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This article is about the political philosophy. For Libertarian political parties, see Libertarian Party. For other uses, see Libertarianism (disambiguation).
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Libertarianism is a political philosophy which upholds individual liberty, especially freedom of expression and action.[1] Libertarianism includes diverse beliefs and organizations–all advocate either the minimization or the elimination of the state, and the goal of maximizing individual liberty and freedom.

Libertarian schools of thought differ over the degree to which the state should be reduced, with minarchists advocating reduction to only state protection from aggression, theft, breach of contract, and fraud, and anarchists advocating complete elimination of the state. Additionally, some schools are supportive of private property rights in the ownership of unappropriated land and natural resources while others reject such private individual ownership and often support communal ownership instead.[2][3][4] These are often grouped as right-libertarians and left-libertarians respectively.[5] "Right libertarianism" has been described as the better known form of libertarianism.[6] Despite these categorizations, libertarians typically reject being described as either "left" or "right."[7]

Overview

Libertarians exhibit differing approaches in areas such as the treatment of property rights, especially with respect to natural resources, with some libertarians advocating private ownership rights, while others hold that private ownership should be avoided as being inconsistent with the basic principles of libertarianism.[8][9][10] Respectively, these groups are broadly distinguished as the right-libertarian and left-libertarian variants of libertarianism;[5] these are different[vague] than the common meanings of "left" and "right". Minarchists advocate a minimal state, while anarcho-capitalists believe aggression should be countered without the state. Libertarian socialists believe that liberty is best achieved through large-scale decentralization to empower workers, with the result of eliminating both the state and private capitalist organizations, which they view as coercive.[8] Organizations of libertarians may include members with disparate libertarian philosophies held together by common purposes or tenets.

Economist Karl Widerquist writes of left-libertarianism and libertarian socialism as being distinct ideologies, each describing itself as "libertarianism".[citation needed] However, many works broadly distinguish right-libertarianism and left-libertarianism as related forms of libertarian philosophy.[5] Also identified is a large faction advocating minarchism, though libertarianism has also long been associated with anarchism (and sometimes is used as a synonym for such), especially outside of the United States. [11] Among libertarians, anarchism remains one of the significant branches of thought.[12]

Descriptions by prominent libertarians

Philosopher Roderick T. Long defines libertarianism as "any political position that advocates a radical redistribution of power [either "total or merely substantial"] from the coercive state to voluntary associations of free individuals", whether "voluntary association" takes the form of the free market or of communal co-operatives.[13] David Boaz, libertarian writer and vice president of the Cato Institute, writes that, "Libertarianism is the view that each person has the right to live his life in any way he chooses so long as he respects the equal rights of others" and that, "Libertarians defend each person's right to life, liberty, and property—rights that people have naturally, before governments are created."[14]

The US Libertarian Party is the third largest political party in the United States (with 235,500 registered voters, as of 2008)[citation needed]. According to the party, libertarians support maximum liberty in both personal and economic matters. They advocate a much smaller government; one that is limited to protecting individuals from coercion and violence. Libertarians embrace individual responsibility, oppose government bureaucracy and taxes, promote private charity, tolerate diverse lifestyles, support the free market, and defend civil liberties.[15]

History

During the 18th century Age of Enlightenment, "liberal" ideas flourished in Europe and North America; they challenged the rule of monarchs and the church and emphasizing reason, science, individual liberty, free markets, consent of the governed and limited government [16][17] Libertarians of various schools were influenced by libertarian ideas.[16][18]

Words such as liberal and liberty come from the Latin root liber, which means "free."[19] The term libertarian in a metaphysical or philosophical sense was first used by late-Enlightenment free-thinkers to refer to those who believed in free will, as opposed to determinism.[20] The first recorded use was in 1789 by William Belsham in a discussion of free will and in opposition to "necessitarian" (or determinist) views.[21][22]

The use of the word "libertarian" to describe a set of political positions can be tracked to the French cognate, libertaire, which was coined in 1857 by French anarchist communist Joseph Déjacque who used the term to distinguish his libertarian communist approach from the mutualism advocated by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.[23][24][25] Hence libertarian has been used as a synonym for left-wing anarchism or libertarian socialism since the 1890s.[26]

Peter Kropotkin's The Great French Revolution (1909) asserts that the principles of anarchism had their origin in the directly democratic sections of Paris.[27] According to the same author's 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article on anarchism, the economic and, in particular, the mutual banking ideas of Proudhon were applied by supporters in the United States.[28] The article states that, "It would be impossible to represent here, in a short sketch, the penetration, on the one hand, of anarchist ideas into modern literature, and the influence, on the other hand, which the libertarian ideas of the best contemporary writers have exercised upon the development of anarchism." Writers he names include John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Jean-Marie Guyau, Alfred Jules Émile Fouillée, Multatuli, Richard Wagner, Friedrich Nietzsche, Ralph Waldo Emerson, William Lloyd Garrison and Henry David Thoreau.[29] Numerous left libertarians or libertarian socialists around the world have continued to label themselves as libertarian.[30][31][32]

During the early 20th century modern liberalism in the United States began to take a more statist approach to economic regulation.[33] While conservatism in Europe continued to mean conserving hierarchical class structures through state control of society and the economy, some conservatives in the United States began to refer to conserving traditions of liberty. This was especially true of the Old Right, who opposed the New Deal and U.S. military interventions in World War I and World War II.[34][35] Those who held to the earlier liberal views began to call themselves market liberals, classic liberals or libertarians to distinguish themselves.[36][37] The Austrian School of economics, influenced by Frédéric Bastiat and later by Ludwig von Mises,[38] also had an impact on such libertarians.[39][40]

In the 1940s libertarianism in the United States was influenced by Ayn Rand's international bestsellers The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957), and later her books about her philosophy of Objectivism.[41] In 1943 two other women also published influential pro-freedom books: Rose Wilder Lane's The Discovery of Freedom and Isabel Paterson's The God of the Machine.[42]

In the 1950s many with "Old Right" or classical liberal beliefs in the United States began to describe themselves as "libertarian."[43] Arizona United States Senator Barry Goldwater's libertarian-oriented challenge to authority also influenced the libertarian movement,[44] through his book The Conscience of a Conservative and his run for president in 1964.[45] Goldwater's speech writer, Karl Hess, became a leading libertarian writer and activist.[46]

