2011 Libyan civil war
Part of 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests
• Cities controlled by GSPLAJ • Cities controlled by NTC (supported by coalition forces) • Ongoing fighting/unclear situation (situation as of 29 March 2011)
Date 15 February 2011 – present Location Libya Status Ongoing
Belligerents
National Transitional Council[1] Libyan People's Army Free Libyan Air Force National Conference for the Libyan Opposition Anti-Gaddafi tribes[2] UN member states enforcing UNSC Resolution 1973:  NATO  Qatar[3]  Sweden  UAE[4] Template:Collapsible bulletlist	Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Libyan Armed Forces Libyan Army Libyan Air Force Libyan Navy Foreign mercenaries [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]
Commanders and leaders
Mustafa Abdul Jalil [14] Omar El-Hariri[15] Abdul Fatah Younis[16] Suleiman Mahmoud[17] Khalifa Belqasim Haftar Charles Bouchard[18]	Muammar Gaddafi Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi Khamis al-Gaddafi Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr
Strength
Approximately 17,000 volunteers by Mar 24[19] (1,000 trained men by Mar 23)[20] International Forces: Numerous air and maritime forces (see here)	10,000–12,000 loyalist soldiers (Al Jazeera estimate) (In February) [21]
Casualties and losses
1,620–1,927 opposition fighters killed (see here) International Forces: 1 USAF F-15E Strike Eagle crashed (both pilots survived) [non-combat loss][22]	616–694 soldiers killed (see here)
Estimated total killed on both sides including civilians: 2,000–10,000[23][24][25][26][27]

The 2011 Libyan civil war in North Africa concerns contention between the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (GSPLAJ) and the National Transitional Council (NTC) about the power to rule and determine the character of democracy in the region.^[28][29] The situation began as a series of peaceful protests which then-incumbent GSPLAJ security services attempted to confront on 15 February 2011. Within a week, uprising had spread across the country and the GSPLAJ was struggling to retain control.^[30] The GSPLAJ responded with military force and other such measures as censorship and blocking of communications.

The situation then escalated into armed conflict, with rebels establishing a coalition named the Transitional National Council based in Benghazi. The International Criminal Court warned the GSPLAJ tha members of its government may have committed crimes against humanity.^[31] The United Nations Security Council passed an initial resolution freezing the assets of 11 senior influential members of that government and restricting their travel. The resolution also referred the actions of the government to the International Criminal Court for investigation.^[32] In early March, GSPLAJ forces rallied, pushed eastwards and re-took several coastal cities before attacking Benghazi. A further resolution authorized member states to enforce a no-fly zone over Libya.^[33] The GSPLAJ then announced a ceasefire, but failed to uphold it. A collection of states began enforcing the no-fly zone on 19 March by destroying Gaddafi's air defences.^[34]

Background

History

Muammar Gaddafi had been the de-facto ruler of all Libya since the overthrow of King Idris I in 1969.^[35] WikiLeaks' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables has revealed US diplomats there speaking of Gaddafi's "mastery of tactical maneuvering".^[36] While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he has skilfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extends even to his own children, as he changes affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival.^[36]

Petroleum revenues contribute up to 58% of Libya's GDP.^[37] Governments with "resource curse" revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently feel less pressure to develop their middle class. To calm down opposition, they can use the income from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to specific government supporters.^[38] Libya's oil wealth being spread over a relatively small population has allowed for a relatively high living standard compared to neighbouring states.^[39] Despite one of the highest unemployment rates in the region at 21% (latest census), there was a consistent labour shortage with over a million migrant workers present on the market.^[40] These migrant workers formed the bulk of the refugees leaving Libya after the beginning of hostilities.

Libya's purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP per capita in 2010 was US $14,878; its human development index in 2010 was 0.755; and its literacy rate in 2009 was 87%. These numbers were lower in Egypt and Tunisia.^[41] Indeed, Libyan citizens are considered to be well educated and to have a high standard of living.^[42] This specific situation creates a wider contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy).^[41] The uprising has been viewed as a part of the 2010–2011 Middle East and North Africa protests which has already resulted in the ousting of long-term presidents of adjacent Tunisia and Egypt with the initial protests all using similar slogans.^[43] Social media played an important role in organizing the opposition.^[44]

Corruption

Gaddafi amassed a vast fortune during his 41-year rule.^[45]

Much of the state's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring militancy and terror around the world.^[46][47] According to The Economist, the eastern parts of the state, once a breadbasket of the ancient world, have fared badly under Gaddafi's economic theories.^[48][49] Libya's corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, which was worse than that of Egypt and Tunisia, two neighbouring states who have faced an uprising before Libya.^[50]

Human rights

According to the 2009 Freedom of the Press Index, Libya is the most-censored state in the Middle East and North Africa.^[51]

