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Research on the Development of Female Physical

Education Concept

Liang Ma, Yan Liang

China Women’s University, Chaoyang District Beijing 100101

Keywords: Female physical education, Physical education concept

Abstract: By using the methods of documentation, historical analysis and comparison, this

paper sorts out and compares the concepts of female physical education of the major

educators in China and the West before 1949. The main conclusions are as follows:

Pre-contemporary Chinese and Western concepts on female physical education did not

develop in a straight line, but in a spiral and tortuous way. Educators who have exerted

great influence on Chinese and Western education, including physical education, have not

fully and perfectly discussed female physical education, reflecting the insufficiency of

attaching importance to female physical education, but these scattered discussions on

female physical education are of great significance for further summarizing and putting

forward the theoretical system of female physical education concept.

1. Introduction

As a very important part of education, physical education is indispensable from education,

whether based on the dualism of body and mind, or divided into moral, intellectual and physical

education or moral, intellectual, physical and aesthetic education, or even the theory of moral,

intellectual, physical, aesthetic and labor education. A complete system of educational outlook

cannot be lacking in the composition of physical education outlook. Many Chinese and foreign

educators' educational thoughts should also include the thinking of physical education and the

judgment of its value. Someone concluded that "the concept of physical education is people's

understanding of theory and practice gradually formed in the long-term practice of physical

education teaching, which is embodied in the understanding of the nature, direction, goal of

physical education teaching and how to implement physical education teaching"

[1]

. The concept of

physical education should include the understanding of the various elements of physical education

and their interrelationship, as well as the relationship between physical education and other

education.

Women should have accounted for about half of the educational objects in terms of quantity.

However, in the long history of education in China and the West, they have been excluded from the

formal education system for a long time, and the special research on female physical education is

insufficient. The concept of physical education for women is scattered in the writings of some

educators, but it lacks systematic and complete arrangement. The differences between the sexes in

physiological, psychological and social levels determine that physical education as a means of

physical education should fully recognize and pay attention to the impact of gender, and female

2019 International Conference on Social Science, Management and Education (ICSSME 2019)

Published by CSP © 2019 the Authors

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sports education concept should be examined and studied separately. This paper combs and

compares the concepts of female physical education of the major educators in China and the West

before 1949. In order to look forward to the development of the concepts of female physical

education, this paper establishes a concept of female physical education suitable for our country and

serves female physical education.

As a cultural phenomenon in human society, sports perform differently in different countries and

national cultures. The importance, positioning and value judgment of physical education in the

whole education system are also different, which causes the East and the West to differ in the

concept of physical education. However, with the development of globalization and the

strengthening of cultural exchanges among countries, China's concept on education and physical

education is bound to be influenced by other countries, especially the western countries since

modern times. Therefore, by comparing the Chinese and Western sports education concepts, we can

better clarify the main thread of the development of sports education concepts, deepen the

understanding of sports education concepts, and look forward to the future development direction of

sports education concepts.

2. The source of western female physical education concept

2.1. Plato's concept on female physical education and its impact on later generations

When ancient western educators talked about education, they rarely talked about women's

education. “The education of men and women is often summed up by the education of capitalists

and uniforms,”

[2]

and actually refers to the education of men. "People" actually refers to men.

Women are not considered as educational objects, let alone teaching because of sex. The discussion

about female physical education is even rarer. However, when we trace the roots, we can still find a

few educators to think about women's education.

"Plato, an ancient Greek philosopher (427 BC-347 BC), was the first educator in the history of

western education to establish a complete theoretical system of education."

[2]

His feminine

education thought was reflected in his works (such as The Republic and The Law).

In The Republic, he states, "If we use women indiscriminately, as men do, we must first give

women the same education. We always educate men with music and gymnastics. So, in order to use

women equally, we must educate women equally with two subjects and give them military

education "

[3]

. He mentioned that "I don't want to have any reservations about horseback riding or

sports training, which is suitable for men but not for women"

[4]

. Plato's concept of women's

physical education aroused some criticism at that time, which was reflected in his Republic. "As for

the reform of women's physical education and literary education, especially the issue of women's

military training, such as carrying weapons and riding horses, we have to stick to it since we began

to discuss it. We are bound to hear the witty and sarcastic remarks of literati and refined scholars.