During the 1960s the Vietnam War split the uneasy alliance between growing numbers of self-identified libertarians, anarchist libertarians, and more traditional conservatives who believed in limiting liberty to uphold moral virtues. Libertarians opposed to the war joined the draft resistance and peace movements and began founding their own publications, like Murray Rothbard's The Libertarian Forum[47][48] and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance[49] and the Society for Individual Liberty.[50] The split was finalized in 1971 when conservative leader William F. Buckley, Jr., in a 1971 New York Times article, attempted to divorce libertarianism from the freedom movement. He wrote: "The ideological licentiousness that rages through America today makes anarchy attractive to the simple-minded. Even to the ingeniously simple-minded."[42]

In 1971, David Nolan and a few friends formed the Libertarian Party.[51] Attracting former Democrats, Republicans and independents, the party has run a presidential candidate every election year since 1972. By 2006, polls showed that 15 percent of American voters identified themselves as libertarian.[52] Over the years, dozens of libertarian political parties have been formed worldwide. Educational organizations like the Center for Libertarian Studies and the Cato Institute were formed in the 1970s, and others have been created since then.[53]

Philosophical libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in academia with the publication of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia in 1974. The book won a National Book Award in 1975.[54] According to libertarian essayist Roy Childs, "Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia single-handedly established the legitimacy of libertarianism as a political theory in the world of academia."[55]

Academics as well as proponents of the free market perspectives note that free-market libertarianism has been successfully propagated beyond the United States since the 1970s via think tanks and political parties[56][57] and that libertarianism is increasingly viewed worldwide as a free market position.[58][59] However, Libertarian socialists Noam Chomsky, Colin Ward and others say the term is still considered a synonym of anarchism in countries other than the US.[60][61][62]

Principles

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states a strict view of libertarianism "holds that agents initially fully own themselves and have moral powers to acquire property rights in external things under certain conditions," and that "in a looser sense, libertarianism is any view that approximates the strict view."[63] Also noted is that libertarianism is not a "right-wing" doctrine because of its opposition to laws restricting adult consensual sexual relationships and drug use, and its opposition to imposing religious views or practices and compulsory military service. The Stanford Encyclopedia further describes versions of libertarianism, such as "left-libertarianism" stating that this philosophy also endorses full self-ownership, but "differs on unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.)." "Right-libertarianism" holds that such resources may be appropriated by individuals while "left-libertarianism" holds that they belong to everyone and must be distributed in some egalitarian manner.[63] According to Sheldon Richman, "libertarianism is premised on the dignity and self-ownership of the individual, which sexism and racism deny. Thus all forms of collectivist hierarchy undermine the libertarian attitude and hence the prospects for a free society."[64]

As promoted by the United States Libertarian Party, libertarianism is the belief that individuals should be free to make choices for themselves and to accept responsibility for the consequences of the choices they make. The typical description given is that no individual, group, or government may initiate force against any other individual, group, or government. In this description, libertarian support of an individual's right to make choices in life does not necessarily translate into approval or disapproval of those choices.[65][better source needed]

Libertarianism is attractive because "(1) it provides significant moral liberty of action, (2) it provides significant moral protection against interference from others, and (3) it is sensitive to what the past was like (e.g., what agreements were made and what rights violations took place)."[63] Libertarians generally advocate the maximization of freedom of thought and action with few exceptions. One exception shared by libertarians is that the actions of an individual should not infringe upon the freedom of any other person, a premise believed by many libertarians to be expressed best through the non-aggression principle.

State and economy

Some minarchists believe a minimal state would be preferable, while more anarchist libertarians hold the belief that society functioning without any recognized government is preferable.[66] Matt Zwolinsky, writing for the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, describes the minimal state as providing only law enforcement, a judicial assembly, and armed forces; also described is the right-libertarian view called anarcho-capitalism which holds that government can be completely abolished because private companies working for profit should provide the court systems, military, and police forces.[66] Alternatively, some of the more anarchist libertarians subscribe to libertarian socialism, which seeks the elimination of government with a view on property rights that differs from anarcho-capitalism.[8] Some ideals of libertarians exhibit a sharp contrast in the treatment of property rights, especially with respect to natural resources, with some libertarians advocating the grant of strong private ownership rights,[63] and others holding that private ownership of certain resources allows people to take what is others have ownership of and, thus, should be avoided as being inconsistent with the basic principles of libertarianism.[8] Broadly, the view of ownership is one key distinction between left-libertarianism and right-libertarianism.

According to Matt Zwolinski:

Libertarians are committed to the belief that individuals, and not states or groups of any other kind, are both ontologically and normatively primary; that individuals have rights against certain kinds of forcible interference on the part of others; that liberty, understood as non-interference, is the only thing that can be legitimately demanded of others as a matter of legal or political right; that robust property rights and the economic liberty that follows from their consistent recognition are of central importance in respecting individual liberty; that social order is not at odds with but develops out of individual liberty; that the only proper use of coercion is defensive or to rectify an error; that governments are bound by essentially the same moral principles as individuals; and that most existing and historical governments have acted improperly insofar as they have utilized coercion for plunder, aggression, redistribution, and other purposes beyond the protection of individual liberty.[66]

Ethical foundations

Friedman and others differentiate between two main kinds of libertarianism on the basis of the grounds used to justify individual liberty.[67] They argue that deontological libertarians are focused on moral rules, and believe that the test of the morality of an act is whether it constitutes an "initiation of force," regarding force as permissible only in defense of people or property. On the other hand, consequentialist libertarians are solely concerned with whether an act has favourable consequences. These latter libertarians focus on the benefits of introducing more "liberty" into society.[68][69][70] Some libertarianism may be a hybrid of consequentialism and deontology.[70]

The Nolan chart, referenced by many libertarians, expands upon the traditional "right-left" spectrum.

All schools of libertarianism support strong personal rights to life and liberty, though there is disagreement on the subject of private property. "Right libertarianism" advocates a right to private property, including property in the means of production,[71] minimal government regulation of that property, minimal taxation, and rejection of the welfare state, all within the context of the rule of law.[72][73][74] Some pro-property libertarians are anarchists who call for the elimination of the state.[75]

Isaiah Berlin's 1958 essay "Two Concepts of Liberty" describes a difference between negative liberty, which limits the power of the state to interfere, and positive liberty, in which a paternalistic state helps individuals achieve self-realization and self-determination.[citation needed] He believed these were rival and incompatible interpretations of liberty, and held that demands for positive liberty lead to authoritarianism.[76]

