Legality of Cannabis by U.S. Jurisdiction

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{{Short description|1946–1949 trials of Nazi leadership}}
{{about|the U.S. Nuremburg trials|the earlier international trials|Nuremberg trials}}
<noinclude>{{User:RMCD bot/subject notice|1=Subsequent Nuremberg trials|2=Talk:Nuremberg Military Tribunals#Requested move 28 January 2021 }}
[[File:Judges of the Nuremberg Military Tribunals.jpg|thumb|Judges of the Nuremberg Military Tribunals pose for a group photo]]
</noinclude>[[File:Philipp Auerbach.jpg|thumb|Auschwitz survivor {{ill|Philipp Auerbach|de}} testifies for the prosecution in the [[Ministries trial]]]]
[[File:Philipp Auerbach.jpg|thumb|Auschwitz survivor {{ill|Philipp Auerbach|de}} testifies for the prosecution in the [[Ministries Trial]]]]
The '''Nuremberg Military Tribunals''' were a series of twelve [[military tribunal]]s for [[war crime]]s against members of the leadership of [[Nazi Germany]], lasting from December 1946 to April 1949. They differed from the first and best-known Nuremberg trial, the [[International Military Tribunal]], in that they were conducted before U.S. military courts rather than an international court.


These trials dealt with German industrialists accused of using slave labor and plundering occupied countries, and high-ranking army officers accused of atrocities against prisoners of war. The subsequent trials were held in the same location, at the [[Palace of Justice (Nuremberg)|Palace of Justice]] in Nuremberg.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/nuremberg-trials|title=Nuremberg Trials|website=HISTORY|publisher=A&E Television Networks|access-date=November 25, 2019}}</ref>
The '''subsequent Nuremberg trials''' (also '''Nuremberg Military Tribunals'''; 1946–1949) were twelve [[military tribunal]]s for [[war crime]]s committed by the leaders of [[Nazi Germany]] (1933–1945). The Nuremberg Military Tribunals occurred after the [[Nuremberg trials]], held by the [[International Military Tribunal]], which concluded in October 1946. The subsequent Nuremberg trials were held by U.S. military courts and dealt with the cases of [[crimes against humanity]] committed by the business community of Nazi Germany, specifically the crimes of using [[slave labor]] and [[military occupation|plundering occupied countries]], and the war-crime cases of ''Wehrmacht'' officers who committed atrocities against Allied prisoners of war, [[Partisan (military)|partisan]]s, and [[guerrilla]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/nuremberg-trials |title=Nuremberg Trials |website=History |publisher=A&E Television Networks |access-date=25 November 2019}}</ref>


==Background==
==Background==
Although it had been initially planned to hold more than just one international trial at the IMT, the growing differences between the victors of the second world war (the United States, United Kingdom, France, and [[Soviet Union]]) made this impossible. However, the Control Council Law No. 10, which the [[Allied Control Council]] had issued on 20 December 1945, empowered any of the occupying authorities to try suspected war criminals in their respective occupation zones. Based on this law, the U.S. authorities proceeded after the end of the initial Nuremberg Trial against the major war criminals to hold another twelve trials in Nuremberg. The judges in all these trials were American, and so were the prosecutors; the Chief of Counsel for the Prosecution was [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier General]] [[Telford Taylor]]. In the other occupation zones similar trials took place.<ref name="Heller">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ALHAwFfy44C&q=%22a+brief+synopsis+of+those+trials%22 | title=The Trials. Introduction: the indictments, biographical information, and the verdicts | publisher=Oxford University Press | work=The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law | date=2011 | access-date=10 January 2015 | author=Kevin Jon Heller | pages=85–| isbn=9780199554317 }}</ref>
The Allies had initially planned to convene several international trials for war crimes at the International Military Tribunal, but failed because the Allies could not agree upon the proper legal management and disposition of military and civilian war criminals; however, the Control Council Law No. 10 (20 December 1945) of the [[Allied Control Council]] empowered the military authorities of every occupation zone in Germany to place on trial people and soldiers suspected of being war criminals. Based on this law, the U.S. authorities proceeded after the end of the initial Nuremberg Trial against the major war criminals to hold another twelve trials in Nuremberg. The judges in all these trials were American, and so were the prosecutors; the Chief of Counsel for the Prosecution was Brigadier General [[Telford Taylor]]. In the other occupation zones, similar trials took place.<ref name="Heller">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ALHAwFfy44C&q=%22a+brief+synopsis+of+those+trials%22 | title=The Trials. Introduction: the indictments, biographical information, and the verdicts | publisher=Oxford University Press | work=The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law | date=2011 | access-date=10 January 2015 | author=[[Kevin Jon Heller]] | pages=85–| isbn=9780199554317 }}</ref>