Don't be afraid of them. Plato's concept of education has a certain sense of gender equality. His

concept of women's education stems from his emphasis on education, especially the importance of

education for the cultivation of talents serving the city state. By educating women, women can

serve the city as men. Unfortunately, for a long time afterwards, women's labor was more confined

to the family, so the practice of sports and military education for women in order to protect the

city-state could not continue in the western society.

Plato's thought also contains a tendency to belittle the body. He believed that "unless we had to,

we had to try not to interact with the body, not to be contaminated with the body's desires, and to

maintain our purity... beyond the ignorance of the body... Experience all the pure things - maybe,

that's to get true "

[5]

. This kind of thought can be regarded as the origin of the dualism of body and

mind, which is opposite to spirit in the West. Through religion, it penetrates into the hearts of the

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people and gradually forms the tendency of "raising the mind and restraining the body" in education.

The educational concept of separation of body and mind holds that learning process is a kind of

spiritual training that can be "separated", that education and teaching is a pure transmission of ideas

and mental training, that rational shaping and knowledge transmission become the goal of

education,

[6]

Physical education will inevitably be marginalized, let alone the concept of physical

education. The famous phrase "I think, therefore I am" of the French philosopher Descartes in the

17th century embodies the idea that rational thinking is superior to physical existence.

2.2. Western modern female physical education concept and its influences on later generations

2.2.1. Modern western educators' concepts on physical education and their influences on later

generations

The concept of women's physical education in modern western countries mainly refers to the

concept of women's physical education which emerged from the beginning of British bourgeois

revolution in 1640 to the First World War. At that time, the western society was influenced by the

Renaissance, religious reform and the Enlightenment Movement. The academic circles thought a lot

about education, which had a great impact on the then and future generations, and played a role in

promoting the development of society. Among them, the representative figures about (female)

physical education include Locke, Rousseau, Spencer and so on.

Physical education was first put forward by English empiricist philosopher Locke (1632-1704) in

The Education of Gentlemen.

[7]

Locke questioned the rationalism represented by Descartes. He

believed that only a healthy body can have a healthy soul. Physical activity has not only

physiological significance but also spiritual value. Physical activity is the prerequisite and necessary

basis for promoting spiritual development.

[6] [8]

Here the importance of the body has been

re-emphasized by education, and it goes beyond the significance of training the body to protect the

family and the country, emphasizing the indivisible integration of physical education and education.

Locke is widely regarded as the most influential thinker and liberalist in the Enlightenment era. His

works also greatly influenced Rousseau and others.

French philosopher, educator and writer Rousseau (1712-1778) advocated naturalistic education.

In his book Emile, he pointed out that "to exercise the senses is not only to use them, but to learn

the correct judgment through them, that is to say, to learn how to feel"

[9]

. Rousseau believes that the

development of physical exercise ability of children (educated persons) is the prerequisite for the

development of wisdom

[7]

. Sports can cultivate people's intelligence, will and good quality

[10]

.

Rousseau believed that the purpose of female education was to cultivate "a virtuous wife, a sober

girl and a lovely mother". Therefore, his idea of female sports education was significantly different

from that of men. Rousseau advocated that female sports should not be for women to grow strong

and powerful, but for women to grow smart.

[11]

He mainly emphasized the role of women in sports

for their physical health. Only when they are in good health can they have enough physical strength

and feel relaxed when they work. Moreover, women's health is related to their children's health.

Although Rousseau's concept of female physical education was advanced at that time, it had to be

said that it was a typical representative of serving the patriarchal society and had a great impact on

women's education in France and even in the world.