Libertarians can broadly be characterized as holding four ethical views. The main divide is between consequentialist libertarianism—which is support for a large degree of "liberty" because it leads to favorable consequences, such as prosperity or efficiency—and deontological libertarianism (also known as "rights-theorist libertarianism," "natural rights libertarianism," or "libertarian moralism"), which is a philosophy based on belief in moral self-ownership and opposition to "initiation of force" and fraud.[citation needed] Others combine a hybrid of consequentialist and deontologist thinking.[77] Another view, contractarian libertarianism, holds that any legitimate authority of government derives not from the consent of the governed, but from contract or mutual agreement,[78][79][80] though this can be seen as reductible to consequentialism or deontologism depending on what grounds contracts are justified. Some Libertarian Socialists with backgrounds influenced by Marxism reject deontological and consequential approaches and use normative class-struggle methodologies rooted in Hegelian thought to justify direct action in pursuit of liberty.[81]

Libertarians maintain that what is immoral for the individual must necessarily be immoral for all state agents and that the state should not be above the law.[82]

Libertarianism is not a complete moral or aesthetic theory; it is only a political theory, that is, the subset of moral theory that deals with the proper role of violence in social life.[82] Thus, while libertarianism holds that the state should not, for instance, forcibly prohibit prostitution, it makes no judgments on whether prostitution is an ethical activity; indeed, some libertarians condemn prostitution as immoral. Walter Block writes[unreliable source?], "How, then, can we defend the immoral activities of some market actors? This stems from the philosophy of libertarianism, which is limited to analyzing one single problem. It asks, under what conditions is violence justified? And it answers, violence is justified only for purposes of defense, or in response to prior aggression, or in retaliation against it. This means, among other things, that government is not justified in fining, punishing, incarcerating, imposing death penalties on people who act in an immoral manner—as long as they refrain from threatening or initiating physical violence on the persons or property of others."[83]

Political tactics

Libertarian socialism has historically tended to avoid normative declarations of eternal values, and to focus on emancipatory political tactics. This chiefly relates to the concept of direct action, as producing immediate real change, and as producing liberated individual and collective subjects.[84] While disputes occur regarding correct tactics (such as the dispute over "party" between platformists and syndicalists), these tend to be subsumed beneath a general preference for social action over idealistic declaration or political analysis.

Libertarian philosophies

See also Category:Libertarianism by form.

Libertarian philosophies express a view on one or more libertarian issues such as how much state would survive in a libertarian society and how much property should be held privately by individuals and groups.[85] The following are some of the philosophies that are included under a broad concept of "libertarianism".

Individualism

Main article: Individualism

Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that stresses "the moral worth of the individual".[86] Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so independence and self-reliance while opposing most external interference upon one's own interests, whether by society, family or any other group or institution.

Individualism makes the individual its focus[86] and so it starts "with the fundamental premise that the human individual is of primary importance in the struggle for liberation." Classical liberalism (including libertarianism), existentialism and anarchism (especially individualist anarchism) are examples of movements that take the human individual as a central unit of analysis.[87]

Individualism is thus also associated with artistic and bohemian interests and lifestyles where there is a tendency towards self creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors[88] as so also with humanist philosophical positions and ethics.

Libertarian conservatism

Main article: Libertarian conservatism

Libertarian conservatism (also known as "conservative libertarianism" or "right-libertarianism") describes certain political ideologies that attempt to meld libertarian and conservative ideas, often called "fusionism."[89] Anthony Gregory writes that right, or conservative, "libertarianism can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations" such as being "interested mainly in 'economic freedoms'"; following the "conservative lifestyle of right-libertarians"; seeking "others to embrace their own conservative lifestyle"; considering big business "as a great victim of the state"; favoring a "strong national defense"; and having "an Old Right opposition to empire."

Conservatives hold that shared values, morals, standards, and traditions are necessary for social order while libertarians consider individual liberty as the highest value.[90]

Some "libertarian constitutionalists" like U.S. Representative Ron Paul believe liberty can be obtained through proper interpretation of the United States Constitution, something that would not allow federal incursions on the economy and civil liberties.[91]

Left-libertarianism

Main article: Left-libertarianism

Left-libertarianism is usually regarded as a doctrine that has an egalitarian view concerning natural resources, holding that it is not legitimate for someone to claim private ownership of such resources to the detriment of others.[63][92][93][94] Most left libertarians support some form of income redistribution on the grounds of a claim by each individual to be entitled to an equal share of natural resources, including Georgist supporters of a single tax.[94][95] Some claim it is standard for left-libertarians to support substantial redistributive welfare programs.[96] Left libertarianism is defended by contemporary theorists such as Peter Vallentyne, Hillel Steiner and Michael Otsuka.[93] The term is also sometimes used as a synonym for libertarian socialism.[97]

The Encyclopedia of Political Theory describes Noam Chomsky as an anti-statist left-libertarian.[98] Chomsky shares an egalitarian view of resources such as natural capital. Left-libertarians like Chomsky[99] promote free association in place of governments and institutions of capitalism (if defined as private ownership and control over means of production).[8] Chomsky has described this libertarian socialism as an anarchist philosophy.[8]

Some members of the U.S. libertarian movement, including the late Samuel Edward Konkin[100] and members of the Alliance of the Libertarian Left as Roderick Long, and Gary Chartier support property rights and identify themselves with the political left for a variety of reasons. They tend to oppose intellectual property,war, and state policies they believe cause poverty.[101]

Anarchism

Main article: Anarchism

Anarchism is a political philosophy which considers the state undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful, and instead promotes a stateless society, or anarchy.[102][103] It seeks to diminish or even abolish authority in the conduct of human relations.[104]

The central tendency of anarchism as a mass social movement has been represented by anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism, with individualist anarchism being primarily a philosophical or literary phenomenon.[105] Some anarchists fundamentally oppose all forms of aggression, supporting self-defense or non-violence (anarcho-pacifism),[106] while others have supported the use of some coercive measures, including violent revolution and propaganda of the deed, on the path to an anarchist society.[107]

Libertarian socialism

Main article: Libertarian socialism

Libertarian socialism promotes a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic, stateless society without private property in the means of production. Libertarian socialism promotes free association in place of government. Its adherents oppose what they view as the coercive social relations of capitalism, such as wage labor. The term "libertarian socialism" is used by adherents to differentiate their politics from state socialism,[108][109] or as a synonym for socialist anarchism.[110][111]

Libertarian socialists assert that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian control of the means of production.[112] Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in decentralized means of direct democracy such as municipalities, citizens' assemblies, trade unions and workers' councils.[113]

Libertarian socialism includes most varieties of anarchism (especially anarchist communism, anarchist collectivism, anarcho-syndicalism, mutualism and social ecology[114]) as well as some varieties of Marxism (such as autonomism and council communism), and some versions of individualist anarchism.[115] Some varieties of Fabianism and socialist social-democracy, which do not immediately or absolutely seek stateless societies or the abolition of capitalism, are libertarian socialist.[116]

