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Russo-Georgian War
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Georgia (country) Abkhazia South Ossetia Russia

Abkhazia and South Ossetia are separatist regions of Georgia in the Caucasus[1]. Most countries recognise them as part of Georgia, while Russia, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Nauru, and Syria regard them as independent. Russia's initial recognition of the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia occurred in the aftermath of the Russo-Georgian War in 2008. The government of Georgia considers the republics to be Russian-occupied territories.

Abkhazia and South Ossetia were once recognised by up to seven UN member states, until Tuvalu withdrew its recognition of both in 2014,[2][3][4] and Vanuatu clarified the status of their recognitions. Vanuatu reconfirmed in 2019 it supports Georgian territorial integrity including the two disputed territories.[5][6] Abkhazia and South Ossetia recognise each other, and also have some recognition from non-UN member states.

History[edit]

Further information: History of Abkhazia and History of South Ossetia

South Ossetia declared independence from Georgia during the 1991–1992 South Ossetia War on 29 May 1992, with its Constitution referring to the "Republic of South Ossetia".[7][8][9] Abkhazia declared its independence after its war with Georgia in 1992–1993.[10] Its Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1994.[11][12]

Developments in 2008[edit]

In April 2008, the United Nations Security Council unanimously passed Resolution 1808 that reaffirmed "the commitment of all Member States to the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of Georgia within its internationally recognised borders and supports all efforts by the United Nations and the Group of Friends of the Secretary-General, which are guided by their determination to promote a settlement of the Abkhaz–Georgian conflict only by peaceful means and within the framework of the Security Council resolutions."[13][14]

The 2008 South Ossetia war was fought in August 2008 between Georgia on one side and South Ossetia, Abkhazia and Russia on the other, resulting in a combined South Ossetian, Abkhaz and Russian victory and the expulsion of the Georgian military from both territories.

Russia's recognition[edit]

President Medvedev announcing that he has signed decrees recognising the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia (in Russian). Transcript in English.

After hearing the aforementioned appeals from both the Abkhazian and South Ossetian leadership, on 25 August 2008, the Federation Council and State Duma passed motions calling upon President Dmitry Medvedev to recognise the independence of both states and establish diplomatic relations. On 26 August 2008, President Medvedev signed decrees recognising the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as sovereign states,[15]

In the UN Security Council, the United States was heavily critical of Russian support of the secessionist governments, accusing the government of violating Georgia's territorial integrity. In response, Vitaly Churkin, the Permanent Representative of Russia to the UN, attacked the U.S. claim to moral high ground by recalling its invasion of Iraq in 2003.[16] Others accused the United States of hypocrisy, citing its support of the violation of Serbian territorial integrity when it recognised the independence of Kosovo in 2008.[17]

The Russian government also welcomed Nicaragua's recognition of the two states, and called on other countries to "recognise reality" and follow Nicaragua's example. President Daniel Ortega announced that his government "recognises the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia and fully supports the Russian government's position."[18] Medvedev also signed into law federal bills ratifying friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance pacts between his government and those of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The laws stipulated the obligations of each state to provide assistance to each other if either of them comes under attack, joint protection of Abkhazia and South Ossetia's borders, as well as cooperation on a wide range of economic, social, and humanitarian issues. The states would also jointly counter organised crime, international terrorism, and drug trafficking, documents to this effect were signed for 10 years with an option to extend the deal automatically.[19]

Georgia's response[edit]

Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili considered Russia's move as an attempt to alter the borders of Europe by force. Below are some excerpts from his statement:[20]

This is the first attempt on European territory ... since Hitler's regime and Stalin's Soviet Union where a large state is trying unilaterally, with the use of force, to completely crush a neighbouring country and openly annex its territory.

This is inconceivable lawlessness and insolence ... Russia has done unthinkable damage to its place in the international community.

The question of the re-establishment of the territorial integrity of Georgia and the protection of its freedom — this is not an internal Georgian problem, or a question of Georgia and Russia. This is now a question of Russia and the rest of the civilised world. Georgia's future, is not only the future of Georgia, this is the future of the whole civilised world...

Deputy Foreign Minister Giga Bokeria said, "This is an unconcealed annexation of these territories, which are a part of Georgia."[21]

On 28 August, the Georgian Parliament passed a resolution declaring Abkhazia and South Ossetia "Russian-occupied territories" and instructed the government to annul all previous treaties on Russian peacekeeping.[22] The following day the government announced that it was severing diplomatic ties with Russia, with the Georgian Embassy in Moscow and the Russian Embassy in Tbilisi to close as a result. Georgia recalled its Ambassador from Russia and ordered all Russian diplomats to leave Georgia, saying that only consular relations would be maintained. The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs commented on this decision, saying that some 600,000 to 1 million Georgians in Russia would be left to the "mercy of fate".[23][24]

Later, Georgia also severed diplomatic relations with Nicaragua.[25] Georgia moved to economically isolate the regions. A ban on economic activity in the regions without Georgian permission was issued, and anyone caught violating this ban by the Georgian authorities faced prosecution. The Georgian Navy blockaded the coast of Abkhazia, and has seized 23 cargo ships trying to bring supplies to Abkhazia, most notably fuel supplies. Abkhazia is dependent on fuel imports, and faced a serious shortage as a result. Russia began deploying boats from its own Black Sea Fleet on 21 September 2009, in response.[26] In August 2009, Russia and South Ossetia accused Georgia of shelling Ossetian villages and kidnapping four South Ossetian citizens. Russia threatened to use force unless the shelling stopped, and put its troops stationed in South Ossetia on high alert.[27]

