Legality of Cannabis by U.S. Jurisdiction

Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Edgar181 (talk | contribs)
Extended confirmed users
196,325 edits
m Reverted edits by 213.235.33.91 (talk) to last version by 99.181.148.240
Mardus (talk | contribs)
Extended confirmed users
11,029 edits
m Layout: Infobox: Added zero-width spaces (#8203) into the IUPAC name to accommodate some older browsers (the name would otherwise not wrap and extend the Infobox far too wide)
Line 4: Line 4:
| Watchedfields = changed
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 456481037
| verifiedrevid = 456481037
| IUPAC_name = 1-({(4''R'',7''S'',10''S'',13''S'',16''S'',19''R'')-19-amino-7-(2-amino-2-oxoethyl)-10-(3-amino-3-oxopropyl)-16-(4-hydroxybenzoyl)-13-[(1''S'')-1-methylpropyl]-6,9,12,15,18-pentaoxo-1,2-dithia-5,8,11,14,17-pentaazacycloicosan-4-yl}carbonyl)-<small>L</small>-prolyl-<small>L</small>-leucylglycinamide
| IUPAC_name = 1-({(4''R'',7''S'',10''S'',13''S'',16''S'',19''R'')-19-amino-&#8203;7-(2-amino-2-oxoethyl)-&#8203;10-(3-amino-3-oxopropyl)-&#8203;16-(4-hydroxybenzoyl)-&#8203;13-[(1''S'')-1-methylpropyl]-&#8203;6,9,12,15,18-pentaoxo-&#8203;1,2-dithia-&#8203;5,8,11,14,17-pentaazacycloicosan-4-yl}carbonyl)-&#8203;<small>L</small>-prolyl-&#8203;<small>L</small>-leucylglycinamide
| image = Oxytocin with labels.png
| image = Oxytocin with labels.png
| width = 250px
| width = 250px

Revision as of 03:56, 16 May 2012

Not to be confused with OxyContin.
Oxytocin
Clinical data
Trade namesPitocin
AHFS/Drugs.comMonograph
Pregnancy
category
  • AU: A
Routes of
administration		Intranasal, IV, IM
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailabilitynil
Protein binding30%
Metabolismhepatic oxytocinases
Elimination half-life1–6 min
ExcretionBiliary and renal
Identifiers
  • 1-({(4R,7S,10S,13S,16S,19R)-19-amino-​7-(2-amino-2-oxoethyl)-​10-(3-amino-3-oxopropyl)-​16-(4-hydroxybenzoyl)-​13-[(1S)-1-methylpropyl]-​6,9,12,15,18-pentaoxo-​1,2-dithia-​5,8,11,14,17-pentaazacycloicosan-4-yl}carbonyl)-​L-prolyl-​L-leucylglycinamide
CAS Number
PubChem CID
IUPHAR/BPS
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard100.000.045 Edit this at Wikidata
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC43H66N12O12S2
Molar mass1007.19 g/mol g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
  • O=C(N)CNC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@H]3N(C(=O)[C@H]1NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](NC(=O)[C@@H](N)CSSC1)Cc2ccc(O)cc2)[C@@H](C)CC)CCC(=O)N)CC(=O)N)CCC3)CC(C)C
  • InChI=1S/C43H66N12O12S2/c1-5-22(4)35-42(66)49-26(12-13-32(45)57)38(62)51-29(17-33(46)58)39(63)53-30(20-69-68-19-25(44)36(60)50-28(40(64)54-35)16-23-8-10-24(56)11-9-23)43(67)55-14-6-7-31(55)41(65)52-27(15-21(2)3)37(61)48-18-34(47)59/h8-11,21-22,25-31,35,56H,5-7,12-20,44H2,1-4H3,(H2,45,57)(H2,46,58)(H2,47,59)(H,48,61)(H,49,66)(H,50,60)(H,51,62)(H,52,65)(H,53,63)(H,54,64)/t22-,25-,26-,27-,28-,29-,30-,31-,35-/m0/s1 checkY
  • Key:XNOPRXBHLZRZKH-DSZYJQQASA-N checkY
 ☒NcheckY (what is this?)  (verify)

Oxytocin (Oxt) (/[invalid input: 'icon']ˌɒks[invalid input: 'ɨ']ˈtoʊsɪn/) is a mammalian hormone that acts primarily as a neuromodulator in the brain.

Oxytocin is best known for its roles in sexual reproduction, in particular during and after childbirth. It is released in large amounts after distension of the cervix and uterus during labor, facilitating birth, and after stimulation of the nipples, facilitating breastfeeding.

Recent studies have begun to investigate oxytocin's role in various behaviors, including orgasm, social recognition, pair bonding, anxiety, and maternal behaviors.[2] For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the "love hormone." The inability to secrete oxytocin and feel empathy is linked to sociopathy, psychopathy, narcissism and general manipulativeness.[3]

The word oxytocin was derived from the Greek ὼκυτοκίνη, ōkytokínē, meaning “quick birth”, after its uterine-contracting properties were discovered by British pharmacologist Sir Henry Hallett Dale in 1906.[4] The milk ejection property of oxytocin was described by Ott and Scott in 1910[5] and by Schafer and Mackenzie in 1911.[6] The nine amino acid sequence of oxytocin was elucidated by Vincent du Vigneaud et al. and by Tuppy in 1953.[7] and synthesized biochemically soon after by du Vigneaud et al. in 1953.[8][9] Oxytocin was the very first polypeptide hormone to be sequenced and synthesized. Du Vigneaud states in his publication of 1954 "This synthesis thus constitutes the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone".[10]

Structure and relation to vasopressin

Oxytocin is a peptide of nine amino acids (a nonapeptide). Its systematic name is cysteine-tyrosine-isoleucine-glutamine-asparagine-cysteine-proline-leucine-glycine-amine (cys – tyr – ile – gln – asn – cys – pro – leu – gly - NH2, or CYIQNCPLG-NH2). The cysteine residues form a disulfide bond. Oxytocin has a molecular mass of 1007 daltons. One international unit (IU) of oxytocin is the equivalent of about 2 micrograms of pure peptide.