Anarcho-capitalism

Main article: Anarcho-capitalism

Anarcho-capitalism (also known as "libertarian anarchy"[117] or "market anarchism"[118] or "free market anarchism") is a libertarian[119][120] and an individualist anarchist[121] political philosophy that advocates the elimination of the state and the provision of its services through the free market. In an anarcho-capitalist society, law enforcement, courts, and all other security services are provided by voluntarily funded competitors such as private defense agencies rather than through compulsory taxation.[122] Anarcho-capitalism has been described as a radical form of libertarianism.[123]

Minarchism

Main article: Minarchism

Minarchism refers to the belief in a state limited to police forces, courts, and a military. In minarchism, the state neither regulates nor intervenes in personal choices and business practices, except to protect against aggression, breach of contract, and fraud.[124] Both market anarchists and minarchists oppose victimless crimes, the War on Drugs, compulsory education, and conscription at all levels of government.[124]

Geolibertarianism

Main article: Geolibertarianism

Geolibertarianism is a political movement that strives to reconcile libertarianism and Georgism (or "geoism").[125][126] The term was coined by Fred Foldvary. Geolibertarians are advocates of geoism, which is the position that all land is a common asset to which all individuals have an equal right to access, and therefore if individuals claim the land as their property they must pay rent to the community for doing so. Rent need not be paid for the mere use of land, but only for the right to exclude others from that land, and for the protection of one's title by government. They simultaneously agree with the libertarian position that each individual has an exclusive right to the fruits of his or her labor as their private property, as opposed to this product being owned collectively by society or the community, and that "one's labor, wages, and the products of labor" should not be taxed. In agreement with traditional libertarians they advocate "full civil liberties, with no crimes unless there are victims who have been invaded." In the voluntary geolibertarianism described by Foldvary, rent would be collected by private associations with the opportunity to secede from a geocommunity if desired.[127]

Influential libertarian philosophers

See also Category:Libertarian theorists

Libertarian political parties

See: Category:Libertarian parties

Historically libertarians have typically eschewed electoral politics and so formed activist organisations rather than political parties. However, since the 1970s, a number of pro-free market libertarian parties have been established.

In the United States, the Libertarian Party of the United States was formed in 1972. The Libertarian Party is the third largest[132][133][134] American political party, with over 225,000 registered voters in the 35 states that allow registration as a libertarian[135] and has hundreds of party candidates elected or appointed to public office, and has run thousands for office.[136] The party believes the answer to America's political problems is freedom, specifically "a free-market economy," "a dedication to civil liberties and personal freedom," and "a foreign policy of non-intervention, peace, and free trade."[137] Its platform contains twenty eight planks.[65][138][failed verification]

In Europe, scholars have studied "the 'family' of left-libertarian movements in...France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland";[139] the Danish Socialist People's Party is one of the political parties considered to be left-libertarian.[140]

Australia has a small Libertarian Party, but it is not registered with the Australian Electoral Commission.[141]

A number of countries have libertarian parties that run candidates for political office. In the Netherlands the Libertarische Partij. Brazil's Partido Libertários is a nascent libertarian party.[142]

Libertarian-leaning groups and movements

See also the categories Libertarian think tanks and Libertarian publications

Numerous socialist groups around the world have labeled themselves as libertarian throughout the twentieth century.[30][31][32] These include revolutionary workers' movements such as the Libertarian Youth (FIJL).[citation needed] In Latin America, the Argentine Libertarian Federation was founded in 1935. Mexico's Zapatista Army (EZLN) is a social movement of indigenous peoples that takes its ideology to some extent from libertarian influences.[citation needed] It struggles for communal control of land seized in opposition to large-scale ranching oligarchies.[citation needed]

Scholars have typified the European "new social movements" as that "'family' of left-libertarian movements in...France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland";[143]

In the United States libertarian organizations have included left-libertarian groups such as the Libertarian League and the Libertarian Book Club.[citation needed] However, since the 1950s, many American libertarian organizations have adopted a free market, capitalist stance; these include the Center for Libertarian Studies, the Cato Institute, the Foundation for Economic Education (FEE), the International Society for Individual Liberty (ISIL) and the Ludwig von Mises Institute. The activist Free State Project, formed in 2001, works to bring 20,000 libertarians to the state of New Hampshire to influence state policy.[144] Less successful similar projects include the Free West Alliance and Free State Wyoming. Both libertarians and conservatives are prominent in the Tea Party movement.