In January 2010, Georgia adopted a strategy regarding the reintegration of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.[28] The strategy is called Involvement through Cooperation and it was presented to the international organisations as well as to Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The document says Georgia views peaceful methods as the only way for conflict solution and that there won't be a war with these regions. It envisions engagement of people of these two regions through education as well as social, economic and business projects, instead of isolation.[29][30]

It is officially illegal under Georgian law to enter South Ossetia or Abkhazia through Russia, without permission from Georgia; it is possible to travel through Georgian territory to Abkhazia, though as Georgia cannot assure the safety inside the disputed territories, going to either Abkhazia or South Ossetia is not recommended by the Georgian government.[31][32][33] It is not possible for foreigners to enter South Ossetia from Georgian controlled territory, as the South Ossetian de facto authorities do not facilitate nor allow this.[34]

Western response[edit]

The European Union, NATO,[35] the OSCE,[36] and the United States[37] immediately voiced displeasure with Russia's decision.

Comparison[edit]

Abkhazia is recognised by Russia and five other countries.
South Ossetia is recognised by Russia and four other countries.

Comparisons with Kosovo[edit]

Further information: International recognition of Kosovo and Kosovo independence precedent

The Assembly of the Serbian Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija, under administration of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo since 1999, unilaterally declared independence as the Republic of Kosovo on 17 February 2008.[38] The Republic of Kosovo was soon recognised by the United States and the EU three.[39]

At an emergency meeting of the UN Security Council, Serbian President Boris Tadić asked the Council, "Are we all aware of the precedent that is being set and are we aware of the catastrophic consequences that it may lead to?" The Permanent Representatives of the United States, United Kingdom and France presented their opinion that the Kosovo case was sui generis in nature and could not be perceived as a precedent.[40]

The setting of a precedent was mentioned by many countries. Among them were Argentina,[41] and Cuba.[42] India stated that Kosovo "can set a very dangerous precedent for similar cases around the world."[43] The then Russian President Vladimir Putin described the recognition by Western powers of Kosovo independence as "terrible precedent, which will de facto blow apart the whole system of international relations, developed not over decades, but over centuries."[44] He then went on to say, "They have not thought through the results of what they are doing. At the end of the day it is a two-ended stick and the second end will come back and hit them in the face."[44]

Some analysts at the time called ignoring Russian objections and the move by the United States and the EU-3 a mistake, with Ted Galen Carpenter of the Cato Institute stating that their view of Kosovo being sui generis and setting no precedent as "extraordinarily naïve".[45] It was also suggested that Russia could use the case of Kosovo as pretext for recognising Abkhazia and South Ossetia or annexing Crimea in the future.[45][46]

The Heritage Foundation suggested that Kosovo was no precedent due to its administration by the United Nations as a protectorate for seven years and was blocked from being admitted to the United Nations due to Russia being able to use their veto in the United Nations Security Council.[47]

In July 2008, in a speech to Russian Ambassadors on Russian foreign policy, Dmitry Medvedev opined that "for the European Union, Kosovo is almost what Iraq has proved to be for the United States" and that they acted unilaterally in pursuit of their own self-interests and undermined international law in the process.[48]

In September 2008 hearings before the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, California Republican Congressman and member of the Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights, and Oversight, Dana Rohrabacher, compared the situation in Georgia to Kosovo.[49]

"Now, we can talk until we are blue in the face, trying to say there is no analogy here, but it does not cover up the obvious analogy between Kosovo and what is going on in Georgia, where you have breakaway republics similar to what the Serbs faced. Now, the only difference is, of course, we are Americans, and they are Russians, and the people trying to break away there were pro-Russian.

Either we are for democracy, either we are for those people in Kosovo and in Ossetia and elsewhere and, I might say, in Georgia for their right to be separate from Russia, to begin with, and if we lose that, we have lost the high ground.

We are already losing our credibility right now. Let us not lose the high ground."[50]

In December 2008, Martti Ahtisaari, author of Kosovo peace plan, said that Kosovo was not a precedent for the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.[51]

In April 2009, Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Alexander Grushko said that Russia would not recognize Kosovo even if the European Union recognized Abkhazia and South Ossetia.[52] In May 2009, Konstantin Kosachev, chairman of the Russian State Duma Foreign Affairs Committee, declared that the support of the United States, the NATO and some Pacific countries was "not enough" to consider Kosovo as an independent state.[53] In July 2009, President of Abkhazia Sergei Bagapsh responded to allegations that Abkhazia could not be considered independent because there were Russian military and border guards deployed in Abkhazia by stating that Kosovo was declared as independent state while there were 7,000 NATO troops deployed there. He said that although Western Sahara was recognized by 48 countries, it did not become an independent country. Bagapsh further said that recognition by "serious states" was preferred to recognition by Papua New Guinea and Zimbabwe.[54]