The biologically active form of oxytocin, commonly measured by RIA and/or HPLC techniques, is also known as the octapeptide "oxytocin disulfide" (oxidized form), but oxytocin also exists as a reduced dithiol nonapeptide called oxytoceine.[11] It has been theorized that open chain oxytoceine (the reduced form of oxytocin) may also act as a free radical scavenger (by donating an electron to a free radical); oxytoceine may then be oxidized back to oxytocin via the redox potential of dehydroascorbate <---> ascorbate.[12]

Oxytocin (ball-and-stick) bound to its carrier protein neurophysin (ribbons)

The structure of oxytocin is very similar to that of vasopressin (cys – tyr – phe – gln – asn – cys – pro – arg – gly - NH2), also a nonapeptide with a sulfur bridge, whose sequence differs from oxytocin by 2 amino acids. A table showing the sequences of members of the vasopressin/oxytocin superfamily and the species expressing them is present in the vasopressin article. Oxytocin and vasopressin were isolated and synthesized by Vincent du Vigneaud in 1953, work for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1955.

Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and dynorphin, for example, that act locally. The magnocellular neurons that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurons that make vasopressin, and are similar in many respects.



Actions

Oxytocin has peripheral (hormonal) actions, and also has actions in the brain. The actions of oxytocin are mediated by specific, high-affinity oxytocin receptors. The oxytocin receptor is a G-protein-coupled receptor that requires Mg2+ and cholesterol. It belongs to the rhodopsin-type (class I) group of G-protein-coupled receptors.

Peripheral (hormonal) actions

The peripheral actions of oxytocin mainly reflect secretion from the pituitary gland. (See oxytocin receptor for more detail on its action.)

  • Letdown reflex – in lactating (breastfeeding) mothers, oxytocin acts at the mammary glands, causing milk to be 'let down' into subareolar sinuses, from where it can be excreted via the nipple.[13] Sucking by the infant at the nipple is relayed by spinal nerves to the hypothalamus. The stimulation causes neurons that make oxytocin to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts; these bursts result in the secretion of pulses of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve terminals of the pituitary gland.
  • Uterine contraction – important for cervical dilation before birth and causes contractions during the second and third stages of labor. Oxytocin release during breastfeeding causes mild but often painful contractions during the first few weeks of lactation. This also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum. However, in knockout mice lacking the oxytocin receptor, reproductive behavior and parturition are normal.[14]
  • Social behavior and Wound healing – Oxytocin is also thought to modulate inflammation by decreasing certain cytokines. Thus, the increased release in oxytocin following positive social interactions has the potential to improve wound healing. A study by Marazziti and colleagues used heterosexual couples to address this possibility. They found that increases in plasma oxytocin following a social interaction were correlated with faster wound healing. They hypothesized that this was due to oxytocin reducing inflammation, thus allowing the wound to heal faster. This study provides preliminary evidence that positive social interactions may directly impact aspects of health.[15]
  • The relationship between oxytocin and human sexual response is unclear. At least two non-controlled studies have found increases in plasma oxytocin at orgasm – in both men and women.[16][17] Plasma oxytocin levels are notably increased around the time of self-stimulated orgasm and are still higher than baseline when measured 5 minutes after self arousal.[16] The authors of one of these studies speculated that oxytocin's effects on muscle contractibility may facilitate sperm and egg transport.[16] In a study that measured oxytocin serum levels in women before and after sexual stimulation, the author suggests that oxytocin serves an important role in sexual arousal. This study found that genital tract stimulation resulted in increased oxytocin immediately after orgasm.[18] Another study that reports increases of oxytocin during sexual arousal states that it could be in response to nipple/areola, genital, and/or genital tract stimulation as confirmed in other mammals.[19] Murphy et al. (1987), studying men, found that oxytocin levels were raised throughout sexual arousal and there was no acute increase at orgasm.[20] A more recent study of men found an increase in plasma oxytocin immediately after orgasm, but only in a portion of their sample that did not reach statistical significance. The authors noted that these changes "may simply reflect contractile properties on reproductive tissue."[21]

Oxytocin evokes feelings of contentment, reductions in anxiety, and feelings of calmness and security around the mate.[22] Many studies have already shown a correlation of oxytocin with human bonding, increases in trust, and decreases in fear. One study confirmed that there is a positive correlation between oxytocin plasma levels and an anxiety scale measuring the adult romantic attachment.[23] This suggests that oxytocin may be important for the inhibition of brain regions that are associated with behavioral control, fear, and anxiety, thus allowing orgasm to occur.