Dissent is illegal under Law 75 of 1973. Gaddafi has asserted that anyone guilty of founding a political party would be executed.^[52] The Basic Congresses and their Committees are overseen by Revolutionary committees which report to Gaddafi via a Permanent Revolutionary Committee. Revolutionary committees are embedded throughout most government-controlled organizations including enterprises and the education sector. According to the U.S. State Department, 10 to 20 per cent of Libyans work in surveillance for these committees, a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong-il's North Korea.^[52] The regime has often executed opposition activists publicly and the executions are rebroadcast on state television channels.^[52][53] Engaging in political conversations with foreigners is a crime punishable by three years of prison in most cases.^{[citation needed]} During late 1980s and early 1990s western languages were removed from the school curriculum.^[54][55] The government has reportedly paid for assassination of its critics around the world.^[52][56] As of 2004, Libya still provided bounties for critics, including US$1 million for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist.^[57]

Anti-Gaddafi movement

Beginnings of open protest

Between 13 and 16 January, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Darnah, Benghazi, Bani Walid and other cities broke into and occupied housing that the government was building.^[60][61] On 24 January 2011, Libya blocked access to YouTube after it featured videos of demonstrations in the Libyan city of Benghazi by families of detainees who were killed in the 1996 Abu Salim prison massacre. The blocking was criticized by Human Rights Watch.^[62] By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with a US$24 billion investment fund to provide housing and development.^[63]

In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the Internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations.^[64] In early February, Gaddafi, on behalf of the Jamahiriya, met with political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.^[65]

Uprising and civil war

The protests and confrontations began in earnest on 15 February 2011. On the evening of 15 February, between 500 and 600 protesters chanted slogans in front of the police headquarters in Benghazi. The protest was broken up violently by police, resulting in 38 injuries.^[66][67] The novelist Idris Al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests.^[66] In Al Bayda and Az Zintan, hundreds of protesters in each town called for an end of the Gaddafi regime and set fire to police and security buildings.^[66] In Az Zintan, the protesters set up tents in the town centre.^[66] The protests continued the following day in Benghazi, Darnah and Al Bayda, leading to four deaths and three injuries.^[68] Hundreds gathered at Maydan al-Shajara in Benghazi, and authorities tried to disperse protesters with water cannons.^[69]

A "Day of Rage" in Libya and by Libyans in exile was planned for 17 February.^[65][70][71] The National Conference for the Libyan Opposition asked that all groups opposed to the Gaddafi regime protests on 17 February, in memory of demonstrations in Benghazi two years earlier.^[65] The plans to protest were inspired by the 2010–2011 Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings.^[65] In early February, Jamahiriya spokesperson Muammar Gaddafi met with Libyan political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.^[65]

Organization

Many opposition participants called for return to the 1952 constitution and transition to multi-party democracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteers have formed an army to defend against Jamahiriya attacks and to work to bring Tripoli under the influence of Jalil.^[72] In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of the regime into a centre for helping protesters. Volunteers reportedly guard the port, local banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineers have set up a committee to collect weapons.^[49]

The National Transitional Council (Arabic: المجلس الوطني الانتقالي, al-Majlis al-Waṭanī al-'intaqālī) was established on 27 February in an effort to consolidate efforts for change in the rule of Libya.^[73] The main objectives of the group did not include forming an interim government, but instead to coordinate resistance efforts between the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to the opposition to present to the world.^[74] The Benghazi-based opposition government has called for a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Jamahiriya.^[75] The council refers to the Libyan state as the Libyan Republic and it now has a website.^[76] Former Jamahiriya Justice Minister Mustafa Abdel Jalil said in February that the new government will prepare for elections and they could be held in three months.^[77] On 29 March the political and international affairs committee of the Council presented its eight-point plan for Libya in The Guardian newspaper, stating they would hold free and fair elections and draft a national constitution.^[28][29]

An independent newspaper called Libya appeared in Benghazi, as well as rebel-controlled radio stations.^[78] Some of the rebels oppose tribalism and wear vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism, no to factionalism".^[49] Libyans have said that they have found abandoned torture chambers and devices that have been used in the past.^[79]

Composition of rebel forces

The rebels are composed primarily of civilians, such as teachers, students, lawyers, and oil workers, and a contingent of professional soldiers that defected from the Libyan Army and joined the rebels.^[80][81] Gaddafi's administration had repeatedly asserted that the rebels included al-Qaeda fighters.^[82] NATO commander Admiral Stavridis stated that intelligence reports suggested "flickers" of al-Qaeda activity were present among the rebels, but also added that there is not sufficient information to confirm there is any significant al-Qaeda or terrorist presence.^[83][84] Denials of al-Qaeda membership were issued by the rebels. ^[85]