In September 2009, Russian Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Vitaly Churkin, explained why Kosovo's case was different from Abkhazia and South Ossetia by saying that "the strongest argument is the fact that at the time when Kosovo's authorities made the UDI, nobody was threatening them or putting them in a position where they had to secede. On the contrary, Belgrade even went so far as to refrain from exerting any military or economic pressure on Pristina."[55]

In October 2009, Dmitry Medvedev said that Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence and the consequences "have confirmed the inadequacy of attempts to adjust the solution of complex international problems to considerations of notorious political expediency." The Russian president said, "We consider it unacceptable to do what was done in the Kosovo precedent – to use the lack of progress at negotiations as the reason for unilateral actions, including recognition of new international legal entities." He said that comparison between Kosovo and South Ossetia was unacceptable. He said, "We are categorically against drawing incorrect parallels between the Balkan events and the events in the Caucasus. As concerns South Ossetia – it's our unambiguous, absolutely clear position – it about repelling direct military aggression. And what was done by Russia after that, was done in full accordance with the UN Charter."[56]

As a precedent in other disputes[edit]

On 18 September 2008, Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov summarised and explained Russia's position in relation to the other two frozen conflicts in the former Soviet Union, the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic and Transnistria, both de facto independent republics seeking international recognition.[57]

"Russia will provide active support to the peaceful resolution of all conflicts in the CIS area on the basis of international law, respect to all principles of UN charter, previously attained agreements in striving for an agreement between the involved parties. We will execute our mediatory mission in the negotiation process with great responsibility, which refers to Transdniestria and Nagorno Karabakh. Each conflict has its own features, format and mechanisms of mediation. But the South Ossetian crisis does not set a precedent for them."[58]

He went on to give the following explanation for this position:

"None of those concerned with Nagorno-Karabakh and Transnistrian settlement plan to violate international law, tear up existing accords, destroy the agreed settlement formats and bomb civilian residents and peacekeepers. There is no one there who would like to ensure territorial integrity by mass killing of people whom you consider your citizens, residents of your own country. There can be no parallels here. Thank God Saakashvili is the sole phenomenon of its kind."[59]

Nagorno-Karabakh[edit]

Map of Nagorno-Karabakh Republic

In Armenia the five political parties (the Union "Constitutional Right", the Democratic Party of Armenia, the United Communist Party of Armenia, the Christian-Democratic Union of Armenia and the Union "National Self-Determination") welcomed the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia by the Russian Federation.[60] The Union "Constitutional Justice" stated in a declaration that "today an unprecedently favourable situation for the international recognition of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic has come to a head, and Armenian diplomacy does not have the right to delay" and "What Armenian and Karabakh diplomacy could not do in 17 years, Russia has done in 20 days." The declaration went on to say that "in case of the conflicts which have arisen on post-Soviet space, the thesis of territorial integrity cannot be a method for solving the conflicts. On the contrary, the continued reiteration of this thesis can lead the conflict to military confrontation, and all of the consequences that entails."[61]

The Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan, however, stated that Armenia would not recognise Abkhazia and South Ossetia in the near future "for the same reason that it did not recognize Kosovo's independence. Having the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Armenia can not recognize another entity in the same situation as long as it has not recognized the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic." He supported their populations' self-determination.[62]

Secretary of the opposition party Heritage Stepan Safaryan expressed the opinion that the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia by Armenia would be dangerous as it could damage Armenia's sole stable way to communicate with the outside world – through Georgia.[63]

Transnistria[edit]

Further information: International recognition of Transnistria
Map of Transnistria

The then president of the unrecognised state of Transnistria Igor Smirnov said that "the Russian leadership, in recognising the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, has underlined the priority of the expression of the will of the people for solution of such problems".[64]

On 25 August, the day before Russia's recognition, Dmitry Medvedev met with President of Moldova Vladimir Voronin, where the Russian leader made it clear that Moscow was ready to solve the Transnistria conflict within the framework of the sovereignty of the Republic of Moldova with the maximum effort. Relations between Moldova and Transnistria worsened after Moldova refused to support the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which Chişinău categorically rejected, considering that "as in the case of the recognition of Kosovo, this step only decreases amenability of the sides in the search for a compromise."[64]

On 27 August, Russian ambassador to Moldova Valeri Kuzmin warned the Moldovan authorities to take into consideration the war in Georgia and the Russian recognition of South Ossetia.[65]

Separatism in Russia[edit]

On 21 August 2008, Russian Yabloko party warned against the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia since it could threaten the territorial integrity of Russia.[66] US presidential candidate John McCain said on 26 August 2008 that the West should consider the recognition of the North Caucasus and Chechnya. However, Head of the Chechen Republic Ramzan Kadyrov said that Chechnya did not want independence and suggested that being part of Russia was better than the war.[67][68]

Georgian justice minister Nika Gvaramia said on 28 August 2008 that the recognition "will have very serious political consequences for Russia." He further said, "what is Russia going to do with its own state – in respect of separatism, which is still a problem in Russia; I'm not worried much about it, but I am sure that it will lead to a total collapse of Russia if not today, tomorrow, for sure."[69] Ukrainian MP Borys Tarasyuk suggested that subjects of the Russian Federation could use the precedent of the recognition of South Ossetia to declare their independence.[70]