  • Due to its similarity to vasopressin, it can reduce the excretion of urine slightly. In several species, oxytocin can stimulate sodium excretion from the kidneys (natriuresis), and, in humans, high doses of oxytocin can result in hyponatremia.
  • Oxytocin and oxytocin receptors are also found in the heart in some rodents, and the hormone may play a role in the embryonal development of the heart by promoting cardiomyocyte differentiation.[24][25] However, the absence of either oxytocin or its receptor in knockout mice has not been reported to produce cardiac insufficiencies.[14]
  • Autism. Oxytocin may play a role in autism and may be an effective treatment for autism's repetitive and affiliative behaviors.[27] Oxytocin treatments also resulted in an increased retention of affective speech in adults with autism.[28] Two related studies in adults, in 2003 and 2007, found that oxytocin decreased repetitive behaviors and improved interpretation of emotions. More recently, intranasal administration of oxytocin was found to increase emotion recognition in children as young as 12 who are diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders [29] Oxytocin has also been implicated in the etiology of autism, with one report suggesting that autism is correlated with genomic deletion of the gene containing the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR). Studies involving Caucasian and Finnish samples and Chinese Han families provide support for the relationship of OXTR with autism.[28][30] Autism may also be associated by an aberrant methylation of OXTR, as reported by Gregory and colleagues.[28] After treatment with inhaled oxytocin, autistic patients exhibit more appropriate social behavior.[31] While this research suggests some promise, further clinical trials of oxytocin are required to demonstrate potential benefit and side-effects in the treatment of autism. As such, researchers do not recommend use of oxytocin as a treatment for autism outside of clinical trials.
  • Increasing trust and reducing fear. In a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered oxytocin displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. Subjects who were told that they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin was not merely affecting risk-aversion.[32] Nasally administered oxytocin has also been reported to reduce fear, possibly by inhibiting the amygdala (which is thought to be responsible for fear responses).[33] Indeed, studies in rodents have shown that oxytocin can efficiently inhibit fear responses by activating an inhibitory circuit within the amygdala. Some researchers have argued that oxytocin has a general enhancing effect on all social emotions, since intranasal administration of oxytocin also increases envy and schadenfreude.[34]
  • Affecting generosity by increasing empathy during perspective taking. In a neuroeconomics experiment, intranasal oxytocin increased generosity in the Ultimatum Game by 80% but has no effect in the Dictator Game that measures altruism. Perspective-taking is not required in the Dictator Game, but the researchers in this experiment explicitly induced perspective-taking in the Ultimatum Game by not identifying to participants which role they would be in.[35] Serious methodological questions have arisen, however, with regards to the role of oxytocin in trust and generosity.[36]
  • Certain learning and memory functions are impaired by centrally administered oxytocin.[37] Also, systemic oxytocin administration can impair memory retrieval in certain aversive memory tasks.[38] Interestingly, oxytocin does seem to facilitate learning and memory specifically for social information. Healthy males administered intranasal oxytocin show improved memory for human faces, in particular happy faces.[39][40] They also show improved recognition for positive social cues over threatening social cues [41][42] and improved recognition of fear.[43]
  • Empathy in healthy males has been shown to be increased after intranasal oxytocin[44][45] This is most likely due to the effect of oxytocin in enhancing eye gaze.[46] There is some discussion about which aspect of empathy oxytocin might alter - for example, cognitive vs. emotional empathy.[47]

Actions within the brain

Oxytocin secreted from the pituitary gland cannot re-enter the brain because of the blood-brain barrier. Instead, the behavioral effects of oxytocin are thought to reflect release from centrally projecting oxytocin neurons, different from those that project to the pituitary gland, or that are collaterals from them.[48] Oxytocin receptors are expressed by neurons in many parts of the brain and spinal cord, including the amygdala, ventromedial hypothalamus, septum, nucleus accumbens, and brainstem.

  • Sexual arousal. Oxytocin injected into the cerebrospinal fluid causes spontaneous erections in rats,[37] reflecting actions in the hypothalamus and spinal cord. Centrally administrated oxytocin receptor antagonists can prevent non-contact erections, which is a measure of sexual arousal. Studies using oxytocin antagonists in female rats provide data that oxytocin increases lordosis behavior, indicating an increase in sexual receptivity.[49]
  • Bonding. In the Prairie Vole, oxytocin released into the brain of the female during sexual activity is important for forming a monogamous pair bond with her sexual partner. Vasopressin appears to have a similar effect in males.[50] Oxytocin has a role in social behaviors in many species, and so it seems likely that it also does in humans. In 2003, a study showed that in both humans and dogs oxytocin levels in the blood rose after five to twenty-four minutes of a petting session. It is possible that this plays a role in the emotional bonding between humans and dogs.[51]
  • Maternal behavior. Female rats given oxytocin antagonists after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior.[52] By contrast, virgin female sheep show maternal behavior toward foreign lambs upon cerebrospinal fluid infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise.[53] Oxytocin is involved in the initiation of maternal behavior, not its maintenance; for example, it is higher in mothers after they interact with unfamiliar children rather than their own.[54]
  • According to some studies in animals, oxytocin inhibits the development of tolerance to various addictive drugs (opiates, cocaine, alcohol) and reduces withdrawal symptoms.[55]
  • Preparing fetal neurons for delivery. Crossing the placenta, maternal oxytocin reaches the fetal brain and induces a switch in the action of neurotransmitter GABA from excitatory to inhibitory on fetal cortical neurons. This silences the fetal brain for the period of delivery and reduces its vulnerability to hypoxic damage.[56]
  • MDMA (ecstasy) may increase feelings of love, empathy, and connection to others by stimulating oxytocin activity via activation of serotonin 5-HT1A receptors, if initial studies in animals apply to humans.[57] The anxiolytic Buspar (buspirone) also appears to produce some or all of its effect via 5-HT1A receptor-induced oxytocin stimulation.[58][59]
  • Romantic Attachment – In some studies, high levels of plasma oxytocin have been correlated with romantic attachment. For example, if a couple is separated for a long period of time anxiety can increase due to the lack of physical affection. The authors of a recent study suggest that oxytocin may aid romantically attached couples by decreasing their feelings of anxiety when they are separated.[60]