Spencer (1820-1903), an English philosopher, advocated that women should become all-round

persons of moral, intellectual and physical development through education. He criticized the wrong

concept of women's sports, such as looking at a strong physique as vulgar, charming and fragile,

cannot help but like a lady. He believes that school physical education should give girls enough

exercise to promote blood circulation and ensure the healthy vitality of organs. He suggested that

girls take part in physical exercise, which not only can exercise the girl's body, but also can cultivate

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the girl's moral character. In addition, he believes that parents should ensure the nutrition of

girls.

[11]

His understanding of the importance of sports and nutrition to health remains the

mainstream in the West. Spencer's concepts on women's sports were progressive at that time. Even

today, they still have reference significance. He not only saw the importance of sports for women's

health, but also saw the educational nature of sports.

2.2.2. Liberal feminism in physical education concept

As a product of the interaction between political movements and social thoughts, feminism

originated in the 18th century. Marie Wollstonecraft, the pioneer of liberal feminism, published the

Defense of Women's Rights in 1792, which was a representative work of feminism before the 19th

century. In this book, she attributes the foolish and superficial performance of many women at that

time (they are called "puppies" and "toys") to the artificiality rather than the nature.

[12]

She believes

that these women are raised in captivity, "because they are not allowed to go outdoors, so as not to

tan the white skin of women, so they are not healthy. Because they are not allowed to make their

own decisions, they are not free "

[13]

. She believed that education could enable women to acquire

rational ability, and denied the social conclusion that women did not have rational ability at that

time. Therefore, she opposed the practice of excluding women from education.

Mary Wollstonecraft is arguably the pioneer of liberal feminism, and liberal feminism was the

first feminist genre. They strive for equal political rights, economic opportunities and educational

rights between women and men, symbolized by the fight for women's right to vote. In order to

obtain all the rights of male citizens, liberal feminists tend to deny gender differences and

emphasize the commonness of men and women. On this premise, there is no reason to refuse to

grant women equal rights. Liberal feminism holds that the inequality of educational opportunities

results in the rational difference between men and women, so eliminating the inequality of

educational system plays an important role in achieving equality between men and women.

Co-education for women and men was once the appeal of liberal feminism, which included giving

women the same physical education as men. Promoted by the first wave of feminist movement

(from the mid-19th century to the 1920s), a large number of women's schools emerged in the West,

and many girls directly entered schools that only recruited boys. When the first feminist movement

came to an end, Western women were more and more widely educated. It should be noted that when

liberal feminists strive for the equal right of men and women to education, they mainly refer to

higher education. Moreover, liberal feminism mainly focuses on the education of women's "heart",

i.e. the education of rationality, emphasizing that women's higher education originally belongs to

men's fields, such as mathematics, machinery, etc., while the focus on physical education is not.

From Locke's exposition of gentleman's physical education, we can see that the western physical

education was mainly confined to the aristocracy at that time. With the development of capitalist

society, more and more talents are needed, and educatees are gradually expanded to more people,

including female educatees. At the same time, modern sports originated in Britain also experienced

the process from aristocrat to civilian. Since the 19th century, women (mainly aristocratic women)

have gradually increased their participation in these sports, such as swimming, tennis, bicycle,

football and other modern sports. Modern sports have finally entered the field of education. In the

field of women's physical education, there have been special training institutes for women's

physical education teachers, and there have been women's physical educators and practitioners such

as Martina Eastberg and Kencordia Levwin, who mainly teach gymnastics.

[14]

With the wider

participation of women in sports and more women's access to physical education, a series of

problems have arisen. What sports are suitable for women (or what sports are not suitable for

women)? Should women use the same rules as men when participating in sports that were originally

exclusively male? Should female physical education be carried out only by female physical

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education teachers? Should school physical education be carried out separately according to gender

differences? What is the purpose of female physical education? To this day, some of these questions

have not been answered.

Through the exploration of the western female sports education concept, we can find that

physical education is not valued by educators in the entire Western education system. At the same

time, as the scholars conclude, “sports is an activity with strong gender characteristics. ... is

regarded as a taboo in the field of men and women

[15]

, and women's physical education is rarely

valued, and theoretical thinking on its practice is not sufficient. However, by sorting out the

ideological context related to the western female sports education concept, we can see what trends

of thought affect the female sports education, so as to help us understand the western female sports

education practice and understand the western female sports education concept.