==Trials==
==Trials==
Line 16: Line 15:
!align="left"|Dates
!align="left"|Dates
!align="left"|Defendants
!align="left"|Defendants
|- id="Doctors' Trial"
|-
||1||[[Doctors' Trial]] ||9 December 1946 – 20 August 1947 || 23 Nazi physicians of the [[Action T4]]
||1||[[Doctors' Trial]] ||9 December 1946 – 20 August 1947 || 23 Nazi physicians of the [[Aktion T4]]
|- id="Milch Trial"
|-
||2||[[Milch Trial]] ||2 January – 14 April 1947 || Field Marshal [[Erhard Milch]] of the ''[[Luftwaffe]]''
||2||[[Milch Trial]] ||2 January – 14 April 1947 || Field Marshal [[Erhard Milch]] of the ''[[Luftwaffe]]''
|- id="Judges' Trial"
|-
||3||[[Judges' Trial]] ||5 March – 4 December 1947 || 16 Nazi German "racial purity" jurists
||3||[[Judges' Trial]] ||5 March – 4 December 1947 || 16 Nazi German "racial purity" jurists
|- id="Pohl Trial"
|-
||4||[[Pohl Trial]] ||8 April – 3 November 1947 || [[Oswald Pohl]] and 17 SS officers
||4||[[Pohl Trial]] ||8 April – 3 November 1947 || [[Oswald Pohl]] and 17 SS officers
|- id="Flick Trial"
|-
||5||[[Flick Trial]] ||19 April – 22 December 1947 || [[Friedrich Flick]] and 5 directors of his companies
||5||[[Flick Trial]] ||19 April – 22 December 1947 || [[Friedrich Flick]] and 5 directors of his companies
|- id="IG Farben Trial"
|-
||6||[[IG Farben Trial]] ||27 August 1947 – 30 July 1948 ||24 directors of [[IG Farben]], maker of [[Zyklon B]]
||6||[[IG Farben Trial]] ||27 August 1947 – 30 July 1948 ||24 directors of [[IG Farben]], maker of [[Zyklon B]]
|- id="Hostages Trial"
|-
||7||[[Hostages Trial]] ||8 July 1947 – 19 February 1948 || 12 German generals of the [[Balkan Campaign (World War II)|Balkan Campaign]]
||7||[[Hostages Trial]] ||8 July 1947 – 19 February 1948 || 12 German generals of the [[Balkan Campaign (World War II)|Balkan Campaign]]
|- id="RuSHA Trial"
|-
||8||[[RuSHA Trial]] ||20 October 1947 – 10 March 1948 || 14 racial cleansing and resettlement officials
||8||[[RuSHA Trial]] ||20 October 1947 – 10 March 1948 || 14 racial cleansing and resettlement officials
|- id="Einsatzgruppen Trial"
|-
||9||[[Einsatzgruppen Trial]] ||29 September 1947 – 10 April 1948 || 24 officers of ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]''
||9||[[Einsatzgruppen Trial]] ||29 September 1947 – 10 April 1948 || 24 officers of ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]''
|- id="Krupp Trial"
|-
||10||[[Krupp Trial]] ||8 December 1947 – 31 July 1948 || 12 directors of the [[Krupp]] Group
||10||[[Krupp Trial]] ||8 December 1947 – 31 July 1948 || 12 directors of the [[Krupp]] Group
|- id="Ministries Trial"
|-
||11||[[Ministries Trial]] ||6 January 1948 – 13 April 1949 || 21 officials of [[Nazi Germany|Reich ministries]]
||11||[[Ministries Trial]] ||6 January 1948 – 13 April 1949 || 21 officials of [[Nazi Germany|Reich ministries]]
|- id="High Command Trial"
|-
||12||[[High Command Trial]] ||30 December 1947 – 28 October 1948 || 14 High Command generals
||12||[[High Command Trial]] ||30 December 1947 – 28 October 1948 || 13 generals and 1 admiral of the High Command
|}
|}