Drug forms

Synthetic oxytocin is sold as proprietary medication under the trade names Pitocin and Syntocinon and also as generic oxytocin. Oxytocin is destroyed in the gastrointestinal tract, and therefore must be administered by injection or as nasal spray. Oxytocin has a half-life of typically about three minutes in the blood. Oxytocin given intravenously does not enter the brain in significant quantities - it is excluded from the brain by the blood-brain barrier. There is no evidence for significant central nervous system entry of oxytocin by nasal spray. Oxytocin nasal sprays have been used to stimulate breastfeeding but the efficacy of this approach is doubtful.[61]

Injected oxytocin analogues are used for labor induction and to support labor in case of non-progression of parturition. It has largely replaced ergometrine as the principal agent to increase uterine tone in acute postpartum hemorrhage. Oxytocin is also used in veterinary medicine to facilitate birth and to stimulate milk release. The tocolytic agent atosiban (Tractocile) acts as an antagonist of oxytocin receptors; this drug is registered in many countries to suppress premature labor between 24 and 33 weeks of gestation. It has fewer side-effects than drugs previously used for this purpose (ritodrine, salbutamol, and terbutaline).

Some have suggested that the trust-inducing property of oxytocin might help those who suffer from social anxieties and mood disorders,[45] while others have noted the potential for abuse with confidence tricks[62][63] and military applications.[64]

Potential adverse reactions

Oxytocin is relatively safe when used at recommended doses, and side-effects are uncommon.[65] The following maternal events have been reported:[65]

Excessive dosage or long term administration (over a period of 24 hours or longer) have been known to result in tetanic uterine contractions, uterine rupture, postpartum hemorrhage, and water intoxication, sometimes fatal.

Increased uterine motility has led to the following complications in the fetus/neonate:[65]

In addition, use of pitocin in the mother has been associated with neonatal jaundice, retinal hemorrhage, and low five-minute Apgar score.

Industrial use

Oxytocin can be administered to bovine animals in order to increase the production of dairy milk.[citation needed]

Synthesis, storage, and release

Template:PBB

The oxytocin peptide is synthesized as an inactive precursor protein from the OXT gene.[66][67][68] This precursor protein also includes the oxytocin carrier protein neurophysin I.[69] The inactive precursor protein is progressively hydrolyzed into smaller fragments (one of which is neurophysin I) via a series of enzymes. The last hydrolysis that releases the active oxytocin nonapeptide is catalyzed by peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM).[70]

The activity of the PAM enzyme system is dependent upon ascorbate, which is a necessary vitamin cofactor. By chance, it was discovered that sodium ascorbate by itself stimulated the production of oxytocin from ovarian tissue over a range of concentrations in a dose-dependent manner.[71] Many of the same tissues (e.g. ovaries, testes, eyes, adrenals, placenta, thymus, pancreas) where PAM (and oxytocin by default) is found are also known to store higher concentrations of vitamin C.[72]

Neural sources

In the hypothalamus, oxytocin is made in magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei and is stored in Herring bodies at the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary. It is then released into the blood from the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) of the pituitary gland. These axons (likely, but dendrites have not been ruled out) have collaterals that innervate oxytocin receptors in the nucleus accumbens.[48] The peripheral hormonal and behavioral brain effects of oxytocin it has been suggested are coordinated through its common release through these collaterals.[48] Oxytocin is also made by some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord.[73] Depending on the species, oxytocin-receptor expressing cells are located in other areas, including the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.

In the pituitary gland, oxytocin is packaged in large, dense-core vesicles, where it is bound to neurophysin I as shown in the inset of the figure; neurophysin is a large peptide fragment of the larger precursor protein molecule from which oxytocin is derived by enzymatic cleavage.

Secretion of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve endings is regulated by the electrical activity of the oxytocin cells in the hypothalamus. These cells generate action potentials that propagate down axons to the nerve endings in the pituitary; the endings contain large numbers of oxytocin-containing vesicles, which are released by exocytosis when the nerve terminals are depolarised.

Non-neural sources

Outside the brain, oxytocin-containing cells have been identified in several diverse tissues including the corpus luteum,[74][75] the interstitial cells of Leydig,[76] the retina,[77] the adrenal medulla,[78] the placenta,[79] the thymus[80] and the pancreas.[81] The finding of significant amounts of this classically "neurohypophysial" hormone outside the central nervous system raises many questions regarding its possible importance in these different tissues.

Female

Oxytocin is synthesized by corpora lutea of several species, including ruminants and primates. Along with estrogen, it is involved in inducing the endometrial synthesis of prostaglandin F2α to cause regression of the corpus luteum.