In early September 2008, President Dmitry Medvedev did not express concerns about possibility of renewed separatist sentiments in the North Caucasus and believed such scenarios could only arise from foreign countries.[71] Medvedev said at the meeting with the Federal Security Service in January 2009 that fighting against separatism, national and religious intolerance should be escalated because "Any propaganda of separatism, national and religious intolerance is a challenge to the stability and unity of our multinational state."[72]

Head of the Republic of Ingushetia Murat Zyazikov commented on the possibility of the US recognition of Ingushetia that there were no separatist sentiments in Ingushetia.[73] Russian human rights activists wrote to the Council of Europe in September 2008, "the situation in the North Caucasus republics has become greatly more agitated since the war between Russia and Georgia in the South Caucasus." Ingush opposition activist, Magomet Khasbiyev in an interview with radio station Ekho Moskvy called for Ingushetia to separate from Russia, saying that "We must ask Europe or the US to separate us from Russia. If we aren't acceptable to this country, we don't know what else we should do."[74] Ruslan Aushev, former president of Ingushetia, said in October 2008 that the Russian recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia was a mistake which could provoke the declarations of independence of the Russian subjects.[75]

The Russian recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia reignited the discussions of independence for Tatarstan and Bashkortostan.[76][77] In early September 2008, Bashkir nationalist movement Kuk Bure issued a statement suggesting that Russian support of Abkhazia and South Ossetia compelled the Bashkir people to seek self-determination of Bashkortostan.[78][79] The Ittifaq Party stated that Russia must recognize the independence of the Republic of Tatarstan.[80][81] Tatar nationalists held a rally in Kazan on the anniversary of the fall of Kazan and demanded the independence of Tatarstan invoking the precedents of the recognition of South Ossetia and Kosovo.[82] In late December 2008, Tatar nationalists attended a meeting of Milli Majlis of the Tatar people in Naberezhnye Chelny, which adopted a declaration of independence of Tatarstan citing the recognition of Kosovo and South Ossetia. US citizen Vil Mirzayanov was elected as chairman of the government-in-exile of Tatarstan.[83]

Leader of the Russian opposition Boris Nemtsov stated in December 2008 that the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia was "a mistake of the year", which would mark the beginning of the disintegration of Russia.[84] Member of the United States House of Representatives Ileana Ros-Lehtinen stated at the hearing of the Foreign Affairs Committee in February 2009 that Russian recognition of Georgian territories "may well reopen painful questions regarding Russian sovereignty over parts of its own territory that may seek independence."[85]

Various arguments[edit]

When asked about UN resolutions that supported Georgia's territorial integrity, Permanent Representative of Russia to the United Nations Vitaly Churkin claimed, "Their use of force against South Ossetia clearly dashed all those previous resolutions and created a completely new reality."[86] However, France's deputy UN ambassador Jean-Pierre Lacroix argued that "there is no way you can “dash” or “cancel” or whatever “terminate” a resolution of the Security Council by force."[87]

Following the Russian recognition of South Ossetia, Swedish Minister for Foreign Affairs Carl Bildt stated, "South Ossetian independence is a joke. We are talking about a smugglers' paradise of 60,000 people financed by the Russian security services. No one can seriously consider that as an independent state."[88]

Latvian newspaper Diena on 28 August 2008 argued that Medvedev's decree citing Kosov was "a blow below the belt" for Russia's ally Serbia because "that means that Russia has indirectly admitted that Kosovo's departure from Serbia was lawful."[89]

Member of the Russian State Duma Konstantin Zatulin declared on the third anniversary of the recognition that the Russian recognition of South Ossetia's independence was enough and South Ossetia would not gain new prospects by being recognized by more countries.[90]

Andrey Illarionov, former advisor to Vladimir Putin, argued that recognition of Abkhazia will legitimize the ethnic cleansing and apartheid. He also cited several dissimilarities between Kosovo and Abkhazia as the reasons why Abkhazia should not be granted recognition. In Kosovo, the opponents of separation committed the ethnic cleansing, unlike Abkhazia where the separatists were responsible for the ethnic cleansing. Illarionov noted that "the right of return of refugees to Kosovo was a precondition for self-determination; in Abkhazia, the so-called self-determination is linked with the refusal to allow the return of internally displaced people." In Abkhazia, it was Abkhaz separatists who rejected peace plans; while in case of Kosovo, it was Serbia that thwarted peace process. Kosovo was ruled by U.N. administration before the declaration of independence; while Abkhazia does not admit international organizations.[91]

In April 2014, it was suggested that Russia was more humiliated by Tuvalu's withdrawal of recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia than by international sanctions for Crimea, since this "decision could spell the end of a years-long diplomatic strategy that has cost Russia millions."[92]

Stephen F. Jones argued that while South Ossetia was seeking to join Russia, "the complicated political realities of the South Caucasus make this an unlikely prospect." The South Ossetian court's decision to strip Alla Dzhioyeva of her victory in the 2012 presidential elections "illustrated the region's limited political autonomy, underlined by the intimidating and unchallengeable presence of the Russian military," and demonstrated that South Ossetia was "not a real state, but a Russian vassal." Russia administers South Ossetia's borders. There is no South Ossetian foreign policy and no functions of a state. There is little popular support for South Ossetia's independence.[93]

Other events[edit]