3. The source of Chinese female physical education concept

3.1. Confucianism (female) concept of physical education and its impact on future generations

Ancient Chinese education and physical education were mainly aimed at men. As the first

educator who advocated physical education in the history of education in China, Confucius' adult

education included physical education. According to the Analects of Confucius, "Zilu asked how to

be a perfect person. Confucius said, "If we have the wisdom of Zang Wuzhong, the restraint of

Meng Gongchuo, the courage of Bian and Zhuangzi, and the versatility of Ran Qiu, then we can be

regarded as a perfect person." Confucius also said, "Why must a perfect man be like this?" Seeing

the demands of wealth and righteousness, meeting danger, we can give our lives and keep our

promise in poverty for a long time, so that we can become a perfect person.

[17]

"Confucius'

educational concept includes the meaning of all-round development of morality, intelligence and

physical education. Confucius educated students with six arts, among which "shooting", "imperial",

"ritual" and "music" all included the contents of physical education. At the same time, Confucius

paid attention to health preservation, advocated the combination of work and leisure. He liked

fishing, hunting, chess, mountain climbing and other activities in his spare time. Confucian leisure

culture is also considered as a reflection of Confucian physical education concept.

[18]

Confucius' outlook on physical education has a positive impact on China's sports culture up to

now, but it is undeniable that Confucianism founded by Confucius contains the aspect of despising

physical activity and attaching importance to literature but despising military force, such as "

Gentleman is engaged in mental work, while the villain is engaged in manual labor." ("The Spring

and Autumn with the Zuo Zhuan"). At the same time, the Confucian filial piety contains the content

of "All for filial piety", and does not advocate fierce and confrontational sports

activities.

[18]

Confucianism was originally one of the hundreds of schools of thought in the Spring

and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, but since it was solely respected by Emperor

Wudi of Han Dynasty, it was not conducive to the development of sports, and had a profound

impact on China's sports education.

Confucian ethics fettered women a lot, and gradually became a system in the Han Dynasty. The

Biographies for Chaste Women in the late Western Han Dynasty and the Women's Commandments

in the early Eastern Han Dynasty can be regarded as its systematic expression. Under the restraint

of Confucian ethics, feminine aesthetics is characterized by weakness.

[19]

Such as in Ban Zhao's

"Women's Commandments and Prudence" clearly states that "men value strength while women

value weakness as beauty".

[20]

This kind of Female Aesthetics has a negative effect on female

sports. In the early Han Dynasty, women could also participate in military sports and leisure sports.

At that time, there was no obvious gender awareness in sports, such as Cuju (ancient Chinese

football game) , swing, Baiju, Liu Bo and so on. However, with the increasingly perfect Confucian

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system, women's sports activities in the late Han Dynasty were gradually confined to the courtyard

of the deep palace, and the swing became the exclusive participation of women from men and

women. In military sports, horseback riding and Cuju in recreational sports gradually fade out of

female sports.

[19]

In China's feudal dynasty, women in the Tang Dynasty were less bound by feudal ethics. The

exchange and integration of Confucian, Buddhist and Taoist cultures and foreign cultures rooted in

the native region promoted the flourishing of women's Sports Thoughts in Tang Dynasty, showing

the situation of the rise of women's sports pluralism in this period.

[21]

In Tang Dynasty, women

received less restriction on cultural education than before, and there were more than 100 female

writers included in Collected Tang Poems.

[22]

For many reasons, there are few records of women's

participation in sports activities in Tang Dynasty in historical books, but there are some descriptions

in literati's notes, poems and customs. Zhang Ji's Palace Chess depicts the situation of women

playing chess; Yuan Zhen's Hu Xuan Nv depicts the situation of women playing Hu Xuan Nv on

football; Hua Rui's Palace Ci depicts women learning to play polo. In addition to these activities,

women in the Tang Dynasty often participated in Cuju, duck shooting, boat racing, rope skills, pole

wearing and so on. The development of women's sports in Tang Dynasty originated from the highly

developed economy, politics and culture at that time, the relaxed and open social and cultural

atmosphere and the self-consciousness of women's pursuit of fitness, which liberated women from

their families in the Han and Wei Dynasties and had a positive impact on the Song Dynasty.