Male

The Leydig cells in some species have also been shown to possess the biosynthetic machinery to manufacture testicular oxytocin de novo, to be specific, in rats (which can synthesize Vitamin C endogenously), and in guinea pigs, which, like humans, require an exogenous source of vitamin C (ascorbate) in their diets.[82]

Oxytocin receptor polymorphism

The oxytocin receptor in humans has several alleles, which differ in their effectiveness. Individuals homozygous for the "G" allele, when compared to carriers of the "A" allele, show higher empathy, lower stress response,[83] as well as lower prevalence of autism and of poor parenting skills.[84]

Evolution

Virtually all vertebrates have an oxytocin-like nonapeptide hormone that supports reproductive functions and a vasopressin-like nonapeptide hormone involved in water regulation. The two genes are usually located close to each other (less than 15,000 bases apart) on the same chromosome and are transcribed in opposite directions (however, in fugu,[85] the homologs are further apart and transcribed in the same directions).

It is thought that the two genes resulted from a gene duplication event; the ancestral gene is estimated to be about 500 million years old and is found in cyclostomata (modern members of the Agnatha).[37]

See also

References

  1. ^ "FDA-sourced list of all drugs with black box warnings (Use Download Full Results and View Query links.)". nctr-crs.fda.gov. FDA. Retrieved 22 Oct 2023.
  2. ^ Lee HJ, Macbeth AH, Pagani JH, Young WS (2009). "Oxytocin: the Great Facilitator of Life". Progress in Neurobiology. 88 (2): 127–51. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.04.001. PMC 2689929. PMID 19482229. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ O'Callaghan, Tiffany (7, June 2010). "Thanks, Mom!". Time Magazine. Time, Inc. Retrieved 2010-06-08. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ Dale HH (1906). "On some physiological actions of ergot". J. Physiol. (Lond.). 34 (3): 163–206. PMC 1465771. PMID 16992821. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ^ Ott I, Scott JC. The Action of Infundibulum upon Mammary Secretion. Proc Soc Exp Biol. (1910) p.8:48–49.
  6. ^ Schafer EA, Mackenzie K. The action of animal extracts on milk secretion. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Containing Papers of a Biological Character. (1911) p.84:16–22.
  7. ^ du Vigneaud V, Ressler C, Trippett S (1953). "The sequence of amino acids in oxytocin, with a proposal for the structure of oxytocin". J. Biol. Chem. 205 (2): 949–57. PMID 13129273. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ du Vigneaud V, Ressler C, Swan JM, Roberts CW, Katsoyannis PG, Gordon S (1953). "The synthesis of an octapeptide amide with the hormonal activity of oxytocin". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 75 (19): 4879–80. doi:10.1021/ja01115a553.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ du Vigneaud V, Ressler C, Swan JM, Roberts CW, Katsoyannis PG (1954). "The synthesis of oxytocin". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 76 (12): 3115–3121. doi:10.1021/ja01641a004. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ THE SYNTHESIS OF OXYTOCIN. Vincent du Vigneaud, Charlotte Ressler, John M. Swan, Carleton W. Roberts, Panayotis G. Katsoyannis 1954 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1954, 76 (12), pp 3115–3121
  11. ^ du Vigneaud V. (1960). "Experiences in the Polypeptide Field: Insulin to Oxytocin". Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 88 (3): 537–48. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1960.tb20052.x.
  12. ^ Kukucka, Mark A. (1993-04-18). "Mechanisms by which hypoxia augments Leydig cell viability and differentiated cell function in vitro". Digital Library and Archives. Retrieved 2010-02-21.
  13. ^ http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/976504-overview
  14. ^ a b Takayanagi Y; Yoshida M; Bielsky IF; et al. (2005). "Pervasive social deficits, but normal parturition, in oxytocin receptor-deficient mice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (44): 16096–101. doi:10.1073/pnas.0505312102. PMC 1276060. PMID 16249339. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ^ Gouin JP, Carter S, Pournajafi-Nazarloo H, Glaser R, Malarkey WB, Loving TJ, Stowell J, and Kiecolt-Glaser JK (2010). "Marital Behavior, Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and Wound Healing". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 35 (7): 1082–1090. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.01.009. PMID 20144509. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ a b c Carmichael MS, Humbert R, Dixen J, Palmisano G, Greenleaf W, Davidson JM (1987). "Plasma oxytocin increases in the human sexual response". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 64 (1): 27–31. doi:10.1210/jcem-64-1-27. PMID 3782434. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Carmichael MS, Warburton VL, Dixen J, Davidson JM (1994). "Relationships among cardiovascular, muscular, and oxytocin responses during human sexual activity". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 23 (1): 59–79. doi:10.1007/BF01541618. PMID 8135652. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Blaicher W, Gruber D, Bieglmayer C, Blaicher AM, Knogler W, Huber JC (1999). "The role of oxytocin in relation to female sexual arousal". Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation. 47 (2): 125–6. doi:10.1159/000010075. PMID 9949283.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Anderson-Hunt M, Dennerstein L (1995). "Oxytocin and female sexuality". Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation. 40 (4): 217–21. doi:10.1159/000292340. PMID 8586300.
  20. ^ Murphy MR, Seckl JR, Burton S, Checkley SA, Lightman SL (1987). "Changes in oxytocin and vasopressin secretion during sexual activity in men". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 65 (4): 738–41. doi:10.1210/jcem-65-4-738. PMID 3654918. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Krüger TH; Haake P; Chereath D; et al. (2003). "Specificity of the neuroendocrine response to orgasm during sexual arousal in men". The Journal of Endocrinology. 177 (1): 57–64. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1770057. PMID 12697037. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  22. ^ Meyer, Dixie (2007). "Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Their Effects on Relationship Satisfaction". The Family Journal. 15 (4): 392–397. doi:10.1177/1066480707305470.