Abkhazia said it would not take part in the "Geneva Talks on Security and Stability in the Caucasus" in June 2010 because of concerns over the objectivity of the co-chairmen who were representatives of the UN, the EU, and OSCE. A spokesman said "Our proposals are being ignored, discussions on the non-renewal of war are being procrastinated, instead secondary questions are being discussed. Thereupon we feel the co-chairmen have no real proposals, and we want to give them time till September to prepare a document, concerning security, and acceptable for all sides. The Geneva discussions are necessary, and it is normal that each party voices its position, but the mediators must be neutral and non-biased. But the mediators fail to conduct discussions in a constructive impartial manner."[94]

Positions taken by states[edit]

A world map, showing states that recognise the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia:
  Abkhazia and South Ossetia
  States that recognise(d) both Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent
  States that recognise(d) Abkhazia as independent
  States that recognise(d) South Ossetia as independent
  States that do not recognise either

States formally recognising Abkhazia or South Ossetia as independent[edit]

UN member states[edit]

State Date of recognition Diplomatic relations established Notes
1  Russia 26 August 2008[95][96][97] 9 September 2008[98]
Main articles: Abkhazia–Russia relations and Russia–South Ossetia relations
Ambassadors Semyon Grigoriyev and Elbrus Kargiyev presented their credentials to Abkhaz President Sergey Bagapsh and South Ossetian President Eduard Kokoity on 16 December 2008.[99]
An Embassy of Russia to South Ossetia was opened in February 2009.[100] An Embassy of South Ossetia to the Russian Federation was opened in 2009.
An Embassy of Russia to Abkhazia was opened on 1 May 2009.[101] An Embassy of Abkhazia to Russia was opened on 18 May 2010.[102]
2  Nicaragua 5 September 2008[103][104][105] 10 September 2009 (Abkhazia)[106]

14 April 2010 (South Ossetia)[citation needed]

Main articles: Abkhazia–Nicaragua relations and Nicaragua–South Ossetia relations
The Ambassador of Nicaragua to Abkhazia resides in Moscow.[107]
The South Ossetian Embassy in Managua was opened on 30 August 2011.[108]>

In 2022, an Abkhaz Embassy in Nicaragua was established. Until then, Abkhazia was represented in Nicaragua via its Ambassador in Caracas.[109]

3  Venezuela 10 September 2009[110] 9 July 2010 (South Ossetia)
12 July 2010 (Abkhazia)[111][112]
Main articles: Abkhazia–Venezuela relations and South Ossetia–Venezuela relations
President Hugo Chávez met the leaders of both states in Caracas and said "I'm sure we, together with Abkhazia and South Ossetia, will be able to build strong relations with Latin American nations such as Paraguay, Uruguay, Cuba, Bolivia, Ecuador, Brazil and Argentina."[113]
Ambassador of Venezuela Hugo José García Hernández presented his credentials to Abkhaz President Sergey Bagapsh on 12 July 2010."[114]
An Embassy of Abkhazia to Venezuela was opened on 12 July 2010.[115]
4  Nauru 15 December 2009 (Abkhazia)
16 December 2009 (South Ossetia)[116]		 15 December 2009 (Abkhazia)
16 December 2009 (South Ossetia)[117]
Main article: Abkhazia–Nauru relations
Representatives of Nauru were present as observers for the presidential elections in Abkhazia on 26 August 2011.[118] In 2018, the president of South Ossetia appointed a representative for Nauru.[119]
5  Syria 29 May 2018 22 July 2018[120]
Main article: Abkhazia–Syria relations
In 2015, the Abkhaz Foreign Minister Viacheslav Chirikba met the Syrian Ambassador to Russia, Riad Haddad, in Moscow and the two diplomats discussed bilateral relations. Chirikba said afterwards that "there was great interest by both parties to strengthening and deepening Syrian-Abkhaz relations. Will this lead in the end to Syria's recognition of Abkhazia [independence]? I think anything's possible, but this of course is the sovereign decision of the Syrian side."[citation needed] In May 2018, the Syrian government recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.[121][122] In October 2020, the Abkhazia government inaugurate Embassy chancery to the Damascus, Syria.

Partially recognized states[edit]

State Date of recognition Diplomatic relations established Notes
1  Abkhazia
 South Ossetia		 19 September 2005 or before[note 1] 26 September 2007[123]
Main article: Abkhazia–South Ossetia relations
Abkhazia and South Ossetia mutually recognise each other.[124]
Embassy of South Ossetia to Abkhazia was opened on 15 April 2008.[citation needed]
Ambassador of Abkhazia Nodar Pliev presented his credentials to South Ossetian President Eduard Kokoity on 10 December 2010.[125]
2  Transnistria 22 January 1993 or before (Abkhazia)[note 1]
12 October 1994 or before (South Ossetia)[note 1]		 —
Main article: Abkhazia–Transnistria relations
Transnistria, Abkhazia and South Ossetia mutually recognise each other.[124]
Representative offices of Transnistria in Abkhazia and South Ossetia have been opened.[126]
Representative offices of Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Tiraspol have been opened.