==Result==
==Result==
{{more citations needed section|date=August 2019}}
{{more citations needed section|date=August 2019}}
The Nuremberg process initiated 3,887 cases of which about 3,400 were dropped. 489 cases went to trial, involving 1,672 defendants. 1,416 of them were found guilty; less than 200 were executed, and another 279 defendants were sent to life in prison. By the 1950s almost all of them had been released.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nelson|first1=Anne|title=Red Orchestra: The Story of the Berlin Underground and the Circle of Friends Who Resisted Hitler|date=April 2009|publisher=Random House|pages=[https://archive.org/details/redorchestrastor00anne/page/305 305]–6|url=https://archive.org/details/redorchestrastor00anne|url-access=registration|quote=subsequent nuremberg trials 200 nazi.|isbn=9781588367990}}</ref>
The Nuremberg process initiated 3,887 cases of which about 3,400 were dropped. 489 cases went to trial, involving 1,672 defendants. 1,416 of them were found guilty; fewer than 200 were executed, and another 279 defendants were sentenced to life in prison. By the 1950s almost all of them had been released.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nelson|first1=Anne|title=Red Orchestra: The Story of the Berlin Underground and the Circle of Friends Who Resisted Hitler|date=April 2009|publisher=Random House|pages=[https://archive.org/details/redorchestrastor00anne/page/305 305]–6|url=https://archive.org/details/redorchestrastor00anne|url-access=registration|quote=subsequent nuremberg trials 200 nazi.|isbn=9781588367990}}</ref>


Many of the longer prison sentences were reduced substantially by decree of high commissioner [[John J. McCloy]] in 1951, and 10 outstanding death sentences from the ''Einsatzgruppen'' Trial were converted to prison terms. The same year, an [[amnesty]] released many of those who had received prison sentences.
Many of the longer prison sentences were reduced substantially by an amnesty under the decree of high commissioner [[John J. McCloy]] in 1951, after intense political pressure. Ten outstanding death sentences from the ''Einsatzgruppen'' Trial were converted to prison terms. Many others who had received prison sentences were released outright.


==Criticism==
==Criticism==
Some of the NMTs have been criticised for their conclusion that "moral bombing" of civilians, including its [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear variety]], was legal, and for their judgement that, in certain situations, executing civilians in reprisal was permissible.<ref>{{cite book |last= Heller |first= Kevin Jon |year= 2011 |title= The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law |location= Oxford |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] |page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ALHAwFfy44C&pg=PA3 3] }}</ref>
Some of the Nurenberg Military Tribunals have been criticised for their conclusion that "morale bombing" of civilians, including its [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear variety]], was legal, and for their judgment that, in certain situations, executing civilians in reprisal was permissible.<ref>{{cite book |last= Heller |first= Kevin Jon |year= 2011 |title= The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law |location= Oxford |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] |page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ALHAwFfy44C&pg=PA3 3] }}</ref>

===Conduct of the prosecution===
In a 2005 interview for the ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[Benjamin B. Ferencz]], Chief Prosecutor for the United States Army at the Einsatzgruppen Trial, revealed some of his activities during his period in Germany. "Someone who was not there could never really grasp how unreal the situation was," he said. The Americans delivered at least a dozen low-ranking German SS suspects to [[displaced persons camp]]s for the purpose of having them executed by the DPs ("displaced persons"), without prior trial or sentencing. Under military law at that time, it was legal to hand over suspects to their victims for further questioning.<ref name="brz">{{cite news |last= Brzezinski |first= Matthew |date= 24 July 2005 |title= Giving Hitler Hell |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/21/AR2005072101680_5.html |newspaper= [[The Washington Post]] |access-date= 6 October 2012 }}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Auschwitz Trial]] held in [[Kraków]], Poland in 1947 against 40 SS-staff of the [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] death factory
* [[Auschwitz Trial]] held in [[Kraków]], Poland in 1947 against 40 SS-staff of the [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] death factory
* [[Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials]], 1963–1965
* [[Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials]], 1963–1965
* [[Majdanek Trials]], the longest Nazi war crimes trial in history, spanning over 30 years
* [[Majdanek Trials]], held against [[Majdanek extermination camp]] officials. Longest Nazi war crimes trial in history, spanning over 30 years
* [[Chełmno Trials]] of the [[Chełmno extermination camp]] personnel, held in Poland and in Germany. The cases were decided almost twenty years apart
* [[Chełmno Trials]] of the [[Chełmno extermination camp]] personnel, held in Poland and Germany. The cases were decided almost twenty years apart
* [[Sobibor Trial]] held in [[Hagen]], Germany in 1965, concerning the [[Sobibor extermination camp]]
* [[Sobibor Trial]] held in [[Hagen]], Germany in 1965, concerning the [[Sobibor extermination camp]]
* [[Belzec Trial]] before the 1st [[Munich]] District Court in the mid-1960s, eight SS-men of the [[Belzec extermination camp]]
* [[Belzec Trial]] before the 1st [[Munich]] District Court in the mid-1960s, eight SS-men of the [[Belzec extermination camp]]
Line 82: Line 78:
*[http://www.mazal.org/NMT-HOME.htm The NMT proceedings] at the Mazal Library.
*[http://www.mazal.org/NMT-HOME.htm The NMT proceedings] at the Mazal Library.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101125101211/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/nuremberg/subsequenttrials.html An overview].
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101125101211/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/nuremberg/subsequenttrials.html An overview].