  23. ^ Marazziti D; Dell'Osso B; Baroni S; et al. (2006). "A relationship between oxytocin and anxiety of romantic attachment". Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health. 2: 28. doi:10.1186/1745-0179-2-28. PMC 1621060. PMID 17034623. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  24. ^ Paquin J, Danalache BA, Jankowski M, McCann SM, Gutkowska J (2002). "Oxytocin induces differentiation of P19 embryonic stem cells to cardiomyocytes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (14): 9550–5. doi:10.1073/pnas.152302499. PMC 123178. PMID 12093924. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Jankowski M; Danalache B; Wang D; et al. (2004). "Oxytocin in cardiac ontogeny". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (35): 13074–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.0405324101. PMC 516519. PMID 15316117. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  26. ^ Hartwig, Walenty (1989). Endokrynologia praktyczna. Warsaw: Państwowy Zakład Wydawnictw Lekarskich. ISBN 83-200-1415-8.[page needed]
  27. ^ Bartz JA, Hollander E (2008). "Oxytocin and experimental therapeutics in autism spectrum disorders". Progress in Brain Research. Progress in Brain Research. 170: 451–62. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(08)00435-4. ISBN 978-0-444-53201-5. PMID 18655901.
  28. ^ a b c Jacob S, Brune CW, Carter CS, Leventhal BL, Lord C, Cook EH (2007). "Association of the Oxytocin Receptor Gene (OXTR) in Caucasian Children and Adolescents with Autism". Neuroscience Letters. 417 (1): 6–9. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2007.02.001. PMC 2705963. PMID 17383819. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Guastella AJ, Einfeld EL, Gray, K, Rinehart N, Tonge B, Lambert TJ, Hickie IB (2010). "Intranasal oxytocin improves emotion recognition for youth with autism spectrum disorders". Biological Psychiatry. 67 (7): 692–4. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.09.020. PMID 19897177. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Wermter AK, Kamp-Becker I, Hesse P, Schulte-Körne G, Strauch K, Remschmidt H (2009). "Evidence for the involvement of genetic variation in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) in the etiology of autistic disorders on high-functioning level". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics. 153B (2): 629–39. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.31032. PMID 19777562. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Andaria E, Duhamela J-R, Zallab T, Herbrechtb E, Leboyerb M, Sirigu A (2010). "Promoting social behavior with oxytocin in high-functioning autism spectrum disorders". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107 (9): 4389–94. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910249107. PMC 2840168. PMID 20160081. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ Kosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E (2005). "Oxytocin increases trust in humans". Nature. 435 (7042): 673–6. doi:10.1038/nature03701. PMID 15931222. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ Kirsch P; Esslinger C; Chen Q; et al. (2005). "Oxytocin modulates neural circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans". The Journal of Neuroscience. 25 (49): 11489–93. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3984-05.2005. PMID 16339042. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  34. ^ Shamay-Tsoory SG, Fischer M, Dvash J, Harari H, Perach-Bloom N, Levkovitz Y (2009). "Intranasal administration of oxytocin increases envy and schadenfreude (gloating)". Biological Psychiatry. 66 (9): 864–70. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.06.009. PMID 19640508. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ Zak PJ, Stanton AA, Ahmadi S (2007). Brosnan, Sarah (ed.). "Oxytocin Increases Generosity in Humans". PLoS ONE. 2 (11): e1128. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001128. PMC 2040517. PMID 17987115.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  36. ^ Conlisk J (2011). "Professor Zak's empirical studies on trust and oxytocin". J Econ Behav Organizat. 78 (1–2): 160–166. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2011.01.002.
  37. ^ a b c Gimpl G, Fahrenholz F (2001). "The oxytocin receptor system: structure, function, and regulation". Physiological Reviews. 81 (2): 629–83. PMID 11274341. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  38. ^ de Oliveira LF, Camboim C, Diehl F, Consiglio AR, Quillfeldt JA (2007). "Glucocorticoid-mediated effects of systemic oxytocin upon memory retrieval". Neurobiology of Learning and Memory. 87 (1): 67–71. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2006.05.006. PMID 16997585. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Guastella AJ, Mitchell PB, Matthews F (2008). "Oxytocin enhances the encoding of positive social memories in humans". Biological Psychiatry. 64 (3): 256–8. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.02.008. PMID 18343353. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ^ Rimmele U, Hediger K, Heinrichs M, Klaver P (2009). "Oxytocin makes a face in memory familiar". Journal of Neuroscience. 29 (1): 38–42. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4260-08.2009. PMID 19129382. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^ Unkelbach C, Guastella AJ, Forgas JP (2008). "Oxytocin selectively facilitates recognition of positive sex and relationship words". Pschological Science. 19 (11): 1092–4. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02206.x. PMID 19076479. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  42. ^ Marsh AA, Yu HH, Pine DS, Blair RJ (2010). "Oxytocin improves specific recognition of positive facial expressions". Psychopharmacology. 209 (3): 225–32. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1780-4. PMID 20186397. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. ^ Fischer-Shofty M, Shamay-Tsoory SG, Harari H, Levkovitz Y. (2010). "The effect of intranasal administration of oxytocin on fear recognition". Neuropsychologia. 48 (1): 179–84. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.09.003. PMID 19747930. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ Domes G, Heinrichs M, Michel A, Berger C, Herpertz SC (2010). "Oxytocin improves "mind-reading" in humans". Biological Psychiatry. 61 (6): 731–3. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.015. PMID 17137561. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ a b Hurlemann R, Patin A, Onur OA, Cohen MX, Baumgartner T, Metzler S, Dziobek I, Gallinat J, Wagner M, Maier W, Kendrick KM (2010). "Oxytocin enhances amygdala-dependent, socially reinforced learning and emotional empathy in humans". J. Neurosci. 30 (14): 4999–5007. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5538-09.2010. PMID 20371820. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ Guastella AJ, Mitchell PB, Dadds MR (2008). "Oxytocin increases gaze to the eye region of human faces". Biological Psychiatry. 63 (1): 3–5. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.06.026. PMID 17888410. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ Singer T, Snozzi R, Bird G, Petrovic P, Silani G, Heinrichs M, Dolan RJ (2008). "Effects of Oxytocin and Prosocial Behavior on Brain Responses to Direct and Vicariously Experienced Pain". Emotion. 8 (6): 781–91. doi:10.1037/a0014195. PMC 2672051. PMID 19102589. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ^ a b c Ross HE; Cole CD; Smith Y; et al. (2009). "Characterization of the Oxytocin System Regulating Affiliative Behavior in Female Prairie Voles". Neuroscience. 162 (4): 892–903. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.05.055. PMC 2744157. PMID 19482070. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  49. ^ Bancroft J (2005). "The endocrinology of sexual arousal". The Journal of Endocrinology. 186 (3): 411–27. doi:10.1677/joe.1.06233. PMID 16135662. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  50. ^ Vacek M, High on Fidelity. What can voles teach us about monogamy?
  51. ^ Kuchinskas Susan, The Chemistry of Connection: How the Oxytocin Response Can Help You Find Trust, Intimacy, and Love p65
  52. ^ van Leengoed E, Kerker E, Swanson HH (1987). "Inhibition of post-partum maternal behaviour in the rat by injecting an oxytocin antagonist into the cerebral ventricles". J. Endocrinol. 112 (2): 275–82. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1120275. PMID 3819639. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  53. ^ Kendrick KM (2004-01-01). "The Neurobiology of Social Bonds". British Society for Neuroendocrinology. Retrieved 2009-04-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  54. ^ Bick J, Dozier M (2010). "Mothers' and Children's Concentrations of Oxytocin Following Close, Physical Interactions with Biological and Non-biological Children". Dev Psychobiol. 52 (1): 100–107. doi:10.1002/dev.20411. PMC 2953948. PMID 20953313. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  55. ^ Kovács GL, Sarnyai Z, Szabó G (1998). "Oxytocin and addiction: a review". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 23 (8): 945–62. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(98)00064-X}. PMID 9924746. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ^ Tyzio R, Cossart R, Khalilov I, Minlebaev M, Hübner CA, Represa A, Ben-Ari Y, Khazipov R (2006). "Maternal oxytocin triggers a transient inhibitory switch in GABA signaling in the fetal brain during delivery". Science. 314 (5806): 1788–92. doi:10.1126/science.1133212. PMID 17170309. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  57. ^ Thompson MR, Callaghan PD, Hunt GE, Cornish JL, McGregor IS (2007). "A role for oxytocin and 5-HT(1A) receptors in the prosocial effects of 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("ecstasy")". Neuroscience. 146 (2): 509–14. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.02.032. PMID 17383105. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. ^ Uvnäs-Moberg K, Hillegaart V, Alster P, Ahlenius S (1996). "Effects of 5-HT agonists, selective for different receptor subtypes, on oxytocin, CCK, gastrin and somatostatin plasma levels in the rat". Neuropharmacology. 35 (11): 1635–40. doi:10.1016/S0028-3908(96)00078-0. PMID 9025112.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  59. ^ Chiodera P, Volpi R, Capretti L, Caffarri G, Magotti MG, Coiro V (1996). "Different effects of the serotonergic agonists buspirone and sumatriptan on the posterior pituitary hormonal responses to hypoglycemia in humans". Neuropeptides. 30 (2): 187–92. doi:10.1016/S0143-4179(96)90086-4. PMID 8771561. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  60. ^ Marazziti D, Dell'Osso B, Baroni S, Mungai F, Catena M, Rucci P, Albanese F, Giannaccini G, Betti L, Fabbrini L, Italiani P, Del Debbio A, Lucacchini A, Dell'Osso L (2006). "A relationship between oxytocin and anxiety of romantic attachment". Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health. 2: 28. doi:10.1186/1745-0179-2-28. PMC 1621060. PMID 17034623.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  61. ^ Fewtrell MS, Loh KL, Blake A, Ridout DA, Hawdon J (2006). "Randomised, double blind trial of oxytocin nasal spray in mothers expressing breast milk for preterm infants". Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 91 (3): F169–74. doi:10.1136/adc.2005.081265. PMC 2672698. PMID 16223754. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  62. ^ Petrovic P, Kalisch R, Singer T, Dolan RJ (2008). "Oxytocin Attenuates Affective Evaluations of Conditioned Faces and Amygdala Activity". The Journal of Neuroscience. 28 (26): 6607–15. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4572-07.2008. PMC 2647078. PMID 18579733. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  63. ^ "To sniff at danger - Mind Matters". Health And Fitness. Boston Globe. 2006-01-12. Retrieved 2009-04-13. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  64. ^ Dando M (2009). "Biologists napping while work militarized". Nature. 460 (7258): 950–1. doi:10.1038/460950a. PMID 19693065. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  65. ^ a b c "Pitocin (drug label for professionals)". Rx List. WebMD. Retrieved 2010-09-09.