Gaddafi's response

Gaddafi has accused his opponents as those who have been influenced by hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He has specifically referred to substances in milk, coffee and Nescafé. He has claimed that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda are distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He has also blamed alcohol.^{[86][87][88][89]} He later also claimed that the revolt against his rule is the result of a colonialist plot by foreign states, particularly blaming France, the US, and the UK, to control oil and enslave the Libyan people. Gaddafi vowed to cleanse Libya house by house until he had crushed the insurrection.^{[90][91][92][93][94]} Gaddafi declared that people who don't "love" him "do not deserve to live".^[91][93] A Swedish arms trafficking watchdog organization observed flights between Tripoli and Belarus, including visits to a dedicated Belorussian military base that only handles stockpiled weaponry and military equipment.^[95]

Blocking of communications and media

Gaddafi shut down all Internet communications in Libya, and arrested Libyans who had given phone interviews to the media.^[96][97] International journalists were banned by the Libyan authorities from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafi government.^{[98][99][100]} International journalists who have attempted to cover the events have been attacked by Gaddafi's forces. A BBC News crew was beaten and then lined up against a wall by Gaddafi's soldiers, who then shot next to a journalist's ear and laughed at them.^[101] A journalist working for The Guardian and another Brazilian journalist have been detained. An Al-Jazeera journalist Hassan Al Jaber was murdered, and was apparently deliberately targeted.^[102]

On 21 February, The New York Times reported that Gaddafi had tried to impose a blackout on information from Libya.^[103] Several residents reported that cellphone service was down, and even landline phone service was sporadic.^[103]

The 26 March incident with Iman al-Obeidi, a Libyan woman who had been forcibly silenced and detained after she attempted to tell the international media of her alleged gang-rape by Gaddafi's troops, was seen by the media as representative of the trend.^[104][105]

Mercenaries and human shields

Soon after Gaddafi started to fight against civilians it became apparent that Libyan military units have refused to shoot protesters and Gaddafi had hired foreign mercenaries to do the job. Gaddafi's ambassador to India Ali al-Essawi confirmed that defection of military units had indeed led to such a decision.^[106] Video footage of this started to leak out of the country.^[106] Gaddafi's former Chief of Protocol Nouri Al Misrahi stated in an interview with the Al Jazeera that Nigerien, Malian, Chadian and Kenyan mercenaries are among foreign soldiers helping fight the uprising on behalf of Gaddafi.^[107] Defecting Libyan Deputy Ambassador Ibrahim Dabbashi called on African nations to stop sending mercenaries to defend the Gaddafi regime.^[106]

In Mali, members of Tuareg tribe have confirmed that a large number of men from the tribe left to Libya in late February.^{[8][9][10][11]} Locals in Mali said they were promised $10,000 upfront payment and compensation up to $1000 per day.^[8][9] Gaddafi has used Malian Tuaregs in his political projects before, sending them to fight in places like Chad, Sudan and Lebanon and recently they have fought against Niger government, a war which Gaddafi has allegedly sponsored. Malian government officials told BBC that it's hard to stop the flow of fighters from Mali to Libya.^[8] A recruitment center for Malian soldiers leaving to Libya was found in a Bamako hotel.^[11]

Reports from Ghana state that the men who left to Libya were offered as much as $2500 per day.^[106] Advertisements seeking mercenaries were seen in Nigeria.^[106] One group of mercenaries from Niger, who had been allegedly recruited from the streets with promises of money, included a soldier of just 13 years of age.^[6] The Daily Telegraph studied the case of a sixteen-year-old captured Chadian child soldier in Al-Bayda. The boy, who had previously been a shepherd in Chad, told that a Libyan man had offered him a job and a free flight to Tripoli, but in the end he had been airlifted to shoot opposition members in Eastern Libya.^[7]

The Serbian newspaper Alo!, stated that Serbs were hired to help Gaddafi in the early days of the conflict.^[108] Rumors of Serbian pilots participating on the side of Gaddafi appeared early in the conflict.^{[109][110][111]} In response to unconfirmed allegations, the Serbian Ministry of Defence denied that any of its active or retired personnel were participating in the events in Libya.^[112]

Human Rights Watch has argued that there has been no evidence of mercenaries being employed in Libya.^[113] Hysteria created by the alleged use of mercenaries has led to numerous attacks on black Libyans and African migrant workers with subsequent mob lynching in rebel controlled areas.^[114]

According the International Federation for Human Rights, thousands of migrants have been forced to join the army and are being used as front-line fighters or simple human shield for Libyan soldiers in street fights.^[115] Cases such as handcuffing truck drivers to steering wheels to prevent them from running away have been documented.^[116]

Treatment of dissidents

Amnesty International has called Gaddafi's policy to kill those who oppose him unacceptable.^[117] The organization reported that writers, intellectuals and other prominent opposition sympathizers disappeared during the early days of the conflict in cities controlled by Gaddafi. There are fears they may be subjected to illegal detention, torture or may have been killed.^[118] Amnesty International reported that Gaddafi's forces are targeting paramedics who help injured protesters.^[119] In multiple incidents people have also documented Gaddafi's forces using ambulances in their attacks.^[120][121] Injured demonstrators have been denied access to hospitals and ambulance transport. The regime also banned giving blood transfusions to people who have taken part in the demonstrations.^[122]