See also

References

  1. ^ "libertarian". Merriam-Webster.com. Accessed 2011-03-03.
  2. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010. Both endorse full self-ownership, but they differ with respect to the powers agents have to appropriate unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.). Right-libertarianism holds that typically such resources may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them, mixes her labor with them, or merely claims them—without the consent of others, and with little or no payment to them. Left-libertarianism, by contrast, holds that unappropriated natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner. It can, for example, require those who claim rights over natural resources to make a payment to others for the value of those rights. This can provide the basis for a kind of egalitarian redistribution {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ^ Carlos Peregrín Otero (2003). "Introduction to Chomsky's Social Theory". In Noam Chomsky (ed.). Radical Priorities. Carlos Peregrín Otero (ed.) (Expanded 3rd ed.). Oakland, California: AK Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-1902593692.
  4. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010. Libertarianism is committed to full self-ownership. A distinction can be made, however, between right-libertarianism and left-libertarianism, depending on the stance taken on how natural resources can be owned {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ^ a b c For examples of philosophical literature describing the left/right variations of libertarianism, see:
  6. ^
    • Johnathan Wolff (1998). "Libertarianism". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 4. Taylor & Francis. p. 617. More typically it is associated with a view which champions particularly pure forms of capitalism.
    • Stanford Encyclopedia. the better-known version of libertarianism—right-libertarianism.
    • Peter Vallentyne (2007). "Liberalism and the State". In Jeffrey Paul and Fred D. Miller (ed.). Liberalism: Old and New. Cambridge University Press. p. 187. The best known form of libertarianism - right-libertarianism...
  7. ^
  8. ^ a b c d e f Carlos Peregrín Otero (2003). "Introduction to Chomsky's Social Theory". In Noam Chomsky (ed.). Radical Priorities. Carlos Peregrín Otero (ed.) (Expanded 3rd ed.). Oakland, California: AK Press. pp. 15–37. ISBN 978-1902593692.
  9. ^ Carlos Peregrín Otero (2003). "Introduction to Chomsky's Social Theory". In Noam Chomsky (ed.). Radical Priorities. Carlos Peregrín Otero (ed.) (Expanded 3rd ed.). Oakland, California, USA: AK Press. pp. 9–48. ISBN 978-1902593692.
  10. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Retrieved March 5, 2010. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  11. ^
    • Colin Ward (2004). Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 62. For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective
    • David Goodway (2006). Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. p. 4.
    • Paul Kurtz (2003). "Conservative Anarchism: An Interview with Dwight Macdonald". In Michael Wreszin (ed.). Interviews with [[Dwight Macdonald]]. Conversations with Public Intellectuals [Series]. University Press of Mississippi. p. 82. Well, anarchism (or libertarianism) does not mean "chaos" as the New York Times and most American editorialists, think. {{cite book}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
    • Charles Bufe (1992). The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. ??!See Sharp Press. p. iv.
    • Kathyln Gay, ed. (2006). Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan. p. 126.
    • George Woodcock (2004). Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press. Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
    • Alexandre Skirda (2002). Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press. p. 183.
    • Frank Fernandez (2001). Cuban Anarchism: The History of a Movement. ??!See Sharp Press. p. 9.
  12. ^ David Miller, Janet Coleman, William Connolly, Alan Ryan, ed. (2000). "Libertarianism". The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Oxford, United Kingdom; Massachusetts, [state], USA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-14011-5. There are two main branches of libertarianism and each has a radical answer to the query. One group, the anarchists…holds that all government is illegitimate. The other group, generally called minarchists, maintains that government may appropriately engage in police protection, enforcement of contracts, and national defense, but that is all.…[Murray N.] Rothbard himself is on the anarchist wing of the movement. Both by his writings and by personal influence, Rothbard is the principal founder of modern libertarianism.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  13. ^ Roderick T. Long (1998). "Towards a Libertarian Theory of Class" (PDF). Social Philosophy and Policy. 15 (2): 303–349: at p. 304.
  14. ^ David Boaz (1998). Libertarianism A Primer. London, United Kingdom: The Free Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-684-84768-X.
  15. ^ Duncan Watts, Understanding American government and politics, p. 246. YEAR, PUBLISHER, LOCATION
  16. ^ a b Ronald Hamowy, ed. (2008). The encyclopedia of libertarianism. Sage. pp. 146–148.
  17. ^ Robert Eccleshall, Political ideologies: an introduction, Psychology Press, 2003, Edition 3, revised, annotated, p.21, ISBN 0415236789, 9780415236782
  18. ^ Carlos Peregrin Otero, editor, Noam Chomsky: critical assessments, Volumes 2-3, Taylor & Francis US, 1994,p 617, ISBN 041510694X, 9780415106948
  19. ^ Gross, Jonathan. Byron: the erotic liberal. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2001, p. 5, ISBN 0-7425-1162-6.
  20. ^ David Boaz (1998). Libertarianism A Primer. London, United Kingdom: The Free Press. pp. 22–25. ISBN 0-684-84768-X.
  21. ^ "Libertarianism". Oxford English Dictionary (database) ([2.5? 3?] ed.). [unknown]. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)(subscription required)
  22. ^ William Belsham (1789). Essays. C. Dilly. p. 11. Original from the University of Michigan, digitized May 21, 2007{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  23. ^ Robert Graham (ed.). Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas. Vol. Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE-1939). p. [unknown]. Includes English translations of Joseph Dejacque’s 1857 letter to Proudhon. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)[possible primary? verification needed]
  24. ^ Joseph Déjacque ([unknown]). "De l'être-humain mâle et femelle–Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque" (in French). [unknown]. At unknown location within the work. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  25. ^ Valentin Pelosse (1972). "Joseph Déjacque and the Neologism Libertarian". [unknown]. At unknown location within the work.
  26. ^ Nettlau, Max (1996). A Short History of Anarchism. Freedom Press. p. 162.
  27. ^ Peter Kropotkin (1986). The Great French Revolution, 1789-1793. Vol. 1. Elephant Editions. pp. 204, 206.
  28. ^ Peter Kropotkin, Marshall Shatz (1995). The conquest of bread and other writings. Cambridge University Press. p. xv.[verification needed]
  29. ^ Peter Kropotkin (1911). "Anarchism". Encyclopaedia Britannica. [unknown].
  30. ^ a b Alexandre Skirda (2002). Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press. p. 183.
  31. ^ a b Charles Bufe (1992). The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. ??!See Sharp Press. p. iv.
  32. ^ a b Kathyln Gay, ed. (2006). Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan. pp. 126–127.
  33. ^ Godfrey Hodgson (1992). The United States, Volume 2. Facts on File. p. 622. ISBN 0816018308. Hodgson describes this new liberalism as a "pro-state or statist ideology."{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  34. ^ Murray Rothbard, The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revolution and Classical Liberalism, excerpted from the first chapter of For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, at LewRockwell.com.
  35. ^ Murray Rothbard, The Life and Death of the Old Right, first published in the September 1990 issue of The Rothbard-Rockwell Report, at LewRockwell.com.
  36. ^ Raimondo Cubeddu, preface to "Perspectives of Libertarianism", Etica e Politica (Università di Trieste) V, no. 2 (2003). "It is often difficult to distinguish between 'Libertarianism' and 'Classical Liberalism.' Those two labels are used almost interchangeably by those whom we may call libertarians of a minarchist persuasion: scholars who, following Locke and Nozick, believe a state is needed in order to achieve effective protection of property rights."
  37. ^ Steffen W. Schmidt, American Government and Politics Today (Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2004), 17.
  38. ^ DiLorenzo, Thomas, "Frederic Bastiat (1801–1850): Between the French and Marginalist Revolutions, Ludwig von Mises Institute.
  39. ^ What is Austrian Economics?, Ludwig Von Mises Institute.
  40. ^ Richard M. Ebeling, Austrian Economics and the Political Economy of Freedom, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003, 163–179 ISBN , 9781840649406.
  41. ^ Brian Doherty, Ayn Rand at 100: "Yours Is the Glory", Cato Institute Policy Report Vol. XXVII No. 2 (March/April 2005).
  42. ^ a b Jude Blanchette, What Libertarians and Conservatives Say About Each Other: An Annotated Bibliography, LewRockwell.com, October 27, 2004.
  43. ^ Russell, Dean (1955). "Who Is A Libertarian?". The Freeman. 5 (5). The Foundation for Economic Education. Retrieved March 6, 2010. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  44. ^ Henry J. Silverman, American radical thought: the libertarian tradition, p. 279, 1970, Heath publishing.
  45. ^ Robert Poole, In memoriam: Barry Goldwater – Obituary, Reason Magazine, August–Sept, 1998.
  46. ^ Hess, Karl. The Death of Politics, Interview in Playboy, July 1976.