  66. ^ Sausville E, Carney D, Battey J (1985). "The human vasopressin gene is linked to the oxytocin gene and is selectively expressed in a cultured lung cancer cell line". J. Biol. Chem. 260 (18): 10236–41. PMID 2991279. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  67. ^ Repaske DR, Phillips JA, Kirby LT, Tze WJ, D'Ercole AJ, Battey J (1990). "Molecular analysis of autosomal dominant neurohypophyseal diabetes insipidus". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 70 (3): 752–7. doi:10.1210/jcem-70-3-752. PMID 1968469. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  68. ^ Summar ML, Phillips JA, Battey J, Castiglione CM, Kidd KK, Maness KJ, Weiffenbach B, Gravius TC (1990). "Linkage relationships of human arginine vasopressin-neurophysin-II and oxytocin-neurophysin-I to prodynorphin and other loci on chromosome 20". Mol. Endocrinol. 4 (6): 947–50. doi:10.1210/mend-4-6-947. PMID 1978246. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  69. ^ Brownstein MJ, Russell JT, Gainer H (1980). "Synthesis, transport, and release of posterior pituitary hormones". Science. 207 (4429): 373–8. doi:10.1126/science.6153132. PMID 6153132. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  70. ^ Sheldrick EL, Flint AP (1989). "Post-translational processing of oxytocin-neurophysin prohormone in the ovine corpus luteum: activity of peptidyl glycine alpha-amidating mono-oxygenase and concentrations of its cofactor, ascorbic acid". J. Endocrinol. 122 (1): 313–22. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1220313. PMID 2769155. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  71. ^ Luck MR, Jungclas B (1987). "Catecholamines and ascorbic acid as stimulators of bovine ovarian oxytocin secretion". J. Endocrinol. 114 (3): 423–30. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1140423. PMID 3668432. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  72. ^ Hornig D (1975). "Distribution of ascorbic acid, metabolites and analogues in man and animals". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 258: 103–18. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb29271.x. PMID 1106295. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  73. ^ Landgraf R, Neumann ID (2004). "Vasopressin and oxytocin release within the brain: a dynamic concept of multiple and variable modes of neuropeptide communication". Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 25 (3–4): 150–76. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2004.05.001. PMID 15589267.
  74. ^ Wathes DC, Swann RW (1982). "Is oxytocin an ovarian hormone?". Nature. 297 (5863): 225–7. doi:10.1038/297225a0. PMID 7078636. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  75. ^ Wathes DC, Swann RW, Pickering BT, Porter DG, Hull MG, Drife JO (1982). "Neurohypophysial hormones in the human ovary". Lancet. 2 (8295): 410–2. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(82)90441-X. PMID 6124806. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  76. ^ Guldenaar SE, Pickering BT (1985). "Immunocytochemical evidence for the presence of oxytocin in rat testis". Cell Tissue Res. 240 (2): 485–7. doi:10.1007/BF00222364. PMID 3995564.
  77. ^ Gauquelin G, Geelen G, Louis F, Allevard AM, Meunier C, Cuisinaud G, Benjanet S, Seidah NG, Chretien M, Legros JJ (1983). "Presence of vasopressin, oxytocin and neurophysin in the retina of mammals, effect of light and darkness, comparison with the neuropeptide content of the neurohypophysis and the pineal gland". Peptides. 4 (4): 509–15. doi:10.1016/0196-9781(83)90056-6. PMID 6647119.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  78. ^ Ang VT, Jenkins JS (1984). "Neurohypophysial hormones in the adrenal medulla". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 58 (4): 688–91. doi:10.1210/jcem-58-4-688. PMID 6699132. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  79. ^ Fields PA, Eldridge RK, Fuchs AR, Roberts RF, Fields MJ (1983). "Human placental and bovine corpora luteal oxytocin". Endocrinology. 112 (4): 1544–6. doi:10.1210/endo-112-4-1544. PMID 6832059. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  80. ^ Geenen V, Legros JJ, Franchimont P, Baudrihaye M, Defresne MP, Boniver J (1986). "The neuroendocrine thymus: coexistence of oxytocin and neurophysin in the human thymus". Science. 232 (4749): 508–11. doi:10.1126/science.3961493. PMID 3961493. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  81. ^ Amico JA, Finn FM, Haldar J (1988). "Oxytocin and vasopressin are present in human and rat pancreas". Am. J. Med. Sci. 296 (5): 303–7. doi:10.1097/00000441-198811000-00003. PMID 3195625. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  82. ^ Kukucka Mark A, Misra Hara P (1992). "HPLC determination of an oxytocin-like peptide produced by isolated guinea pig Leydig cells: stimulation by ascorbate". Arch. Androl. 29 (2): 185–90. doi:10.3109/01485019208987723. PMID 1456839.
  83. ^ Rodrigues SM, Saslow LR, Garcia N, John OP, Keltner D (2009). "Oxytocin receptor genetic variation relates to empathy and stress reactivity in humans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (50): 21437–41. doi:10.1073/pnas.0909579106. PMC 2795557. PMID 19934046. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  84. ^ Angier, Natalie (2009-11-24). "The Biology Behind the Milk of Human Kindness". The New York Times.
  85. ^ Venkatesh B, Si-Hoe SL, Murphy D, Brenner S (1997). "Transgenic rats reveal functional conservation of regulatory controls between the Fugu isotocin and rat oxytocin genes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 94 (23): 12462–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.23.12462. PMC 25001. PMID 9356472. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Further reading

External links

Template:Neuropeptide agonists and antagonists

source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&diff=prev&oldid=492810265