Gaddafi suppressed the protests in Tripoli by distributing automobiles, money and weapons for hired thugs to drive around Tripoli and attack people showing signs of dissent.^[123][124] Military commanders appear to summarily execute soldiers who refuse to defend Gaddafi.^[125][126] The International Federation for Human Rights reported a case where Gaddafi's commanders executed 130 soldiers who had refused to support Gaddafi.^[127] Gaddafi's commanders have burned alive soldiers who have refused to fight protesters.^[128]

On 24 February, the International Federation for Human Rights concluded that Gaddafi is implementing a strategy of scorched earth and seeks to eliminate and suppress Libyan citizens who stood up against his regime.^[129]

Paid protesters

Libyans studying in the US have received phone calls from the Libyan embassy urging them to take part in pro-Gaddafi demonstrations or lose government-funded scholarships. Gaddafi has a history of using paid demonstrators for public relations, including allegedly paying US$2,000 to each hired demonstrator in a pro-Gaddafi rally when he visited the United Nations headquarters in New York City in 2009.^[130]

Battles between Gaddafi and opposition

By 23 February, headlines in online news services were reporting a range of themes underlining the precarious state of the regime – former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbie bombing,^[131] resignations and defections of close allies,^[132] the loss of Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya, reported to be "alive with celebration"^[133] and other cities including Tobruk and Misrata reportedly falling^[134] with some reports that the government retained control of just a few pockets,^[132] mounting international isolation and pressure,^[132][135] and reports that Middle East media consider the end of his regime all but inevitable.^[136] By the end of February, Gaddafi had lost control of a significant part of Libya, including the major cities of Misrata and Benghazi, and the important harbours at Ra's Lanuf and Mersa Brega.^[137][138]

After taking over the city of Zawiyah on 24 February, Gaddafi's troops attacked the outskirts of the city on 28 February, but were repelled. The town of Nalut, on the Tunisian border, had also fallen to the opposition forces. On 2 March, government forces attempted to recapture the oil port town of Brega, but the attack failed and they retreated to Ra's Lanuf. Rebel forces advanced following their victory and on 4 March, the opposition captured Ra's Lanuf. On the same day, government troops started a full-scale assault on Zawiyah with tank, artillery and air strikes. On 6 March, the rebel advance along the coastline had been stopped by government forces at the town of Bin Jawad. Government troops ambushed the rebel column and dozens of rebels were killed. At the same time, Gaddafi's forces attempted an attack on Misrata and managed to get as far as the centre of the city before their attack was stopped and they retreated to the city's outskirts.^[139]

Gaddafi counteroffensive

On 6 March, the Gaddafi regime launched a counteroffensive, retaking Ra's Lanuf and Mersa Brega, pushing towards Ajdabiya and Benghazi. Gaddafi has remained in continuous control of Tripoli,^[140] Sirte,^[141] Zliten^[142] and Sabha,^[143] as well as several other towns. On 10 March, Zawiyah and Ra's Lanuf were retaken by Gaddafi's forces.^[144][145] By 15 March, the town of Brega had also been recaptured by Gaddafi's forces and the rebel city of Ajdabiya, the last town before Benghazi, was surrounded.

United Nations intervention

On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution to impose a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace.^[146] As a result of the UN resolution, on 18 March, Gaddafi's government declared an immediate ceasefire, but a few hours later, Al Jazeera reported that government forces were still fighting with rebels.^[147] Even after the government-declared ceasefire, artillery shelling on Misrata and Ajdabiya continued, and government soldiers continued approaching Benghazi.^[148][149]

BBC News reported that government tanks entered the city on 19 March while hundreds fled the fighting.^[150] Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city.^[151] The same day, a Mig-23BN belonging to the Free Libyan Air Force was shot down over Benghazi, after being engaged by rebel ground forces in error.^[152] The Libyan government subsequently argued that the rebels had violated the no-fly-zone resolution by using a helicopter and a fighter jet to bomb Libyan armed forces.^[153]

Coalition operations begin

At 1600 GMT 19 March, the BBC News reported that the French Air Force had sent nineteen fighter planes over Benghazi to prevent any attacks on the rebel-controlled city.^[154] French jets attacked government armour southwest of Benghazi, destroying four tanks.^[155] By 2031 GMT, the US and British naval vessels had fired at least 114 Tomahawk cruise missiles at twenty Libyan integrated air and ground defence systems.^[156] Three U.S. B-2 Spirit stealth bombers reportedly flew non-stop from the United States to drop forty bombs on a major Libyan airfield with US fighter jets searching for Libyan ground forces to attack.^[157][158] Twenty-five coalition ships, including three US submarines, began operating in the area.^[159]