  47. ^ Murray Rothbard, The Early 1960s: From Right to Left, excerpt from chapter 13 of Murray Rothbard The Betrayal of the American Right, Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007.
  48. ^ Ronald Lora, William Henry Longton, Conservative press in 20th-century America, p. 367-374, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, ISBN ,
  49. ^ Marc Jason Gilbert, The Vietnam War on campus: other voices, more distant drums, p. 35, 2001, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN0275969096,
  50. ^ Rebecca E. Klatch, A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s, University of California Press, 1999 ISBN , 215–237.
  51. ^ Bill Winter, "1971–2001: The Libertarian Party's 30th Anniversary Year: Remembering the first three decades of America's 'Party of Principle'" LP News
  52. ^ The Libertarian Vote, by David Boaz and David Kirby. Cato Institute policy analysis paper 580, October 18, 2006. The Libertarian Vote
  53. ^ International Society for Individual Liberty Freedom Network list.
  54. ^ David Lewis Schaefer, Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia, The New York Sun, April 30, 2008.
  55. ^ The Advocates Robert Nozick page.
  56. ^ Steven Teles and Daniel A. Kenney, chapter "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservativsm in Europe and beyond," (p. 136-169) in Growing apart?: America and Europe in the twenty-first century by Sven Steinmo, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN , The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas.
  57. ^ Anthony Gregory, Real World Politics and Radical Libertarianism, LewRockwell.com, April 24, 2007.
  58. ^ David Boaz, Preface for the Japanese Edition of Libertarianism: A Primer, reprinted at Cato.org, November 21, 1998.
  59. ^ Radicals for Capitalism (Book Review), New York Post, February 4, 2007.
  60. ^ The Week Online Interviews Chomsky, Z Magazine, February 23, 2002. "The term libertarian as used in the US means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world. Historically, the libertarian movement has been the anti-statist wing of the socialist movement. Socialist anarchism was libertarian socialism. In the US, which is a society much more dominated by business, the term has a different meaning. It means eliminating or reducing state controls, mainly controls over private tyrannies. Libertarians in the US don't say let's get rid of corporations. It is a sort of ultra-rightism."
  61. ^ Colin Ward, Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers..."
  62. ^ Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement, Sharp Press, 2001, p. 9. "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term "libertarian" has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."
  63. ^ a b c d e Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. Parameter error in {{issn}}: Missing ISSN.. Retrieved March 5, 2010. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  64. ^ Richman, Sheldon, Libertarian Left, The American Conservative (March 2011)
  65. ^ a b Libertarian Party [USA], in convention at St. Louis, Missouri, USA (2010-05). "Libertarian Party 2010 Platform". Washington D.C., USA: Libertarian National Committee [USA]. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  66. ^ a b c Zwolinski, Matt (March 26, 2008). "Libertarianism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved March 5, 2010.
  67. ^ Peter Robinson (presenter) (1999-02-10). "Take it to the Limits: Milton Friedman on Libertarianism" (video). Uncommon Knowledge. Stanford, California: Hoover Institution (Official Youtube Channel), Leland Stanford Junior University. ??m ??s.
  68. ^ Mark Bevir, ed. (2010). Enyclopedia of Political Theory. SAGE. p. 811.
  69. ^ "Freedom: What's Right vs. What Works". Liberty. 15 (1 (January)): [unknown]. 2005. Not peer reviewed. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  70. ^ a b Wolff, Jonathan (2006). "Libertarianism, Utility, and Economic Competition" (PDF). 92. Virginia Law Review: 1605. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  71. ^ Allen E. Buchanan (1985). Ethics, efficiency, and the market. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 65. In libertarian theories generally, a very broad right to private property, including private ownership of the means of production, is morally fundamental and determines both the most basic principles of individual conduct and the legitimate role of the state.
  72. ^ Carl H. Botan Vincent Hazleton (2006). Public relations theory II. [unknown]. p. 262. Worldwide, libertarianism has been as much the hallmark of media struggles for political and economic independence as it has been for nonmedia enterprises seeking liberalized investment policies; it has also been a rationale for establishing privately owned media.[volume number? edition? status as a textbook aimed at undergraduates which goes to reliability? verification needed]
  73. ^ David Boaz (1998) unknown. "Preface for the Japanese Edition". Libertarianism: A Primer. p. unknown. The largest trends in the world reflect libertarian values. Communism is virtually gone, and few people still defend state socialism. Eastern Europe is struggling to achieve societies based on property rights, markets, and the rule of law.
  74. ^ [unknown] (2007-02-04). "Radicals for Capitalism (Book Review)". New York Post. Libertarians have helped bring about policy changes such as deregulation, tax cuts, privatization and an end to the military draft and have encouraged market-oriented reforms throughout the world.[lack of notability to make claim verification needed]
  75. ^ Ronald Hamowy, ed. (2008). The encyclopedia of libertarianism. Sage. pp. 11, 13, 227, 243.
  76. ^ Ian Carter (2007-10-07). "Positive and Negative Liberty". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. [unknown]: Stanford University.
  77. ^ Wolff, Jonathan ([unknown]). "Libertarianism, Utility, and Economic Competition" (PDF). Virginia Law Review. 92: 1605. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  78. ^ [unknown] (2007-04-04). "Contractarianism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  79. ^ Anthony de Jasay (1996). "Hayek: Some Missing Pieces" (PDF). The Review of Austrian Economics. 9 (1): 107–18. ISSN 0889-3047.
  80. ^ Hardy Bouillon, Hartmut Kliemt (2007). Ordered Anarchy. Ashgate Publishing. p. [unknown]. ISBN 0-7546-6113-X. {{cite book}}: More than one of |at= and |page= specified (help)
  81. ^ B.Franks (2003). "Direct action ethic" (PDF). Anarchist Studies. 11 (1): 13-41: 24-25.
  82. ^ a b Murray N Rothbard (1980). "Myth and Truth About Libertarianism" (PDF). Modern age. Not peer reviewed.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  83. ^ Block, Walter (2008). Defending the Undefendable (pdf). Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute. Originally published (1991) Fox and Wilkes; (1976) Fleet press. Unreliable publisher?, SPS.??{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  84. ^ B[unknown] Franks (2003). "Direct action ethic". Anarchist Studies. 11 (1): 13–41: 24–25.
  85. ^ Bevir (2010). [Unknown]. [Unknown]. pp. 810–811.[unknowns, existing at all, reliability verification needed]
  86. ^ a b http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286303/individualism "Individualism" on Encyclopedia Britannica Online
  87. ^ L. Susan Brown. The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism, and Anarchism. BLACK ROSE BOOKS LID. 1993
  88. ^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/2570771 Bohemianism: the underworld of Art by George S. Snyderman and William Josephs
  89. ^ Ralph Raico (1964). "Is Libertarianism Amoral?". New Individualist Review: a journal of classical liberal thought. 3 (3 (Fall)): 29–36. Not peer reviewed, republished in Mises Daily (Ludwig von Mises Institute) 2005-04-04.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  90. ^ Cathy Young (2007). "Enforcing Virtue: Is social stigma a threat to liberty, or is it liberty in action? review of "Freedom & Virtue: The Conservative Libertarian Debate"". Reason (March 2007). Not peer reviewed.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  91. ^ Anthony Gregory (2008). "What's left of the old right: [review of] Reclaiming the American Right: The Lost Legacy of the Conservative Movement, Justin Raimondo, ISI Books, 369 pages". The American Conservative (October 06, 2008).
  92. ^ Will Kymlicka (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In Ted Honderich (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York City: Oxford University Press.
  93. ^ a b Vallentyne and Steiner (2000b). [Unknown]. [Unknown]. p. 1.[unknowns verification needed]
  94. ^ a b Gerald F. Gaus, Chandran Kukathas, ed. (2004). Handbook of Political Theory. Sage Publications Inc. p. 128.[unknowns verification needed]
  95. ^ Karl Widerquist. "Libertarianism". In Phil O’Hara (ed.). International Encyclopedia of Public Policy. Vol. 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 338–350. {{cite book}}: More than one of |at= and |pages= specified (help)
  96. ^ Steve Daskal (January 1, 2010). "Libertarianism Left and Right, the Lockean Proviso, and the Reformed Welfare State". Social Theory and Practice. 36 (1).[page in work, originally was cited against a copyvio verification needed]
  97. ^ Chris Faatz ([unknown]). "Toward[s] a Libertarian Socialism". [unknown]. [unknown]. At [unknown location within work]. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)[everything please verification needed]
  98. ^ Mark Bevir, ed. (2010). Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. p. 34.[unknowns verification needed]
  99. ^ Phillip Anthony O'Hara, ed. (1999). "title=Encyclopedia of Political Economy". Routledge. p. 15. Another [propopent] is Noam Chomsky, who generally calls himself a "left libertarian" in his political writings (with a history of opposition to both super-powers during the Cold War). {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Missing pipe in: |chapter= (help); Unknown parameter |city= ignored (|location= suggested) (help)[unknowns verification needed]
