests were made in 1932

by P. Barentsen, an engineer at the Rijkwaterstaat (Depart-

ment of Public Works) in Holland. A gas pipe of 19 mm

inner diameter was used; inside this a 15 mm steel rod could

move freely up and down. A cone tip was attached to the

steel rod. Both the outer pipe and the inner rod with the

10 cm2 cone with a 60° apex angle (Figure 1.2), were pushed

down by hand (Barentsen, 1936). Barentsen corrected the

measured cone resistance by subtracting the weight of the

inner rod. The maximum penetration depth was 10-12

metres and the penetration resistance was read on a

manometer.

The first director of Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory,

T.K. Huizinga designed the first manually operated 10 tonne

cone penetration rig with which the first tests were carried

out in 1935 (de Graaf and Vermeiden, 1988). A photograph

of this system is shown in Figure 1.3. This device also used

an outer 19 mm "casing" which eliminated the skin friction

^N

\

^s

35

T

\

\

\

60U

_ 35

along the inner rod. The cone was first pushed down 150 mm

(maximum stroke) and then the outer pipe was pushed down

until it reached the cone tip. Then the "casing" and the inner

rods were pushed down together until the next level was

reached and cone resistance could be measured again.

Several Dutch and Belgian engineers used the early

version of the cone penetration test for evaluating pile

bearing capacity (e.g. Buisman, 1935; Huizinga, 1942; de

Beer, 1945; Plantema, 1948).

Vermeiden (1948) and Plantema (1948) improved the

original Dutch cone test by adding a conical part just above

the cone. The geometry proposed by Vermeiden and which

has been used since is shown in Figure 1.4. The purpose of

this new geometry was to prevent soil from entering the gap

between the casing and the rods.

Begemann (1953,1969) significantly improved the Dutch

static cone penetration test by adding an "adhesion jacket"

behind the cone (Figure 1.5). Using this new device the local

skin friction could be measured in addition to the cone

resistance. Measurements were made every 0.2 m and for

special purposes the interval could be decreased to 0.1 m.

The method was patented in 1953. Begemann (1965) was

also the first to propose that the friction ratio (sleeve friction/

cone resistance) could be used to classify soil layers in terms

of soil type (Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.2 Old type Dutch cone (from Sanglerat, 1972).

Figure 1.3 Dutch cone penetrometer system used in the 1940s

(courtesy of Delft Geotechnics).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

r

B

B

Figure 1.4 Dutch cone with conical mantle (from Sanglerat,

1972).

In 50

Q_

*5

40

o

O"

g 30

c

Percentage of

fines <16|i

Sand and gravel

o

Silty sand

O

15

25

35 .

465 ^Clay

95

100,

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Skin friction, f_(MPa)

0.7 0.8

Figure 1.6 Soil classification from cone resistance and sleeve

friction readings (from Begemann, 1965).

As outlined by Broms and Flodin (1988) and Sanglerat

(1972), several other mechanical cone penetrometers with

somewhat different features were developed in other

countries such as Belgium, Sweden, Germany, France,

Russia and so on.

1

2

Figure 1.5 Begemann type cone with friction sleeve (from Sanglerat, 1972).

INTRODUCTION

Most mechanical cone penetrometers measure the force

needed to press down the inner rod with a manometer at

ground level.

Sanglerat (1972) also reported the development by Parez

of a cone penetrometer which consisted of a conical point

connected to the piston of a small hydraulic jack at the base

of the rod. An oil pressure line transmitted the pressure to

manometers located at the ground surface allowing con-

tinuous readings of cone resistance. The Parez cone pen-

etrometers were available in three sizes: diameters of 45, 75

and 110 mm respectively.

The Centre Experimental du Batiment et des Travaux

Publics (CEBTP) in France also built hydraulic penet-

rometers in 1966 (Sanglerat, 1972). The cone resistance was

measured hydraulically with manometers at the ground

surface. The diameter of these penetrometers varied from

100 mm to 320 mm. According to Sanglerat, CEBTP also

developed a static-dynamic penetrometer.

Mechanical cone penetrometers are still widely used

because of their low cost, simplicity and robustness. In

rather homogeneous competent soils, without sharp varia-

tions in cone resistance, mechanical cone data can be

adequate, provided the equipment is properly maintained

and the operator has the required experience. Nevertheless,

the quality of the data remains somewhat operator depend-

ent. In soft soils, the accuracy of the results can sometimes

be inadequate for a quantitative analysis of the soil proper-

ties. In highly stratified materials even a satisfactory qual-

itative interpretation may be impossible.

1.4.2 Electric cone penetrometers

According to Broms and Flodin (1988) the very first electric

cone penetrometer was probably developed at the Deutsche

Forschungsgesellschaft fur Bodenmechanik (Degebo) in

Berlin during the Second World War.

The signals were transmitted to the ground surface

through a cable inside the hollow penetrometer rods. Muhs

(1978) reviewed the main improvements of the new pen-

etrometer relative to mechanical cone penetrometers,

namely:

1. The elimination of possible erroneous interpretation of

test results due to friction between inner rods and the

outer tubes.

2. A continuous testing with a continuous rate of penetra-

tion without the need for alternative movements of

different parts of the penetrometer tip and no possibility

for undesirable soil movements influencing the cone

resistance.