On March 20, the Free Libyan Air Force carried out a suicide attack on the Bab al-Aziziya barracks in Tripoli, one of Gaddafi's residences, when pilot Muhammad Mukhtar Osman crashed his plane into the barracks. Khamis al-Gaddafi was allegedly killed in the attack. Widespread reports stated that Khamis had sustained severe burn injuries, and died in intensive care several hours later. U.S. officials confirmed that they had unconfirmed reports that one of Gaddafi's sons may have been killed. Gaddafi's regime denied the reports.^[160]

Libyan State TV reported that Libyan forces had shot down a French warplane over Tripoli, a claim denied by France.^[161] On 20 March, several Storm Shadow missiles were launched against Libyan targets by British jets.^[162] Sustained anti-aircraft fire was reported in Tripoli throughout the night.^[163] Gaddafi's forces claimed they had shot down two planes, a claim denied by the US.^[164] An American F-15E Strike Eagle fighter jet on a bombing mission crashed after experiencing equipment failure. The pilot and weapons officer ejected and were recovered by US rescue teams.^[165][166]

By 22 March, US and British forces had fired 161 Tomahawk cruise missiles against Libyan targets.^[165] Two fired from a British submarine had hit Gaddafi's compound in Tripoli on 21 March.^[167]

On 25 March, NATO announced that it would be taking over the command of the no-fly-zone operations, after several days of heated debate over who should control operations in Libya. The US had continuously reiterated that it wished to hand over command to an international organization.^[168]

Second rebel advance

After airstrikes began, rebel forces began a renewed offensive towards Tripoli. They advanced 240 kilometres (150 miles) along the coast, and retook all lost ground, while international airstrikes targeted government armour and supply columns. Government forces put up resistance in Ajdabiya, which fell to the rebel push after intense airstrikes. Rebels took Brega, Ra's Lanuf, and Bin Jawad. Airstrikes inflicted heavy losses on government forces, and forced them into a chaotic retreat eastward. Gaddafi's soldiers left behind military equipment, uniforms, and rations as they fled, and their morale significantly dropped.^{[citation needed]} On 28 March, heavy fighting took place near Gaddafi's home town of Sirt, and government troops managed to halt the rebel advance. Due to increasing airstrikes targeting military vehicles, government troops increasingly replaced armour with civilian vehicles fitted with weapons.

On 29 March, government forces launched a counteroffensive, forcing the rebels into a chaotic retreat from Bin Jawad toward Ra's Lanuf.

On 30 March, the rebels said that they were pulling out of Ras Lanuf due to heavy tank and artillery fire from loyalist forces. The rebels also pulled back to Ajdabiyah, and hundreds of cars and small trucks heading east clogged the highway on the approaches to Brega.^[169] Gaddafi's forces subsequently pushed forward, retaking lost ground, as airstrikes on government targets throughout Libya took place.^[170] The Coalition began considering whether to supply arms to the rebels.^[171]

Humanitarian situation

Medical supplies, fuel and food have run dangerously low in Libya.^[172] On 25 February, the International Committee of the Red Cross launched an emergency appeal for US$6,400,000 to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrest in Libya.^[173] On 2 March, the ICRC's director general reminded everyone taking part in the violence that health workers must be allowed to do their jobs safely.^[174]

Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 people were crossing the Libya-Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping the violence were foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks – as well as Libyans.^[175] By 1 March, officials from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees had confirmed allegations of discrimination against sub-Saharan Africans who were held in dangerous conditions in the no-man's-land between Tunisia and Libya.^[176] By 3 March, an estimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia or Egypt. A provisional refugee camp was set up at Ras Ejder with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands were still trapped on the Libyan side of the frontier. By 3 March, the situation was described as a logistical nightmare, with the World Health Organization warning of the risk of epidemics.^[177]

With a migrant population of about two million, states that border Libya, especially Egypt and Tunisia, have been receiving a flow of migrants and nationals escaping the violence. Migrants workers as well as Libyan nationals have been finding their way to the border cities of Sallum in Egypt and Ras Ajdir in Tunisia creating a humanitarian crisis. According to the International Organization for Migration, as of 7 March, 115,399 migrants had arrived in Tunisia (19,184 of them Tunisians, 47,631 Egyptians and the rest from various nationalities), 101,609 in Egypt (of which 65,509 were Egyptian), 2,205 in Niger (1,865 Nigerians) and 5,448 in Algeria.^[178]

African migrants attacked

At the end of February Al Jazeera reported that African migrant workers were being attacked, injured and perhaps killed by anti-government mobs according to witnesses. "We were being attacked by local people who said that we were mercenaries killing people. Let me say that they did not want to see black people," Julius Kiluu, a sixty-year-old building supervisor, told Reuters. "Our camp was burnt down, and we were assisted by the Kenyan embassy and our company to get to the airport," he said. ^[179]