[23]

However, throughout the history of women's participation in sports in ancient China, although

there are always relevant records, we can see that Female sports belong to entertainment,

recreational activities of aristocratic women, or ornamental projects for women to please men, not

to mention the systematic concept of physical education and physical education. The emergence of

Neo-Confucianism in the late feudal period of Song and Ming Dynasty has increasingly restricted

women, and even achieved the goal of controlling women by making them bind their feet to destroy

their body and mind. From the Southern Song Dynasty to the late Qing Dynasty, it can be said that

it was the darkest period in the history of women's Sports in ancient times.

[23]

3.2. Female physical education concept in modern China

The female physical education in China really appeared in modern times. It was first carried out

in the church women's school run by Western missionaries. The nature is also the female sports

education concept in the West at that time. Gymnastics, track and field, swimming, basketball,

volleyball and table tennis were the main contents of the school's physical education curriculum at

that time. These women's schools regard sports as a means of comprehensive education for students.

Educators believe that sports can not only help to keep fit, but also help to develop group habits and

the spirit of competition and struggle.

[24]

After the Sino-Japanese War, the reformists launched the Reform Movement of 1898, and

gradually formed their own ideological system of saving the nation and striving for strength in the

process of learning from the West. Promoting women's sports was an important trend of thought in

the period of 1898, and also the earliest practice of modern women's sports under the leadership of

advanced people in China.

[25]

Yan Fu actively advocates the evolutionary ideas such as "natural selection" and "survival of the

fittest". From the perspective of genetics, it expounds the necessity of women's physical strength. "

Foot binding is not only a mental and physical constraint on women, but also a serious impact on

the development of Chinese women." For this reason, he proposed the era of "self-improvement and

conservation", which provided a theoretical basis for the rise of women's sports at that time, and

also provided theoretical support for the proposal of Cai Yuanpei and other "junior national

371

education thoughts".

[26][27]

Liang Qichao believed that women's education played an important role in the national strength

and influence. After examining the education of various countries, he pointed out that American

women's education was the most developed and its national strength was the strongest; Japanese

women's education was relatively developed and its national strength was relatively strong.

However, if Chinese women can't afford to give birth, if the trend does not change day by day, then

China will not be strong every day. [27] Liang Qichao also paid special attention to women's

physical education in various countries, pointing out that a strong country and a strong army will

make women in middle schools learn gymnastics, and then the children born will be strong and

strong. This is also one of the important significance of women's physical education. [28] He also

illustrated the importance of women's physical exercise with the example that gymnastics courses in

Japanese women's schools are almost the same as those in men's schools. [29]

Under this trend of thought, women's schools and women's physical education are gradually

carried out throughout the country. In May 1898, Shanghai Jingzheng Women's School (also known

as the "Chinese Women's School") introduced gymnastics into the formal curriculum, which was

the first woman's physical education class. In 1902, the patriotic women's school in Shanghai,

founded by Mr. Cai Yuanpei, was regarded as "the most beautiful place" by people of the time.

Article 1 of the school's running Charter states that "The aim of this school is to promote women's

intelligence, morality and physical strength so as to match their patriotism. ".

[24]

In 1907, the Constitution of the Women’s Primary School, promulgated by the Qing government,

stated that “women’s foot-binding is the most devastating, and there is a way to seduce sports, and

all schools are forbidden.”

[30]

, the regulations also include gymnastics as a compulsory course for

women’s primary schools. The elementary school hall must guarantee a four-hour physical

education class every week, starting with a professor's game and gradually transitioning to

gymnastics; the higher elementary school must guarantee three hours of gymnastics classes every

week. The promulgation of the charter marks the entry of the women’s physical education

curriculum.