  100. ^ Samuel Edward Konkin. "New Libertarian Manifesto" (PDF). [unknown]. p. [unknown].
  101. ^ Charles Johnson (2007). "Scratching By: How Government Creates Poverty As We Know It". The Freeman: ideas on liberty. 57 (10 (December)). ¶4. Government anti-poverty programs are a classic case of the therapeutic state setting out to treat disorders created by the state itself.
  102. ^ Malatesta, Errico. "Towards Anarchism". MAN!. Los Angeles: International Group of San Francisco. OCLC 3930443. Agrell, Siri (2007-05-14). "Working for The Man". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2008-04-14. "Anarchism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-29. "Anarchism". The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 14. 2005. Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable. The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy: Mclaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 59. ISBN 0-7546-6196-2. Johnston, R. (2000). The Dictionary of Human Geography. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers. p. 24. ISBN 0-631-20561-6.
  103. ^ Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.
  104. ^ Ward, Colin (1966). "Anarchism as a Theory of Organization". Retrieved 1 March 2010.
  105. ^ Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press, 2002, p. 191.
  106. ^ George Woodcock. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements (1962)
  107. ^ Fowler, R.B. "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought." The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 4. (December, 1972), pp. 743–744.
  108. ^ Paul Zarembka (2007). Transitions in Latin America and in Poland and Syria. Emerald Group Publishing. p. 25.[unknowns, reliability, edited collection? verification needed]
  109. ^ Daniel Guerin ([Unknown]). Anarchism: A Matter of Words. [Unknown]. p. [Unknown]. Some contemporary anarchists have tried to clear up the misunderstanding by adopting a more explicit term: they align themselves with libertarian socialism or communism. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)[unknowns verification needed]
    Chris Faatz ([Unknown]). Towards a Libertarian Socialism. [Unknown]. p. [Unknown]. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)[unknowns, if it is reliable verification needed]
  110. ^ Language and Politics. AK Press. 2004. p. 739. The term 'libertarian' as used in the U.S. means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world. Historically the libertarian movement has been the anti-statist wing of the socialist movement. Socialist anarchism was libertarian socialism. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)[location, check for interviews, separately authored chapters, editors, etc verification needed]
  111. ^ Geoffrey Ostergaard (1991). "Anarchism". A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 21.[Unknowns, Editor versus Author? verification needed]
  112. ^ Silva Mendes (1896). "[Unknown]". Socialismo Libertário ou Anarchismo. 1. [Unknown]: [Unknown]. Society should be free through mankind's spontaneous federative affiliation to life, based on the community of land and tools of the trade; meaning: Anarchy will be equality by abolition of private property and liberty by abolition of authority[Dubious, unknowns, seems like an online link ought to exist. verification needed]
  113. ^ Rocker, Rudolf (2004). Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. AK Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-902593-92-0.[Location verification needed]
  114. ^ Murray Bookchin (2004). Post-Scarcity Anarchism. AK Press. p. xl.[Unknowns, is that really on page X L ? verification needed]
  115. ^ Murray Bookchin ([Unknown]). Ghost of Anarcho-Syndicalism. [Unknown]. p. [Unknown]. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)[Unknowns verification needed];
    Robert Graham ([Unknown]). The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution. [Unknown]. p. [Unknown]. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)[Unknowns verification needed]
  116. ^ Peter H Marshall (2010) [1992, 1993]. Demanding the impossible: a history of anarchism. PM Press. p. 341. Originally published: HarperCollins, Fontana{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)[Publisher location verification needed]
  117. ^ David D. Friedman (1995). The machinery of freedom: guide to a radical capitalism (2 ed.). Open Court. p. 19.[ISBN, publisher location verification needed]
  118. ^ "Preface". Anarchism/minarchism: is a government part of a free country?. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 2008. p. [Unknown]. ISBN 0754660664. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)[Monograph or edited collection, publisher location, page number, if edited collection author of chapter and / or editors verification needed]
  119. ^ Ronald Hamowy, ed. ([Unknown]). The encyclopedia of libertarianism. [Unknown]. pp. 10–12. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)[Author, Chapter, year, publisher, location verification needed]
    Ronald Hamowy (ed.). The encyclopedia of libertarianism. [Unknown]. p. 195.[Author, Chapter, year, publisher, location verification needed]
  120. ^ Edward Stringham ([Unknown]). Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice. [Unknown]. p. 51. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)[Publisher, Location, Year, sole author or edited collection verification needed]
  121. ^ Ian Adams (2002). Political Ideology Today. []: Manchester University Press. p. 135.[Edited Collection or Sole Authored Book? verification needed]
    Geoffrey Ostergaard (2003). "Anarchism". In W. Outwaite (ed.). The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.[Publisher Location, Editor First Name verification needed]
  122. ^ Ronald Hamowy (ed.). The encyclopedia of libertarianism. pp. 13–15.[Author, Chapter, Year verification needed]
  123. ^ Ronald Hamowy (ed.). The encyclopedia of libertarianism. p. 195.[Author, Chapter, Year verification needed]
  124. ^ a b Gregory, Anthory (2004-05-09). "The Minarchist"s[sic.] Dilemma". Strike The Root (41).
  125. ^ Foldvary, Fred E. (2002). "Editorial: Geoism and Libertarianism". The Progress Report (June). Benjamin Banneker Center for Economic Justice and Progress. Not peer reviewed, no editorial responsibility taken (see Legal), no about.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  126. ^ Karen DeCoster (2006-04-19). "Henry George and the Tariff Question". Mises Daily. Auburn, Alabama, USA: Ludwig von Mises Institute. Not peer reviewed, no editorial control.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  127. ^ Fred E. Foldvary (1981). "In the case of geoanarchism". Land and Liberty: putting people at the heart of economics ([Unknown Issue Number] May/June). Henry George Foundation of Great Britain Ltd.: 53–55. ISSN 0023-7574. {{cite journal}}: Text "postscript. Not peer reviewed." ignored (help)
  128. ^ Janet Biehl, Short Biography of Murray Bookchin
  129. ^ Burns, Jennifer (2009). Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-0-19-532487-7. OCLC 313665028. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  130. ^ Brian Doherty. "Ayn Rand at 100: "Yours Is the Glory"". Policy Report. XXVII (2 (March/April) date=2005). Washington, DC: Cato Institute. {{cite journal}}: Missing pipe in: |issue= (help)
  131. ^ Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. 1991. pp. [not given]. ISBN 0-631-17944-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)[author, Chapter title, page, publisher location verification needed]
  132. ^ Gay and Lesbian Americans and Political Participation: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 2002. p. 170. ISBN 9781576072561. The Libertarian Party is the third largest political party in the United States. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  133. ^ Elizabeth Hovde (2009-05-11). "Americans mixed on Obama's big government gamble". The Oregonian.
  134. ^ Gairdner, William D. (2007) [1990]. The Trouble with Canada: A Citizen Speaks Out. Toronto, Canada: BPS Books. pp. 101–102. ISBN 9780978440220. The first, we would call "libertarianism" today. Libertarians wanted to get all government out of people's lives. This movement is still very much alive today. In fact, in the United States, it is the third largest political party, and ran 125 candidates during the U.S. election of 1988.
  135. ^ Richard Winger (March 1, 2008). "Early 2008 Registration Totals". Ballot Access News. 23 (11). San Francisco, CA: Richard Winger. Retrieved 2010-07-19.[self-published source?]}
  136. ^ "Our History". Our Party. Washington D.C., USA: Libertarian National Committee [USA]. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
  137. ^ "[Introduction]". Issues and Positions: The Libertarian Party on Today's Issues. Washington D.C., USA: Libertarian National Committee [USA]. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
  138. ^ Jeff Simon (2010-09-24). "Libertarian leader: Republicans should apologize, not pledge". political ticker… [Blog]. CNN Politics. CNN.
  139. ^ Klandermans, Bert, and Conny Roggeband. Handbook of Social Movements Across Disciplines. New York: Springer, 2009. page 130
  140. ^ Frankel, Benjamin. History in Dispute. Detroit: St. James Press, 2000. page 129
  141. ^ Australian Electoral Commission (2010-11-04). "Current Register of Political Parties". Political Parties and Financial Disclosure. Parkes, ACT, Australia: Australian Electoral Commission.
  142. ^ "Libertários: O Partido da Liberdade" (in Portugese). Retrieved 2011-01-17Fails notability, SPS peacocking {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  143. ^ "Assessing the Politics of Protest: political science and the study of social movements". Handbook of Social Movements Across Disciplines. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. New York: Springer. 2009. p. 130. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  144. ^ "Membership Statistics". Free State Project. Retrieved 2007-12-14.