States that recognised Abkhazia or South Ossetia as independent, but subsequently withdrew recognition[edit]

UN member states[edit]

State Date of recognition Diplomatic relations established Notes
1  Tuvalu 18 September 2011 (Abkhazia)[127]
19 September 2011 (South Ossetia)[citation needed]
Main article: Abkhazia–Tuvalu relations

On 31 March 2014 Georgia and Tuvalu signed an agreement on establishing diplomatic and consular relations. The agreement was signed by Tuvalu's Minister of Environmental Protection, Foreign Affairs, Labour and Trade, and Georgian Foreign Minister Maya Panjikidze during the visit of Tuvalu's governmental delegation to Georgia. The agreement stipulates that both sides agreed to develop relations on the grounds of the principles of sovereign equality, friendly relations and cooperation, territorial integrity, non-violation of borders and non-interference in homeland affairs. It emphasises that Tuvalu recognises the territorial integrity of Georgia within its international recognised borders, including its regions – Abkhazia's autonomous republic and Tskhinvali region.[2][3][128]

In April 2014, it was suggested that Russia was more embarrassed by Tuvalu's withdrawal of recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, than by international sanctions for Crimea, since this "decision could spell the end of a years-long diplomatic strategy that has cost Russia millions."[129]

2  Vanuatu 23 May 2011 (Abkhazia)[130] 23 May 2011 (Abkhazia)[131]
Main article: Abkhazia–Vanuatu relations

On 23 May 2011 Vanuatu recognised Abkhazia's independence and established diplomatic relations, according to the Abkhazian Ministry of Foreign Affairs,[132] while Vanuatu initially remained silent on the issue.[133] Confusion arose about the actual status of the recognition after a change of Vanuatuan government in June 2011 when officials denied and others reconfirmed the recognition.[134] Russian newspaper Kommersant claimed to have laid their hands on a facsimile of a signed agreement between both countries.[130] However, the issue dragged on for months within Vanuatu's governing ranks,[135] according to some related to domestic power politics and personal feuds.

In 2012 Vanuatu's UN envoy maintained the country does not recognize Abkhazia, while a senior official of Vanuatu's Ministry of Foreign Affairs confirmed this by saying "the country has definitely not recognized Abkhazia", adding "the government had expressed the intention to maintain dialogue with Abkhazia".[136] In corroboration of that, Vanuatu maintained throughout the years its support for Georgia's annually submitted United Nations resolution regarding the return of internally displaced persons to Abkhazia, generally seen as an expression of support for the territorial integrity of Georgia.[137]

On 18 March 2013, Johnny Koanapo, Vanuatu Director-General of Foreign Affairs, stated that diplomatic relations had never been established with Abkhazia. He said that "There's been a confusion over what the government had intended to do which was just simply a letter stating that there might be an intention to establish relations with Abkhazia. But at this point in time, there's no action on that and there's no decision".[138][139] On 20 May 2013, the Georgian president Saakashvili said at an Asian summit Vanuatu "changed their mind" and does not recognize Abkhazia,[140] which Vanuatu's new Prime Minister Moana Carcasses Kalosil confirmed.[141] On 12 July 2013 Georgia and Vanuatu signed an agreement on establishing diplomatic and consular relations, which stated that "the Republic of Vanuatu recognises territorial integrity of Georgia within its internationally recognised borders, including its regions – the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia and the Tskhinvali Region/South Ossetia."[142] Abkhazia's Foreign Minister Viacheslav Chirikba responded by claiming that Vanuatu had not officially withdrawn its recognition of Abkhazia.[143]

On 30 March 2015, Vanuatu Foreign Minister Sato Kilman met with Chirikba in Moscow, the two officials expressing their desire to strengthen bilateral relations.[144] The following day, Kilman declared in an interview with RIA Novosti that "nothing had changed" in respect to Vanuatu's 2011 recognition of Abkhazia, but that the Carcasses government had merely decided to pursue diplomatic relations with Georgia rather than Abkhazia, that he didn't consider diplomatic relations with Abkhazia and Georgia to be incompatible, and that he hoped diplomatic relations with Abkhazia would soon be formalised.[145] In June 2015, Kilman was sacked as Foreign Minister, partly as a result of this meeting, with Prime Minister Joe Natuman again clarifying the government's position that "Abkhazia is part of Georgia".[146][147] However, the following week Kilman replaced Natuman as Prime Minister.[148]

On 14 March 2019 Vanuatu Foreign Minister Ralph Regenvanu met with his Georgian counterpart David Zalkaliani in Tbilisi.[149] While both sides committed to deepen bilateral ties, Regenvanu "confirmed Vanuatu's support of Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity", according to the Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[5] Zalkaliani commented "We are grateful that the Republic of Vanuatu is consistent in pursuing the non-recognition policy of the so-called independence of Georgia's occupied regions, in full compliance with fundamental norms and principles of international law". The following day Regenvanu visited the conflict line[150] and a Memorandum of Co-operation was signed between the two sides. While at the conflict line, Regenvanu said: "Vanuatu has always recognized the territorial integrity of Georgia. In 2011 we had a minister who expressed a different position. In my opinion, he was influenced by certain individuals and recognized the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. His decision was not an official position of the state".[6]

Positions taken by intergovernmental organisations[edit]

Under international law, intergovernmental organisations do not themselves possess the legal capacity to recognise any state diplomatically; their member states do so individually. However, depending on the intergovernmental organisation's rules of internal governance and the positions of their member states, they may express positive or negative opinions as to declarations of independence, or choose to offer or withhold membership to a newly declared state.