{{Nuremberg Trials}}
{{Nuremberg Trials}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:United States Nuremberg Military Tribunals|*]]
[[Category:United States Nuremberg Military Tribunals|*]]

Latest revision as of 05:52, 2 May 2024

Judges of the Nuremberg Military Tribunals pose for a group photo
Auschwitz survivor Philipp Auerbach [de] testifies for the prosecution in the Ministries Trial

The subsequent Nuremberg trials (also Nuremberg Military Tribunals; 1946–1949) were twelve military tribunals for war crimes committed by the leaders of Nazi Germany (1933–1945). The Nuremberg Military Tribunals occurred after the Nuremberg trials, held by the International Military Tribunal, which concluded in October 1946. The subsequent Nuremberg trials were held by U.S. military courts and dealt with the cases of crimes against humanity committed by the business community of Nazi Germany, specifically the crimes of using slave labor and plundering occupied countries, and the war-crime cases of Wehrmacht officers who committed atrocities against Allied prisoners of war, partisans, and guerrillas.[1]

Background[edit]

The Allies had initially planned to convene several international trials for war crimes at the International Military Tribunal, but failed because the Allies could not agree upon the proper legal management and disposition of military and civilian war criminals; however, the Control Council Law No. 10 (20 December 1945) of the Allied Control Council empowered the military authorities of every occupation zone in Germany to place on trial people and soldiers suspected of being war criminals. Based on this law, the U.S. authorities proceeded after the end of the initial Nuremberg Trial against the major war criminals to hold another twelve trials in Nuremberg. The judges in all these trials were American, and so were the prosecutors; the Chief of Counsel for the Prosecution was Brigadier General Telford Taylor. In the other occupation zones, similar trials took place.[2]

Trials[edit]

The twelve U.S. trials before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT) took place from 9 December 1946 to 13 April 1949.[2] The trials were as follows:

# Designations Dates Defendants
1 Doctors' Trial 9 December 1946 – 20 August 1947 23 Nazi physicians of the Aktion T4
2 Milch Trial 2 January – 14 April 1947 Field Marshal Erhard Milch of the Luftwaffe
3 Judges' Trial 5 March – 4 December 1947 16 Nazi German "racial purity" jurists
4 Pohl Trial 8 April – 3 November 1947 Oswald Pohl and 17 SS officers
5 Flick Trial 19 April – 22 December 1947 Friedrich Flick and 5 directors of his companies
6 IG Farben Trial 27 August 1947 – 30 July 1948 24 directors of IG Farben, maker of Zyklon B
7 Hostages Trial 8 July 1947 – 19 February 1948 12 German generals of the Balkan Campaign
8 RuSHA Trial 20 October 1947 – 10 March 1948 14 racial cleansing and resettlement officials
9 Einsatzgruppen Trial 29 September 1947 – 10 April 1948 24 officers of Einsatzgruppen
10 Krupp Trial 8 December 1947 – 31 July 1948 12 directors of the Krupp Group
11 Ministries Trial 6 January 1948 – 13 April 1949 21 officials of Reich ministries
12 High Command Trial 30 December 1947 – 28 October 1948 13 generals and 1 admiral of the High Command

Result[edit]

The Nuremberg process initiated 3,887 cases of which about 3,400 were dropped. 489 cases went to trial, involving 1,672 defendants. 1,416 of them were found guilty; fewer than 200 were executed, and another 279 defendants were sentenced to life in prison. By the 1950s almost all of them had been released.[3]

Many of the longer prison sentences were reduced substantially by an amnesty under the decree of high commissioner John J. McCloy in 1951, after intense political pressure. Ten outstanding death sentences from the Einsatzgruppen Trial were converted to prison terms. Many others who had received prison sentences were released outright.

Criticism[edit]

Some of the Nurenberg Military Tribunals have been criticised for their conclusion that "morale bombing" of civilians, including its nuclear variety, was legal, and for their judgment that, in certain situations, executing civilians in reprisal was permissible.[4]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Nuremberg Trials". History. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
  2. ^ a b Kevin Jon Heller (2011). The Trials. Introduction: the indictments, biographical information, and the verdicts. Oxford University Press. pp. 85–. ISBN 9780199554317. Retrieved 10 January 2015. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  3. ^ Nelson, Anne (April 2009). Red Orchestra: The Story of the Berlin Underground and the Circle of Friends Who Resisted Hitler. Random House. pp. 305–6. ISBN 9781588367990. subsequent nuremberg trials 200 nazi.
  4. ^ Heller, Kevin Jon (2011). The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 3.

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Subsequent_Nuremberg_trials&diff=1221825020&oldid=1003453285