Casualties

Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made available. Estimates have been widely varied. Conservative estimates have put the death toll at 1,000,^[180] The International Criminal Court estimated 10,000 killed on 7 March.^[27] The numbers of injured were estimated to be around 4,000 by 22 February.^[181] On 2 March, the International Federation for Human Rights estimated a death toll as high as 3,000 and the World Health Organization estimated approximately 2,000 killed.^[24] At the same time, the opposition claimed that 6,500 people had died.^[182] The Libyan Human Rights League estimated 6,000 killed on 5 March.^[25][25] Later, rebel spokesman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga reported that the death toll reached 8,000. ^[26]

On 20 March, it was reported by the anti-Gaddafi Al Manara Media that Khamis al-Gaddafi had died from his injuries sustained when pilot Muhammad Mokhtar Osman allegedly crashed his plane into Bab al-Azizia a week earlier. However, this had not been confirmed by any other independent media. The crashing of the plane itself had also not been previously reported or confirmed by any other independent media except Al Manara and the Algerian Shuruk newspaper, which is closely connected to Al Manara, and with it there is a possibility of the reports being part of the rebel propaganda operations.^{[183][184][185][186]}

Domestic responses

Resignation of government officials

In response to the use of force against protesters, a number of senior Libyan public officials either renounced the Gaddafi regime or resigned from their positions. Justice Minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil and Interior Minister Major General Abdul Fatah Younis both defected to the opposition. Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem and Foreign Minister Moussa Koussa fled Libya, with the latter defecting to the UK.^[187][188] Libyan Prosecutor General Abdul-Rahman al-Abbar resigned his position and joined the opposition.^[189]

A number of senior military officials defected to the opposition, including Major General Suleiman Mahmoud, Brigadier General Musa'ed Ghaidan Al Mansouri, Brigadier General Hassan Ibrahim Al Qarawi and Brigadier General Dawood Issa Al Qafsi. Two Libyan Air Force colonels each flew their Mirage F1 fighter jets to Malta, and requested asylum, after being ordered to carry out air strikes against anti-government protesters in Benghazi^[190][191] Colonel Nuretin Hurala, the commander of the Benghazi Naval Base also defected.^[192]

The staff of a number of diplomatic missions of Libya have either resigned or condemned the action of the Gaddafi regime. The ambassadors to the Arab League, European Union and United Nations have either resigned or stated that they no longer support the government.^{[193][194][195]} The ambassadors to Bangladesh, Belgium,^[194] People's Republic of China,^[193] France,^[196] India,^[193] Indonesia,^[188] Malaysia, Nigeria, Poland,^[197] Portugal,^[198] Sweden,^[199] and the US^[200] also renounced the Gaddafi regime or formally resigned.

Economic, religious and tribal

The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second-largest state-owned oil company in Libya, announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces.^[201] Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema – Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi.^[202][203] The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes announced their support of the protesters.^[137][204] The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in its part of Libya if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators.^[204]

Libyan royal family

Claimant to the Libyan throne Muhammad as-Senussi, sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect."^[206] as-Senussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence.^[207] On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview to Al Jazeera where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre".^[208] He dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence.^[209] He asked for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops.^[210]

In an interview with Adnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne, announced he was ready to return to the Libya once change had been initiated.^[211] On 21 February, Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising.^[212] In March, it was reported Idris had held meetings at the State Department and Congress in Washington with US government Officials. It was also reported attempts at contact had been initiated by French and Saudi officials.^[213] On 3 March, it was reported that Prince Al Senussi Zouber Al Senussi had fled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.^[214]

International reactions

Official responses

A number of states and supranational bodies condemned Gaddafi's use of military and mercenaries against Libyan civilians. However, Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega, North Korean leader Kim-Jong-il, Cuban political leader Fidel Castro and Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez all expressed support for Gaddafi.^{[215][216][217]} Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi initially said he did not want to disturb Gaddafi, but two days later he called the attacks on protesters unacceptable.^[218][219]

The Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings at an emergency meeting on 22 February and issued a statement condemning the "crimes against the current peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities".^[220][221]

Libya was suspended^[when?] from the United Nations Human Rights Council by a unanimous vote of the United Nations General Assembly, citing the Gaddafi government's use of violence against protesters.^[222] On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously to impose strict sanctions against Gaddafi's government and, refer Gaddafi and other members of his regime to the International Criminal Court for investigation into allegations of brutality against civilians.^[223] Interpol issued a security alert concerning the "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, listing Gaddafi himself and fifteen members of his clan or his regime.^[224] A number of governments, including Britain, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia, took action to freeze assets of Gaddafi and his associates.^[225]