3. The simpler and more reliable electrical measurement of

the cone resistance with the possibility for continuous

readings and easy recording of the results.

Another reason for using electrical measurement systems is

that very sensitive load cells can be used and thereby much

more accurate readings can be obtained in very soft soils.

The first electrical cone penetrometer in Holland, called

the Rotterdam cone, was developed and patented, in 1948 by

the municipal engineer Bakker.

Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory (DSML) had worked

with electric cone penetrometers since 1949 and in 1957

produced the first electrical cone penetrometer where the

local side friction could also be measured separately (Vlas-

blom, 1985).

To exploit all the experience accumulated with the

mechanical cone, DSML carried out a series of comparative

studies. They also experimented with the geometry of the

electrical cone attempting to get the same results as from the

mechanical cone (Heijnen, 1973; Vlasblom, 1985).

In 1965 an electric cone was developed by Fugro in

co-operation with the Dutch State Research Institute (TNO),

(see de Ruiter, 1971). Figure 1.7 shows a diagram of the

early Fugro electric friction cone penetrometer. The shape

and dimensions of this cone formed the basis for the

International Reference Test Procedure (ISSMFE, 1977,

1989).

De Ruiter (1971) also reported the use of an electrical

inclinometer which enabled deviations from vertical during

a test to be monitored.

8

1 Conical point (10 cm2) 5 Adjustment ring

2 Load cell

6 Waterproof bushing

3 Strain gauges

7 Cable

4 Friction sleeve

8 Connection with rods

Figure 1.7 The Fugro electrical friction cone (after de Ruiter, 1971).

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

A large number of different electric cone penetrometers

have now been developed in many countries all over the

world. However, the mechanical cone penetrometer is still

used in some countries.

Chapter 2 describes some of the different electrical load

cell systems that are being used for recording cone resist-

ance and side friction.

1.4.3 The piezocone

Two important papers at the first European Conference on

Penetration Testing (ESOPT-1) in Stockholm in 1974 pre-

sented examples of pore pressures measured during penetra-

tion. A conventional electrical piezometer, developed by the

Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), was used by Janbu

and Senneset (1974) to measure pore pressures during

penetration adjacent to CPT profiles. Schmertmann (1974)

also pushed in a piezometer probe and measured penetration

pore pressures.

Schmertmann recognized the importance of pore water

pressure measurement for the interpretation of CPT data.

Both Janbu and Senneset and Schmertmann showed the

results of the changes in pore pressures during a pause in the

penetration.

Almost simultaneously Torstensson (1975) in Sweden

and Wissa et al. (1975) in the USA developed electric

piezometer probes with the special purpose of measuring

pore water pressures during penetration and pauses in pene-

tration. The two probes were of similar geometry. The probe

used by Wissa et al. is reproduced in Figure 1.8. Results

from these probes showed the potential for detecting thin

permeable layers embedded in clay.

Schmertmann (1978) used the Wissa type piezometer probe

and a 60° cone with filter at the tip in a study of the evaluation

of liquefaction potential of sands. Baligh etal.(1980) also did

tests with the Wissa probe in addition to tests with 60° cones

with various filter locations. However, each cone recorded

only pore water pressure and from only one sensing filter

element. Parallel tests were performed with the electric cone

penetrometers. Baligh et al. suggested that the pore water

pressure data, when combined with the CPT data, could

provide a promising method for soil identification and an

estimate of overconsolidation in a clay deposit. The first

publication of combined measurement of cone resistance and

pore pressure in the same probe was given by Roy et al.

(1980). They did tests in sensitive Canadian clays, to study the

pattern of pore water pressure at or above the cone tip using

detachable tips to vary the position of the filter element.

At the 1981 ASCE National Convention in St. Louis,

Missouri, a session was organized on Cone Penetration

Testing and Experience. Several authors presented results of

piezocone tests that could measure penetration pore pressure

simultaneously with cone resistance and sleeve friction (de

Ruiter, 1981; Muromachi, 1981; Baligh et al., 1981; Jones et

Square

A-rod

thread

Transducer

electrical

cable

Transducer

locknut

Stainless steel

porous tip

Protective

polyethylene

tubing

Weld

Ferrule

Pressure

transducer

O-ring seals

O-ring seals

Figure 1.8 The Wissa piezometer probe (from Wissa et al. 1975).

al., 1981; Tumay et al., 1981; Campanella and Robertson,

1981).

Of the piezocones referred to above, some had filters on

the very tip or midway on the cone face and some on the

cylindrical part just behind the cone tip. In practice most

tests were done with the filter on the cone face. Gradually the

practice has changed so that the recommended position is

close behind the cone at location u2 (ISSMFE, 1989;

Figure 1.1).

A large number of piezocones have been developed in

recent years. For practical projects pore pressures are nor-

mally measured at one location; most frequently behind the

cone. For research and special projects, piezocones with two

or three filter positions have been developed. Bayne and

Tjelta (1987) and Zuidberg et al. (1987) reported the devel-

opment of the triple element piezocones.

With the measurements of pore water pressures it became

apparent that it was necessary to correct cone resistance for

pore water pressure effects, details of which are given in

Chapter3.

A trend is also to include other sensors in the piezocone;

details are given in Chapter 7.

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