In addition to the idea of protecting the seed of a powerful country and saving the nation by

sports, influenced by Western feminism, Chinese women began to awaken their self-consciousness

and gradually pointed the value of sports to themselves. The Zhenhua Women's School, established

in 1905, has set eight goals for physical education, six of which point to the role of physical

education in women themselves, including improving their manners, noble entertainment,

cultivating their personality, learning health and medical knowledge. By examining women's

physical education from the perspective of women themselves, stresses the significance of physical

education for women's health and development, and shows the awakening of women's

self-worth.

[29]

Chen Zaifen, one of the first students in Shanghai Patriotic Girls'School, proposed

that sports can protect women from slavery. Sports is as important as moral education and

intellectual education for women. Both men and women should take physical exercise. She also

criticized the traditional feminine aesthetics which regards weakness as beauty, believing that foot

binding, ear piercing, nail cultivation and so on are not conducive to women's sports activities.

[31]

Out of the traditional idea that men and women are different, the development of physical

education in women's schools made the training of female physical education teachers a top priority

at that time. Women's College of Physical Education came into being in this situation, which

resulted in a number of female sports professionals and a small number of female sportsmen in the

period of the Republic of China. Among them, Zhang Huilan is the first sports worker to obtain a

doctoral degree in China. She has served as the director of the Department of Physical Education of

Jinling Women's University twice. She attaches great importance to the popularization of women's

sports. She believes that "in order to reform the country, it is necessary to popularize women's

372

sports first." She hopes to accomplish the goal of popularizing women's sports through the training

of female sports professionals.

[32]

In modern China, the concept of female physical education was influenced by Western thoughts.

When the country was in crisis and the society was undergoing drastic changes and turbulence,

people of insight put forward and put into practice the ideas of "Sports Powerful Country" and

"Protect Seeds Powerful State", which promoted female physical education. At the same time, the

promotion of women's education has produced their own awakening, but also recognized the

importance of physical education for their own development. However, because of the low

popularity of women's education in general at that time, women's physical education was not widely

accepted.

4. Comparison and conclusion of origins of Chinese and western female sports education

concepts

From the foregoing, we can see that the female physical education outlook of China and the West

did not develop in a straight line, but in a spiral and tortuous way. As early as Plato's time, the West

began to practice, explore, argue and think about female physical education. But in the development

of history, western women's right to education has been gradually deprived and restricted. Until

modern times, with the rise of Western feminism, it began to reconsider women's equal right to

education, which played a role in promoting women's acceptance of physical education. One of the

results of the National Social Science Fund Project "The Influence of Foreign Educational Theories

on the Development of Chinese School Sports in Modern Times"---"Study on the Physical

Education View of Famous Educators in Modern Times"

[33]

, summed up the eleven western

education in modern times, but only Rousseau and Spencer mentioned above are involved in the

outlook on female physical education. In ancient China, there were few discussions on women's

physical education, and women participated in sports practice, but there was no systematic female

physical education. Women participate in sports activities in different periods, due to the impact of

economic, political, cultural and other environments, but also to varying degrees. In the

open-minded period, there are fewer restrictions on women's participation in sports; in the period of

deepening female confinement, women's sports as a whole tend to decline. It was not until modern

times that real female physical education began to appear in China, and the female physical

education in this period was also subject to many restrictions, such as generally in women's schools,

teachers by women and so on. Before 1949, Chinese women's physical education was mainly

influenced by the "westerly wind spreading eastward". Learning from western and Japanese

women's physical education, it can be said that Chinese women's physical education at that time had

less audience and lagged behind the west.

Educators, who have exerted great influence on Chinese and Western education, including

physical education, have not fully and perfectly discussed female physical education, reflecting the

lack of attention to women's physical education. Some of these educators' thoughts play a positive

role in women's physical education, but some of them play a negative role, even inhibit the overall

physical education, such as the western "physical and mental dualism" and "promoting the mind

and restraining the body", the Confucian "attaching importance to literature but despising military

force" and "men are superior to women". These ideas have not been completely dispelled in China

and the West, and still affect people's ideas and physical education practice, which need to be taken

seriously.

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