The Gulf Cooperation Council issued a joint statement on 8 March, calling on the United Nations Security Council to impose an air embargo on Libya to protect civilians.^[226] The Arab League did the same on 12 March, with only Algeria and Syria voting against the measure.^[227]

Evacuations

During the uprising, many states evacuated their citizens.^[228] China set up its largest evacuation operation ever with over 30,000 Chinese nationals evacuated, as well as 2,100 citizens from twelve other states.^{[229][230][231]} On 25 February, 500 passengers, mostly Americans, sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli following a two-day wait for the seas to calm.^[232] South Korea evacuated 1,200 residents^{[clarification needed]} of Libya, utilizing cars, airplanes and ferries, to nearby jurisdictions, including Malta.^[233][234]

Bulgaria evacuated some of its citizens with planes, along with Romanian and Chinese citizens.^[235] The Indian government launched Operation Safe Homecoming and evacuated 15,000 of its nationals.^[236] The Turkish government sent three ships to evacuate a reported 25,000 Turkish workers and return them to Istanbul.^[237] The Irish Department of Foreign Affairs assisted over 115 Irish nationals in leaving Libya.^[238] Several Russians, twenty-one Tadjiks and some Kazachs were evacuated by Russia authorities.^[239]

A number of international oil companies decided to withdraw their employees from Libya to ensure their safety, including Gazprom, Royal Dutch Shell, Sinopec, Suncor Energy, Pertamina and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employees included Siemens and Russian Railways.^[240][241]

The evacuations often involved assistance from various military forces. The United Kingdom deployed aircraft and the frigate HMS Cumberland to assist in the evacuations.^{[242][243][244]} China's frigate Xuzhou of the People's Liberation Army Navy was ordered to guard the Chinese evacuation efforts.^[230][245] The South Korean Navy destroyer ROKS Choi Young arrived off the coast of Tripoli on 1 March to evacuate South Korean citizens.^[246] The UK Royal Navy destroyer HMS York docked in the port of Benghazi on 2 March, evacuated 43 nationals, and delivered medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government.^[247][248] Canada deployed the frigate HMCS Charlottetown to aid in the evacuation of Canadian citizens and to provide humanitarian relief operations in conjunction with an US Navy carrier strike group, led by the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise.^[249]

Two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft with British Special Forces onboard evacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly oil workers, to Malta from the desert south of Benghazi.^[250][251] A subsequent joint evacuation operation between the UK and Germany evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oil workers, from the airport at Nafurah to Crete.^{[252][253][254]} An attempt by the Royal Netherlands Navy frigate HNLMS Tromp on 27 February to evacuate a Dutch civilian and another European from the coastal city of Sirte by helicopter failed after its three-man crew was apprehended by Libyan forces loyal to Gaddafi for infiltrating Libyan airspace without clearance.^[255][256] The civilians were released soon after and the crew was released twelve days later, but the helicopter was confiscated.^[257] A cruise ship arrived to save the 7,913 Filipinos in Libya from the destruction. They stopped in Greece and then safely made it home to the Philippines.^{[citation needed]}

Mediation proposals

There have been several peace mediation prospects during the crisis. Early in the conflict, Gaddafi's son reportedly requested that former British Prime Minister Tony Blair, who had dealings with Gaddafi in the last few years, mediate the crisis. Blair, however, bluntly refused and downplayed his dealings with the Libyan regime.^[258] The South African government proposed an African Union-led mediation effort to prevent civil war.^[259] Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez also put himself forward as a mediator. Although Gaddafi accepted in principle a proposal by Chávez to negotiate a settlement between the opposition and the Libyan government, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi later said there was no need for any foreign mediation.^[260] The proposal has also been under consideration by the Arab League, according to its Secretary-General Amr Moussa.^[261]

The Libyan opposition has stated any deal would have to involve Gaddafi stepping down. The US and French governments also dismissed any initiative that would allow Gaddafi to remain in power.^[262] Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan, the 2010 winner of the al-Gaddafi prize for Human Rights, has offered to mediate the crisis, and proposed that Gaddafi appoint a president acceptable to all Libyans as means of overcoming the crisis.^[263]

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 (no-fly zone and other measures)

Countries committed to enforcement:

Belgium[264]

Bulgaria[265]

Canada[266]

Denmark[267]

France[268]

Greece

Italy[269]

Jordan[270]

Netherlands[271]

Norway[272]

Qatar

Romania[273]

Spain[274]

United Arab Emirates[270]

United Kingdom[275]

United States[276]

On 28 February, UK Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using military aircraft against civilians.^[277] A number of states indicated they would support a no-fly zone if it was backed by the UN.^[278]

US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates was initially sceptical of this option, warning the US Congress that a no-fly zone would have to begin with an attack on Libya's air defences.^[279] Russia and China, both holding UN Security Council veto power, indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone.^{[280][281][282][283]} Romania,^[284] India^[285] and Turkey^[286] also indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone.