International organisation Position
 United Nations In August 2008, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon stated that "the question of recognition of states is a matter for sovereign states to decide. Today's developments may have wider implications for security and stability in the Caucasus. The secretary-general regrets that ongoing efforts to find a common solution on the way forward in the crisis in Georgia within the Security Council may be complicated".[151] Michele Montas, a spokesperson for UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, denied comparisons of Kosovo with the two regions and said, "I think that you should compare the two situations. The history of the two situations is different and this has been stressed several times".[152]

The President of the UN General Assembly, Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann of Nicaragua, sided with Russia in the course of this war, which led to criticism by Western diplomats.[153]

Collective Security Treaty Organisation On 3 September, The CSTO member countries supported Russia's stance on the events in the Caucasus in a collective statement. The member states also backed a Russian proposal to impose an arms embargo on Georgia.[citation needed]

The CSTO (ODKB) did not recognise South Ossetia and Abkhazia as independent states as, according to Medvedev, the member states will individually decide whether to recognise taking into account their own national interests.[154]

Secretary General Nikolai Bordyuzha stated at a press conference in Yerevan that the present situation is "driving Abkhazia and South Ossetia into the collective security system",[155] and further stated his belief that "South Ossetia and Abkhazia can not successfully and steadily develop without [being part of] a collective security system, without the backing of other states."[156]

Europe Council of Europe Former Secretary General Terry Davis said "The unilateral recognition of the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia by the Russian Federation violates the territorial integrity of a fellow Council of Europe member state. It jeopardises prospects for a negotiated settlement of the dispute about the future status of these two regions. Russia cannot have it both ways. In the past, Russia has strongly supported the principle of territorial integrity. The decision to recognise Abkhazia and South Ossetia must strike any objective observer as being inconsistent with this principle. The ultimate victim of this decision is the international credibility of the Russian Federation. The Russians cannot invoke international law only when they feel like it".[157]
 European Union The EU leaders held an emergency summit on 1 September 2008, "strongly condemned" Russia's unilateral decision and recalled "that a peaceful and lasting solution to the conflict in Georgia must be based on full respect for the principles of independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity recognised by international law, the Final Act of the Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and United Nations Security Council resolutions." They also called on other states not to recognise this proclaimed independence and asked the European Commission to examine the practical consequences to be drawn.[158] Swedish Foreign Secretary and Chairman of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe, Carl Bildt, said in a statement that the Russian position is "certainly just as unacceptable" as Nazi Germany "defending its rights" in Sudetenland in 1938. Minister-Counsellor and Acting Head of Mission of the Russian embassy in Stockholm, Mikhail Skupov, condemned this statement as "not objective and unfortunate" and wished Sweden had a more objective and "constructive" stance, since Russia "has not annexed anything".[159][160][161]

The EU's executive arm, the European Commission, issued a statement stating it "fully shares and supports" the EU French presidency's statement on the Russian act on Tuesday (26 August 2012).[162]

French and UK foreign ministers have voiced fears that Russia may be planning scenarios similar to those that occurred in Georgia in countries traditionally regarded by Russia as being in its sphere of influence,[163] directly bordering the EU, such as Moldova and Ukraine. Their fears are prompted by rising tension between Ukraine and Russia, and fresh calls for independence from Moldova by separatists in the breakaway region of Transnistria.[164] Sergei Lavrov stated "I think it's a manifestation of the complete embarrassment at the fact that the favourite pet of Western capitals... didn't justify their hopes" and said that comments from Bernard Kouchner suggesting Russia has plans for Moldova and Ukraine, is a "sick fantasy".[165] Lavrov is under sanctions from the US, UK, EU, Canada, and Australia for his role in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[166][167]

G7 On 27 August 2008, the seven foreign ministers of the G7 member states – Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United States and the United Kingdom – issued a Joint Statement on Georgia, condemning the action of a fellow G8 member. The statement said, "Russia's decision has called into question its commitment to peace and security in the Caucasus."[168] The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded stating that the statement justified Georgia's aggression and dismissed claims that Russia violated the territorial integrity of Georgia. Furthermore, the Ministry stated that Russia has complied with the Sarkozy-Medvedev peace plan and that Russian actions have prevented further destabilisation in the Caucasus region.[169][170]
 NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer said "this is in direct violation of numerous UN Security Council resolutions regarding Georgia's territorial integrity, resolutions that Russia itself has endorsed. Russia's actions in recent weeks call into question Russia's commitment to peace and security in the Caucasus. NATO firmly supports the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Georgia and calls on Russia to respect these principles".[171]
In December 2009, following NATO summit it was announced that NATO member states will not recognise Abkhazia and South Ossetia and called on Russia to reverse its decision.[172]
Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) OSCE Chairman-in-Office, Finnish Foreign Minister Alexander Stubb said "the recognition of independence for South Ossetia and Abkhazia violates fundamental OSCE principles. As all OSCE participating States, Russia is committed to respecting the sovereignty and territorial integrity of others".[173]