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  • Block, Walter (2010) [2006]. "The Non-Aggression Axiom of Libertarianism". In Iulian Tãnase, Bogdan Glãvan (ed.). Building Blocks for Liberty: Critical Essays by Walter Block. Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute. pp. 217–220. Originally published Bucharest Romania: Libertas publishing. Reprinted from http://www.lewrockwell.com/ : anti-state, anti-war, pro-market {{cite book}}: External link in |postscript= (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • Cohen, G.A. (1995). Self-ownership, Freedom and Equality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Cleveland, Paul (August 1995). "Individual Responsibility and Economic Well-Being". The Freeman: ideas on liberty. Vol. 45, no. 8. [Not peer reviewed] {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • Doherty, Brian (2007). Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement. PublicAffairs.
  • Goldberg, Jonah (December 12, 2001). "Freedom Kills: John Walker, Andrew Sullivan, and the libertarian threat. [Opinion.]". National Review Online.
  • Hamowy, Editor, Ronald (2008). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Cato Institute, SAGE. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  • Hospers, John (1971). Libertarianism. Santa Barbara, CA: Reason Press.
  • Hospers, John (1995). "Arguments for Libertarianism". In Harwood, Sterling (ed.) (ed.). Business as Ethical and Business as Usual. Jones and Bartlett Series in Philosophy. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
  • Lester, J.C. (2000). Escape from Leviathan: Liberty, Welfare and Anarchy Reconciled. Basingstoke, UK/New York, USA: Macmillan/St Martin's Press.
  • Machan, Tibor R. (2001-01-01). "Revisiting Anarchism and Government". Libertarian.nl : de Startpagina voor Individuele Vrijheid.
  • Nozick, Robert (1974). Anarchy, state, and utopia. Basic Books. ISBN 9780465097203.
  • Rothbard, Murray (Winter 1980). "Myth and Truth About Libertarianism" (PDF). Modern Age. 24 (1). [Not peer reviewed, a journal of opinion.]{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  • Vallentyne, Peter; Steiner, Hillel (2000a). The origins of left-libertarianism: an anthology of historical writings. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780312235918.
  • Vallentyne, Peter; Steiner, Hillel (2000b). Left-libertarianism and its critics: the contemporary debate. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780312236991.

External links

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source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libertarianism&diff=prev&oldid=422391619