On 7 March, a UN diplomat confirmed to Agence France-Presse, on condition of anonymity, that France and the UK were drawing up a resolution for the UN Security Council to authorize a no-fly zone over Libya.^[287][288]

The foreign ministers of the Arab League agreed at their 12 March meeting to ask the UN to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. The rebels concurrently stated that a no-fly zone alone would not be sufficient, because the majority of the bombardments were coming from tanks and rockets, not aircraft.^[289] The US changed its position, as Gadaffi forces were quickly approaching Benghazi, and voiced support for the no-fly-zone concept.^[290]

On 17 March, the UN Security Council approved UN Security Council Resolution 1973 (2011), authorizing a no-fly zone, amongst other measures, by a vote of ten in favour, zero against, and five abstentions. The resolution bans all flights in Libyan airspace in order to protect civilians.^[290][291] A collection of states began enforcing the no-fly zone on 19 March.^[292]

On 29 March, in his position as Foreign Minister of Libya, Moussa Koussa wrote to UN Secretary General Ban Ki Moon, nominating the former foreign minister of Nicaragua's socialist Sandinista government and one-time president of the UN General Assembly Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann as Libya's new ambassador to the UN. The letter stated that Brockmann was nominated, as Ali Abdussalam Treki, also a former General Assembly president who was their first choice, was denied a visa to enter the US under UN SCR 1973.^[293]

Reactions to the decision to intervene

The International Federation for Human Rights stated that it welcomed the resolution which finally offers protection to civilians in Libya, who are the targets of crimes which can be considered crimes against humanity.^[294] Al-Qaeda also stated that they support the uprising against Gaddafi.^[295][296] Egypt supposedly has been shipping arms to Libya to arm the rebels.^[297]

According to a French Institute of Public Opinion (IFOP) poll, only 36% of the population supported French participation in any military intervention in Libya in the run-up to the intervention. However, an IFOP poll conducted after the intervention began showed 66% supported the intervention, with no difference of opinion between the left-wing and right-wing.^[298] In the US, opposition before the intervention was as high as 74%, according to CNN/Opinion Research Corporation,^[299] while after the intervention a CBS News poll indicated 66% of Americans support the air and naval strikes, with 70% of Democrats and Republicans, and 65% of independents approving of missile and airstrikes. However, only 20% expect the no-fly zone to be "very effective" in protecting civilians and rebels from Gaddafi's forces.^[300]

China, India, Russia and Turkey condemned the strikes by international forces.^[301] Amr Moussa, the head of The Arab League, expressed great concern over civilians, clearly defining his position as supporting the UN Security Council resolution but not a bombing campaign.^[302] However, Amr Moussa later clarified that his comments were misinterpreted, and that he does in fact support the air strikes, and reiterated his support for protecting civilians.^[303] Turkey specifically singled out French leadership for ignoring the NATO alliance, which was left divided and split over the operation.^[304][305] NATO members Germany and Poland are not participating in the campaign, and Malta did not offer its airports for use by coalition forces.^[306][307]

In Britain the intervention has been broadly supported, though it has also provoked strong opposition from a minority including former MP George Galloway and MPs Jeremy Corbyn and Caroline Lucas. ^{[308] [309]} In the US, some politicians have voiced opposition to military action without congressional approval, or have requested clarifications and debate about US goals and how they will be achieved, including Democratic and Republican congressional representatives, Speaker of the House John Boehner,^[310] House Armed Services Committee Chairman Buck McKeon,^[311] and Democratic House Caucus chair John Larson.^[312] Richard Haass, president of the Council on Foreign Relations, has expressed doubts over the possibility of a better regime emerging if the rebels are victorious. ^[313]

See also

Template:Multicol

• 2011 Egyptian revolution
• Human rights in Libya
• List of modern conflicts in North Africa

| class="col-break " |

• Topple the Tyrants
• Tunisian Revolution
• Free speech in the media during the 2011 Libyan civil war
• Moussa Ibrahim, Gaddafi spokesman

|}

References

Further reading

• Morayef, Heba (2009). Truth and Justice Can't Wait: Human Rights Developments in Libya Amid Institutional Obstacles. New York: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 9781564325631.
• St. John, Ronald Bruce (2011). Libya: Continuity and Change. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415779777.

External links

Collected news coverage

Template:Multicol

• "Photos of Air Strikes on Libya". The Atlantic.
• "Libya Uprising". Al Jazeera.
• "Live Blog". Al Jazeera.
• "Libya Revolt". BBC News.
• "Libya". Der Spiegel.

| class="col-break " |

• "Libya in Crisis". The Guardian.
• News coverage at libyafeb17.com.
• "Libya –The Protests (2011)". The New York Times.
• "Libya". Reuters.
• Voice of Free LIbya (newsblog)

|}

Template:Anti-government protests in the 21st century