On 9 July 2012, the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly passed a resolution at its annual session in Monaco, underlining Georgia's territorial integrity and referring to breakaway Abkhazia and South Ossetia as “occupied territories”. The resolution “urges the Government and the Parliament of the Russian Federation, as well as the de facto authorities of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, to allow the European Union Monitoring Mission unimpeded access to the occupied territories.” It also says that the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly is “concerned about the humanitarian situation of the displaced persons both in Georgia and in the occupied territories of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, as well as the denial of the right of return to their places of living.” The Assembly is the parliamentary dimension of the OSCE with 320 lawmakers from the organization's 56 participating states, including Russia.[174]

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation According to different sources it seems disputed that Russia has gained global support from the member states in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO).[original research?] The Hindu reported that Russia has gained crucial support from the People's Republic of China and other member states in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.[175] Xinhua News Agency reported that a joint declaration was issued at 28 August 2008 SCO Dushanbe summit and signed by the leaders of all six full members, most notably Russian President Dmitry Medvedev. The communique denounces force as a means to solve international problems, expressed concern over the tense situation, and called upon all parties to solve the ongoing South Ossetia conflict through peaceful dialogue. The heads have agreed to the six-point plan which was established in Moscow (12 August) and have expressed support to Russia.[176] Western sources added that the SCO called for respect for every country's territorial integrity,[177] stating, "The participants [of the SCO summit] underscore the need for respect of the historical and cultural traditions of each country and each people, for efforts aimed at the preservation, under international law, of the unity of a state and its territorial integrity".[178] On 29 August 2008, Western and some Russian sources confirmed that the SCO Group "refused to back Moscow in its conflict with Georgia, and to support Moscow's recognition of South Ossetia and Abkhazia".[179][180][181][182]
Union of Russia and Belarus On 4 August 2008, Pavel Borodin, then State Secretary of the Union of Russia and Belarus, told the radio station Ekho Moskvy that he supported Russia and that South Ossetia and Abkhazia could be accepted into the Union before the end of 2008.[citation needed] On 10 February 2022, the new Abkhaz foreign minister Inal Ardzinba met with State Secretary of the Union State of Russia and Belarus Dmitry Mezentsev. They both discussed integration processes in the post-Soviet space.[183] In March 2022, they met again.[184] In October 2022, according to the online publication Abkhazia Post, the foreign ministries of Abkhazia, Belarus and Russia established a trilateral forum of consultations on questions about the Union State.[185]

Positions taken by non-state actors[edit]

Regions with independent governments[edit]

Entity Position
Hamas (government in Gaza Strip) On 26 August 2008 a spokesman for the Palestinian group Hamas, which governs the Gaza Strip, welcomed the diplomatic recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. He said that there were similarities between the situations of the Abkhazian, South Ossetian peoples, and the Palestinian people. The spokesman said, "We, Palestinians, also struggle to attain recognition for our rights, the main of which is the right to be an independent state. We hope that the decision of Moscow becomes the beginning of recognition of peoples which combat for freedom and justice".[186][187][188]
 Yemen – Supreme Political Council (government in part of Yemen) The internationally recognized government of Yemen has not recognized either Abkhazia or South Ossetia. Nevertheless, Abdullah Ali Sabri, the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Houthi-dominated Supreme Political Council government of the Republic of Yemen in Damascus, met with the Abkhaz Ambassador in Syria in 2021. Both representatives exchanged views on possible areas of bilateral cooperation between the Republic of Abkhazia and the Islamic Republic of Yemen as well as the strengthening of relations between both parties.[189]

International non-governmental organisations[edit]

International organisation Position
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) The Hague-based Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, whose members are 69 entities seeking self-determination and representation, of which Abkhazia (but not South Ossetia) is one, issued a statement on 29 August 2008 in which it "congratulates Abkhazia, for her calls for self-determination have been formally taken into consideration. With Abkhazia's right to self-determination acknowledged starts a long and slow process which can eventually lead to the admittance of Abkhazia to the United Nations".[190]
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Neither Abkhazia nor South Ossetia is currently a member of the governing structures for the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

Independently of their ISO membership status, ISO will also potentially issue a standardised country code for each. According to rules of procedure followed by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency based in Geneva, a new ISO 3166-1 code for Abkhazia and/or South Ossetia will only be issued once it appears in the United Nations Terminology Bulletin Country Names or in the UN Statistics Division's list of Country and Region Codes for Statistical Use.[191] To appear in the terminology bulletin, it must either (a) be admitted into the United Nations, (b) join a UN Specialised Agency or (c) become a state party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice.[192] None of these criteria have been met.

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) ICANN, through its Country Code Names Supporting Organization, is responsible for adding new country code top-level domains (ccTLDs) for use in Internet addressing. Rules of procedure dictate Abkhazia and/or South Ossetia must first receive an ISO 3166-1 code (discussed above) before the ccTLD can be introduced.[193]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ a b c It is unclear whether there is a date on which Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Transnistria officially recognised each other or whether they have always done so, and when they established diplomatic relations. Abkhazia and Transnistria signed a Treaty on Friendship and Cooperation on 22 January 1993, South Ossetia and Transnistria a Treaty on Friendship and Cooperation on 12 October 1994 and Abkhazia and South Ossetia a Treaty on Friendship and Cooperation on 19 September 2005.

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source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_recognition_of_Abkhazia_and_South_Ossetia